The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model
Identifieur interne : 000636 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000635; suivant : 000637The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model
Auteurs : Ana D. Gibbons ; Joanne M. Whittaker ; R. Dietmar MüllerSource :
- Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth [ 2169-9313 ] ; 2013-03.
Abstract
Published models for the Cretaceous seafloor‐spreading history of East Gondwana result in unlikely tectonic scenarios for at least one of the plate boundaries involved and/or violate particular constraints from at least one of the associated ocean basins. We link East Gondwana spreading corridors by integrating magnetic and gravity anomaly data from the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica within a regional plate kinematic framework to identify a conjugate series of east‐west‐trending magnetic anomalies, M4 to M0 (~126.7–120.4 Ma). The mid‐ocean ridge that separated Greater India from Australia‐Antarctica propagated from north to south, starting at ~136 Ma northwest of Australia, and reached the southern tip of India at ~126 Ma. Seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin was abandoned at ~115 Ma, when a ridge jump transferred the Elan Bank and South Kerguelen Plateau to the Antarctic plate. Our revised plate kinematic model helps resolve the problem of successive two‐way strike‐slip motion between Madagascar and India seen in many previously published reconstructions and also suggests that seafloor spreading between them progressed from south to north from 94 to 84 Ma. This timing is essential for tectonic flow lines to match the curved fracture zones of the Wharton and Enderby basins, as Greater India gradually began to unzip from Madagascar from ~100 Ma. In our model, the 85‐East Ridge and Kerguelen Fracture Zone formed as conjugate flanks of a “leaky” transform fault following the ~100 Ma spreading reorganization. Our model also identifies the Afanasy Nikitin Seamounts as products of the Conrad Rise hotspot.
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DOI: 10.1002/jgrb.50079
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We link East Gondwana spreading corridors by integrating magnetic and gravity anomaly data from the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica within a regional plate kinematic framework to identify a conjugate series of east‐west‐trending magnetic anomalies, M4 to M0 (~126.7–120.4 Ma). The mid‐ocean ridge that separated Greater India from Australia‐Antarctica propagated from north to south, starting at ~136 Ma northwest of Australia, and reached the southern tip of India at ~126 Ma. Seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin was abandoned at ~115 Ma, when a ridge jump transferred the Elan Bank and South Kerguelen Plateau to the Antarctic plate. Our revised plate kinematic model helps resolve the problem of successive two‐way strike‐slip motion between Madagascar and India seen in many previously published reconstructions and also suggests that seafloor spreading between them progressed from south to north from 94 to 84 Ma. This timing is essential for tectonic flow lines to match the curved fracture zones of the Wharton and Enderby basins, as Greater India gradually began to unzip from Madagascar from ~100 Ma. In our model, the 85‐East Ridge and Kerguelen Fracture Zone formed as conjugate flanks of a “leaky” transform fault following the ~100 Ma spreading reorganization. Our model also identifies the Afanasy Nikitin Seamounts as products of the Conrad Rise hotspot.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>wiley</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Ana D. Gibbons</name><affiliations><json:string>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Joanne M. Whittaker</name><affiliations><json:string>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>R. 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American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.</p></availability><date>2013-01-23</date></publicationStmt><notesStmt><note>Supplementary MaterialSupporting Information</note></notesStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model</title><author xml:id="author-1"><persName><forename type="first">Ana D.</forename><surname>Gibbons</surname></persName><note type="correspondence"><p>Correspondence: Corresponding author: A. Gibbons, EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. ()</p></note><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-2"><persName><forename type="first">Joanne M.</forename><surname>Whittaker</surname></persName><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-3"><persName><forename type="first">R. Dietmar</forename><surname>Müller</surname></persName><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation></author></analytic><monogr><title level="j">Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</title><title level="j" type="abbrev">J. Geophys. Res. 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We link East Gondwana spreading corridors by integrating magnetic and gravity anomaly data from the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica within a regional plate kinematic framework to identify a conjugate series of east‐west‐trending magnetic anomalies, M4 to M0 (~126.7–120.4 Ma). The mid‐ocean ridge that separated Greater India from Australia‐Antarctica propagated from north to south, starting at ~136 Ma northwest of Australia, and reached the southern tip of India at ~126 Ma. Seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin was abandoned at ~115 Ma, when a ridge jump transferred the Elan Bank and South Kerguelen Plateau to the Antarctic plate. Our revised plate kinematic model helps resolve the problem of successive two‐way strike‐slip motion between Madagascar and India seen in many previously published reconstructions and also suggests that seafloor spreading between them progressed from south to north from 94 to 84 Ma. This timing is essential for tectonic flow lines to match the curved fracture zones of the Wharton and Enderby basins, as Greater India gradually began to unzip from Madagascar from ~100 Ma. In our model, the 85‐East Ridge and Kerguelen Fracture Zone formed as conjugate flanks of a “leaky” transform fault following the ~100 Ma spreading reorganization. Our model also identifies the Afanasy Nikitin Seamounts as products of the Conrad Rise hotspot.</p></abstract><abstract style="short"><p>Revisiting the seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica Constraining the breakup of East Gondwana using a regional tectonic framework Modeling major tectonic features such as Elan Bank and the fracture zone bends</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="keyword"><list><head>keywords</head><item><term>Enderby Basin</term></item><item><term>East Antarctica</term></item><item><term>Greater India</term></item><item><term>plate tectonics</term></item><item><term>Indian Ocean</term></item><item><term>Kerguelen</term></item></list></keywords></textClass><textClass><keywords scheme="Journal Subject"><list><head>index-terms</head><item><term>Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism/Marine Geology and Geophysics</term></item><item><term>COMPUTATIONAL GEOPHYSICS</term></item><item><term>Data presentation and visualization</term></item><item><term>INFORMATICS</term></item><item><term>Visualization and portrayal</term></item><item><term>MARINE GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS</term></item><item><term>Plate tectonics</term></item><item><term>Oceanic plateaus and microcontinents</term></item><item><term>Plate tectonics</term></item><item><term>TECTONOPHYSICS</term></item><item><term>Tectonics and magmatism</term></item><item><term>Plate motions: past</term></item><item><term>Plate boundary: general</term></item><item><term>Plate motions: general</term></item><item><term>Plate motions: past</term></item><item><term>Plate motions: present and recent</term></item></list></keywords></textClass><textClass><keywords scheme="Journal Subject"><list><head>article-category</head><item><term>Regular Article</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2012-03-21">Received</change><change when="2013-01-03">Registration</change><change when="2013-01-23">Created</change><change when="2013-03">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><extension>txt</extension><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/D4E299E749399FF0C56394DC3B683C0BEF2F0C44/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="Wiley, elements deleted: body"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:document><component type="serialArticle" version="2.0" xml:lang="en" xml:id="jgrb50079"><header><publicationMeta level="product"><doi>10.1002/(ISSN)2169-9356</doi><issn type="print">2169-9313</issn><issn type="electronic">2169-9356</issn><idGroup><id type="product" value="JGRB"></id></idGroup><titleGroup><title type="main" sort="JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH: SOLID EARTH">Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</title><title type="short">J. 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All Rights Reserved.</copyright><eventGroup><event type="manuscriptReceived" date="2012-03-21"></event><event type="manuscriptRevised" date="2012-12-26"></event><event type="manuscriptAccepted" date="2013-01-03"></event><event type="xmlCreated" agent="SPi Global" date="2013-01-23"></event><event type="publishedOnlineAccepted" date="2013-02-15"></event><event type="publishedOnlineEarlyUnpaginated" date="2013-03-27"></event><event type="firstOnline" date="2013-03-27"></event><event type="publishedOnlineFinalForm" date="2013-04-26"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WILEY_ML3G_TO_WILEY_ML3GV2 version:3.8.8" date="2014-01-31"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WML3G_To_WML3G version:4.7.5 mode:FullText" date="2016-01-21"></event></eventGroup><numberingGroup><numbering type="pageFirst">808</numbering><numbering type="pageLast">822</numbering></numberingGroup><correspondenceTo>Corresponding author: A. 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(<email>ana.gibbons@sydney.edu.au</email>)</correspondenceTo><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/subset/EPM">Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism/Marine Geology and Geophysics</subject><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0500">COMPUTATIONAL GEOPHYSICS</subject><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0530">Data presentation and visualization</subject></subjectInfo><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/1900">INFORMATICS</subject><subjectInfo><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/1994">Visualization and portrayal</subject></subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3000">MARINE GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS</subject><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3040">Plate tectonics</subject><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3038">Oceanic plateaus and microcontinents</subject><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3040">Plate tectonics</subject></subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8100">TECTONOPHYSICS</subject><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8178">Tectonics and magmatism</subject><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8157">Plate motions: past</subject><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8150">Plate boundary: general</subject><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8155">Plate motions: general</subject><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8157">Plate motions: past</subject><subject role="crossTerm" href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8158">Plate motions: present and recent</subject></subjectInfo></subjectInfo><selfCitationGroup><citation type="self" xml:id="jgrb50079-cit-0000"><author><familyName>Gibbons</familyName>, <givenNames>A. D.</givenNames></author>, <author><givenNames>J. M.</givenNames><familyName>Whittaker</familyName></author>, and <author><givenNames>R. D.</givenNames><familyName>Müller</familyName></author> (<pubYear year="2013">2013</pubYear>), <articleTitle>The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model</articleTitle>, <journalTitle>J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth</journalTitle>, <vol>118</vol>, <pageFirst>808</pageFirst>–<pageLast>822</pageLast>, doi:<accessionId ref="info:doi/10.1002/jgrb.50079">10.1002/jgrb.50079</accessionId>.</citation></selfCitationGroup><linkGroup><link type="toTypesetVersion" href="file:JGRB.JGRB50079.pdf"></link></linkGroup></publicationMeta><contentMeta><titleGroup><title type="main">The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model</title><title type="short">THE ENDERBY BASIN/EAST GONDWANA BREAKUP</title><title type="shortAuthors">GIBBONS ET AL.</title></titleGroup><creators><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="jgrb50079-cr-0001" affiliationRef="#jgrb50079-aff-0001" corresponding="yes"><personName><givenNames>Ana D.</givenNames><familyName>Gibbons</familyName></personName></creator><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="jgrb50079-cr-0002" affiliationRef="#jgrb50079-aff-0001"><personName><givenNames>Joanne M.</givenNames><familyName>Whittaker</familyName></personName></creator><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="jgrb50079-cr-0003" affiliationRef="#jgrb50079-aff-0001"><personName><givenNames>R. Dietmar</givenNames><familyName>Müller</familyName></personName></creator></creators><affiliationGroup><affiliation countryCode="AU" type="organization" xml:id="jgrb50079-aff-0001"><orgDiv>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences</orgDiv><orgName>University of Sydney</orgName><address><city>Sydney</city><countryPart>NSW</countryPart><postCode>2006</postCode><country>Australia</country></address></affiliation></affiliationGroup><keywordGroup type="author"><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0001">Enderby Basin</keyword><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0002">East Antarctica</keyword><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0003">Greater India</keyword><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0004">plate tectonics</keyword><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0005">Indian Ocean</keyword><keyword xml:id="jgrb50079-kwd-0006">Kerguelen</keyword></keywordGroup><supportingInformation><supportingInfoItem xml:id="jgrb50079-suppInfo-0001"><mediaResource alt="supplementary data" mimeType="application/unknown" rendition="webOriginal" href="urn-x:wiley:21699313:media:jgrb50079:z2012JB009329_ms1"></mediaResource><caption>Supplementary Material</caption></supportingInfoItem><supportingInfoItem xml:id="jgrb50079-supitem-0002"><mediaResource alt="supplementary data" mimeType="text/plain" href="urn-x:wiley:21699313:media:jgrb50079:Readme_JB009329RR"></mediaResource><caption>Supporting Information</caption></supportingInfoItem></supportingInformation><abstractGroup><abstract type="main"><title type="main">Abstract</title><p label="1">Published models for the Cretaceous seafloor‐spreading history of East Gondwana result in unlikely tectonic scenarios for at least one of the plate boundaries involved and/or violate particular constraints from at least one of the associated ocean basins. We link East Gondwana spreading corridors by integrating magnetic and gravity anomaly data from the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica within a regional plate kinematic framework to identify a conjugate series of east‐west‐trending magnetic anomalies, M4 to M0 (~126.7–120.4 Ma). The mid‐ocean ridge that separated Greater India from Australia‐Antarctica propagated from north to south, starting at ~136 Ma northwest of Australia, and reached the southern tip of India at ~126 Ma. Seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin was abandoned at ~115 Ma, when a ridge jump transferred the Elan Bank and South Kerguelen Plateau to the Antarctic plate. Our revised plate kinematic model helps resolve the problem of successive two‐way strike‐slip motion between Madagascar and India seen in many previously published reconstructions and also suggests that seafloor spreading between them progressed from south to north from 94 to 84 Ma. This timing is essential for tectonic flow lines to match the curved fracture zones of the Wharton and Enderby basins, as Greater India gradually began to unzip from Madagascar from ~100 Ma. In our model, the 85‐East Ridge and Kerguelen Fracture Zone formed as conjugate flanks of a “leaky” transform fault following the ~100 Ma spreading reorganization. Our model also identifies the Afanasy Nikitin Seamounts as products of the Conrad Rise hotspot.</p></abstract><abstract type="short"><title type="main">Key points</title><p><list style="bulleted"><listItem xml:id="jgrb50079-li-0001">Revisiting the seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica</listItem><listItem xml:id="jgrb50079-li-0002">Constraining the breakup of East Gondwana using a regional tectonic framework</listItem><listItem xml:id="jgrb50079-li-0003">Modeling major tectonic features such as Elan Bank and the fracture zone bends</listItem></list></p></abstract></abstractGroup></contentMeta></header></component></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="abbreviated" lang="en"><title>THE ENDERBY BASIN/EAST GONDWANA BREAKUP</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" contentType="CDATA" lang="en"><title>The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Ana D.</namePart><namePart type="family">Gibbons</namePart><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation><description>Correspondence: Corresponding author: A. Gibbons, EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. ()</description><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Joanne M.</namePart><namePart type="family">Whittaker</namePart><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">R. Dietmar</namePart><namePart type="family">Müller</namePart><affiliation>EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Sydney, Australia</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="article" displayLabel="article"></genre><originInfo><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2013-03</dateIssued><dateCreated encoding="w3cdtf">2013-01-23</dateCreated><dateCaptured encoding="w3cdtf">2012-03-21</dateCaptured><dateValid encoding="w3cdtf">2013-01-03</dateValid><edition>Gibbons, A. D., J. M.Whittaker, and R. D.Müller (2013), The breakup of East Gondwana: Assimilating constraints from Cretaceous ocean basins around India into a best‐fit tectonic model, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 118, 808–822, doi:10.1002/jgrb.50079.</edition><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2013</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract>Published models for the Cretaceous seafloor‐spreading history of East Gondwana result in unlikely tectonic scenarios for at least one of the plate boundaries involved and/or violate particular constraints from at least one of the associated ocean basins. We link East Gondwana spreading corridors by integrating magnetic and gravity anomaly data from the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica within a regional plate kinematic framework to identify a conjugate series of east‐west‐trending magnetic anomalies, M4 to M0 (~126.7–120.4 Ma). The mid‐ocean ridge that separated Greater India from Australia‐Antarctica propagated from north to south, starting at ~136 Ma northwest of Australia, and reached the southern tip of India at ~126 Ma. Seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin was abandoned at ~115 Ma, when a ridge jump transferred the Elan Bank and South Kerguelen Plateau to the Antarctic plate. Our revised plate kinematic model helps resolve the problem of successive two‐way strike‐slip motion between Madagascar and India seen in many previously published reconstructions and also suggests that seafloor spreading between them progressed from south to north from 94 to 84 Ma. This timing is essential for tectonic flow lines to match the curved fracture zones of the Wharton and Enderby basins, as Greater India gradually began to unzip from Madagascar from ~100 Ma. In our model, the 85‐East Ridge and Kerguelen Fracture Zone formed as conjugate flanks of a “leaky” transform fault following the ~100 Ma spreading reorganization. Our model also identifies the Afanasy Nikitin Seamounts as products of the Conrad Rise hotspot.</abstract><abstract type="short">Revisiting the seafloor spreading in the Enderby Basin off East Antarctica Constraining the breakup of East Gondwana using a regional tectonic framework Modeling major tectonic features such as Elan Bank and the fracture zone bends</abstract><note type="additional physical form">Supplementary MaterialSupporting Information</note><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>Enderby Basin</topic><topic>East Antarctica</topic><topic>Greater India</topic><topic>plate tectonics</topic><topic>Indian Ocean</topic><topic>Kerguelen</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="abbreviated"><title>J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><subject><genre>index-terms</genre><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/subset/EPM">Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism/Marine Geology and Geophysics</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0500">COMPUTATIONAL GEOPHYSICS</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0530">Data presentation and visualization</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/1900">INFORMATICS</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/1994">Visualization and portrayal</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3000">MARINE GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3040">Plate tectonics</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3038">Oceanic plateaus and microcontinents</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/3040">Plate tectonics</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8100">TECTONOPHYSICS</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8178">Tectonics and magmatism</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8157">Plate motions: past</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8150">Plate boundary: general</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8155">Plate motions: general</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8157">Plate motions: past</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/8158">Plate motions: present and recent</topic></subject><subject><genre>article-category</genre><topic>Regular Article</topic></subject><identifier type="ISSN">2169-9313</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">2169-9356</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1002/(ISSN)2169-9356</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">JGRB</identifier><part><date>2013</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>118</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>3</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>808</start><end>822</end><total>15</total></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">D4E299E749399FF0C56394DC3B683C0BEF2F0C44</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1002/jgrb.50079</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">JGRB50079</identifier><accessCondition type="use and reproduction" contentType="copyright">©2013. 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