Biotechnological Tools for Environmental Sustainability: Prospects and Challenges for Environments in Nigeria—A Standard Review
Identifieur interne : 000492 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000491; suivant : 000493Biotechnological Tools for Environmental Sustainability: Prospects and Challenges for Environments in Nigeria—A Standard Review
Auteurs : Chukwuma S. Ezeonu [Nigeria] ; Richard Tagbo [Nigeria] ; Ephraim N. Anike [Nigeria] ; Obinna A. Oje [Nigeria] ; Ikechukwu N. E. Onwurah [Nigeria]Source :
- Biotechnology Research International [ 2090-3138 ] ; 2012.
Abstract
The environment is a very important component necessary for the existence of both man and other biotic organisms. The degree of sustainability of the physical environment is an index of the survival and well-being of the entire components in it. Additionally, it is not sufficient to try disposing toxic/deleterious substances with any known method. The best method of sustaining the environment is such that returns back all the components (wastes) in a recyclable way so that the waste becomes useful and helps the biotic and abiotic relationship to maintain an aesthetic and healthy equilibrium that characterizes an ideal environment. In this study, the method investigated includes biological method of environmental sustainability which seeks to investigate the various biotechnological tools (biotools) in current use and those undergoing investigations for future use.
Url:
DOI: 10.1155/2012/450802
PubMed: 22611499
PubMed Central: 3352250
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Ezeonu</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="I1">Industrial Biochemistry and Environmental Biotechnology Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu, Nigeria</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Nigeria</country><wicri:regionArea>Industrial Biochemistry and Environmental Biotechnology Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Tagbo, Richard" sort="Tagbo, Richard" uniqKey="Tagbo R" first="Richard" last="Tagbo">Richard Tagbo</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="I1">Industrial Biochemistry and Environmental Biotechnology Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu, Nigeria</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Nigeria</country><wicri:regionArea>Industrial Biochemistry and Environmental Biotechnology Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Anike, Ephraim N" sort="Anike, Ephraim N" uniqKey="Anike E" first="Ephraim N." last="Anike">Ephraim N. Anike</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="I2">Pure and Industrial Chemistry Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu, Nigeria</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Nigeria</country><wicri:regionArea>Pure and Industrial Chemistry Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Oje, Obinna A" sort="Oje, Obinna A" uniqKey="Oje O" first="Obinna A." last="Oje">Obinna A. Oje</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="I3">Pollution Control and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Nigeria</country><wicri:regionArea>Pollution Control and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Onwurah, Ikechukwu N E" sort="Onwurah, Ikechukwu N E" uniqKey="Onwurah I" first="Ikechukwu N. E." last="Onwurah">Ikechukwu N. E. Onwurah</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="I3">Pollution Control and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Nigeria</country><wicri:regionArea>Pollution Control and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Biotechnology Research International</title><idno type="ISSN">2090-3138</idno><idno type="eISSN">2090-3146</idno><imprint><date when="2012">2012</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The environment is a very important component necessary for the existence of both man and other biotic organisms. The degree of sustainability of the physical environment is an index of the survival and well-being of the entire components in it. Additionally, it is not sufficient to try disposing toxic/deleterious substances with any known method. The best method of sustaining the environment is such that returns back all the components (wastes) in a recyclable way so that the waste becomes useful and helps the biotic and abiotic relationship to maintain an aesthetic and healthy equilibrium that characterizes an ideal environment. In this study, the method investigated includes biological method of environmental sustainability which seeks to investigate the various biotechnological tools (biotools) in current use and those undergoing investigations for future use.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chen, W" uniqKey="Chen W">W Chen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mulchandani, A" uniqKey="Mulchandani A">A Mulchandani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Deshusses, Ma" uniqKey="Deshusses M">MA Deshusses</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Daly, He" uniqKey="Daly H">HE Daly</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bankole, Op" uniqKey="Bankole O">OP 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Biotechnol Res Int</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Biotechnol Res Int</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">BTRI</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Biotechnology Research International</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2090-3138</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2090-3146</issn><publisher><publisher-name>SAGE-Hindawi Access to Research</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22611499</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3352250</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2012/450802</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Biotechnological Tools for Environmental Sustainability: Prospects and Challenges for Environments in Nigeria—A Standard Review</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ezeonu</surname><given-names>Chukwuma S.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Tagbo</surname><given-names>Richard</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Anike</surname><given-names>Ephraim N.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Oje</surname><given-names>Obinna A.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Onwurah</surname><given-names>Ikechukwu N. E.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="I1"><sup>1</sup>Industrial Biochemistry and Environmental Biotechnology Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu, Nigeria</aff><aff id="I2"><sup>2</sup>Pure and Industrial Chemistry Unit, Chemical Sciences Department, Godfrey Okoye University, P.M.B. 01014, Enugu, Nigeria</aff><aff id="I3"><sup>3</sup>Pollution Control and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria</aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">*Chukwuma S. Ezeonu: <email>chuksmaristos@yahoo.com</email></corresp><fn fn-type="other"><p>Academic Editor: Manuel Canovas</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><year>2012</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>3</day><month>5</month><year>2012</year></pub-date><volume>2012</volume><elocation-id>450802</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>13</day><month>6</month><year>2011</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>13</day><month>12</month><year>2011</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>13</day><month>12</month><year>2011</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2012 Chukwuma S. Ezeonu et al.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2012</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>The environment is a very important component necessary for the existence of both man and other biotic organisms. The degree of sustainability of the physical environment is an index of the survival and well-being of the entire components in it. Additionally, it is not sufficient to try disposing toxic/deleterious substances with any known method. The best method of sustaining the environment is such that returns back all the components (wastes) in a recyclable way so that the waste becomes useful and helps the biotic and abiotic relationship to maintain an aesthetic and healthy equilibrium that characterizes an ideal environment. In this study, the method investigated includes biological method of environmental sustainability which seeks to investigate the various biotechnological tools (biotools) in current use and those undergoing investigations for future use.</p></abstract></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="fig1" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Simplified bioremediation conceptual model of <italic>Pseudomonas </italic>sp. and <italic>A. vinelandii</italic> operating as a unit of two miniature sequencing bioreactors, in situ (SMP: soluble microbial products; N-cpd: fixed nitrogen compounds; EPS: exopolysaccharide; PHC = petroleum hydrocarbons) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">22</xref>]. </p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.001"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig2" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Schematic of packed bed biological control system to treat volatile compounds. Air containing gas phase pollutants (CG) traverse porous media. The soluble fraction of the volatilized compounds in the air steam partition into the biofilm (CL) according to Henry's Law. CL = {CG/H} where H is Henry's Law constant. Adapted and modified from Vallero [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">23</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.002"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig3" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>Biofiltration without a liquid phase used to treat vapour phase pollutants. Air carrying the volatilized contaminants upward through porous media (e.g., compost) containing microbes acclimated to break down the system can be heated to increase the partitioning to the gas phase. Microbes in the biofilm surrounding each individual compost particle metabolize the contaminants into simpler compounds, eventually converting them into carbon dioxide and water vapour. Modified from Vallero, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">20</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.003"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig4" position="float"><label>Figure 4</label><caption><p>Anatomy of a Biosensor. The interaction between the target analyte and the biorecognition element creates a signalling event detectable by the interfaced transducer element. Modified from source: Ripp et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">24</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.004"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig5" position="float"><label>Figure 5</label><caption><p>Enzymatic biosensor using cytochrome C<sub>3</sub> as the recognition element. Upon exposure to chromate [Cr (VI)], electrode-immobilized cytochrome C<sub>3</sub> reduces Cr (VI) to Cr (III). The current produced by the electrochemical regeneration of reduced cytochrome C<sub>3</sub> is proportional to the amount of oxidized cytochrome C<sub>3</sub> and, therefore, the Cr (IV) concentration. Ripp et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">24</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.005"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig6" position="float"><label>Figure 6</label><caption><p>Steps in industrial fermentation (enzyme production). Source: [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">25</xref>]. </p></caption><graphic xlink:href="BTRI2012-450802.006"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="tab1" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Classification of biotechnologies. Modification from: Disilva [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">17</xref>].</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Red</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Medical</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellow</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Food biotechnology</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Green</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Agriculture</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Blue</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aquatic</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">White</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gene-based industry</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Grey</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fermentation</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Brown</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arid</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gold</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nanotechnology/bioinformatics</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Purple</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Intellectual</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dark</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bioterrorism/warfare</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab2" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Environmental process and bioremediation procedures involved.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Environmental condition</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Biosystem/microbes used</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bioremediation benefit</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Waste water and industrial effluents</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sulphur-metabolising bacteria</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1) Microorganisms in sewage treatment plants remove common pollutants (heavy metals and sulphur compounds) from waste water before it is discharged into rivers or sea. <break></break>(2) Production of animal feed from fungal biomass after penicillin production in penicillin industries. <break></break>(3) Useful biogas (methane, etc.) production from anaerobic waste water treatment.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Drinking and process water</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Organic degrading microbes (Bacteria, fungi, and algae)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1) Reclamation and purification of waste waters for reuse and provision of portable recyclable drinking water for the public consumption and for livestock use. <break></break>(2) Remove wastes for organic fertilizer agric use.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Air and waste gases</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bacteria, fungi</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Biofilter application of pollutant purifying bacteria. Application of bioscrubbers, immobilized microorganism in inert matrix and nutrient film trickling devices for better air and gas purification. For example, bioscrubber-based system for removal of nitrogen and sulphur oxides from flue gas of blast furnaces in place of limestone gypsum process, and elimination of styrene from the waste gas of polystyrene processing industries by a fungi biofilter model.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Soil and land treatment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pseudomonas</italic> spp., <italic>Bacillus</italic> spp., Fungi, <italic>Rhodococcus</italic>, <italic>Acinetobacter</italic>, <italic>Mycobacterium </italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Both in situ (in its original place) and ex situ (somewhere else) are commercially exploited for the cleanup of soil and groundwater. Use of microorganisms (bioaugmentation, ventilation, and/or adding nutrient solution (biostimulation) that is, petroleum decontamination, can involve use of plants (phytoremediation). Bacteria in association with roots of plants (Rhizobacterium), and so forth. Use of bioreactors for ex situ treatment with introduction of suitable microbes and environmental factors.</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Solid waste</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bacteria, fungi, and so forth</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Composting or anaerobic digestion of domestic and garden wastes helps in recovery of high-value biogas and useful organic compost without the toxic components. Free breakdown of solid waste by microbial biota for recyclable waste, an acceptable alternative to incineration.</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab3" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Biomarkers and their applications</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Biomarker type</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uses</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chlorophyll content <italic>Zea mays </italic>L.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Detection of level of hydrocarbon contamination of agricultural soil</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">11</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sensitivity of <italic>Nitrobacter </italic>sp.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Based on the effect of crude oil on oxidation of nitrite to nitrate</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">41</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Azotobacter </italic>sp. </td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Used in evaluating the effect of oil spill in aquatic environment</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">42</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Algae/plant steranes and bacteria hopanes</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Steranes formed as components of crude oil and hopanes used to determine the source rock that generated a crude oil</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">43</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) in fish in vivo</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Indicates exposure of fish to planar-halogenated hydrocarbons (PAHs) by receptor-mediated induction of cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenase exposed to PAHs and similar contaminants</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">44</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">45</xref>]</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab4" position="float"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Bioethanol plants in Nigeria.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Name of Company</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plant location</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Feed stock</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Installed capacity (million litres/year)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dura Clean</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bacita</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Molasses/Cassava</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.4</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AADL</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sango Ota</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cassava</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.9</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab5" position="float"><label>Table 5</label><caption><p>Proposed plants.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">No.</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Name of company</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Project information</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Budget</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Jigawa, Benue, Anambra and Ondo States</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Integrated bio-ethanol refineries and sugarcane farm</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US$4 Billion</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasarawa state </td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Integrated bioethanol refinary and cassava farm</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US$27 Million</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Casplex </td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethanol refinery and cassava farm</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Akoni </td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethanol plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ekiti state</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Integrated bioethanol refinary and cassava farm</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US$100.7 Million</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p>NA: not available.</p></fn><fn><p>Source: Agbola et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">79</xref>].</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab6" position="float"><label>Table 6</label><caption><p>Environmental friendly application of enzymes.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Industrial sector</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Description</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzyme application</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fine chemical production</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Biocatalysis using selectivity of enzymes for one of the enantiomers of a chiral molecule, that is, one enantiomer of a racemate is unaffected and the other enantiomer is converted into the desired, pure chemical</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hydrolases are most prominent enzyme used in production of fine chemicals by biocatalytic resolution</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Schulze and Wubbolts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">85</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Biopolymers/plastics</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzymes or whole cell systems use sugars as feedstock for product manufacturing</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Microbial/enzyme emulation of fossil fuel process</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nutritional oil production</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetically enhanced biomass (e.g., soybeans) to yield oil with improved properties, especially functional and nutritional quality</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Increasing concentration of <italic>β</italic>-conglycinin, a seed storage protein</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Harlander [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">86</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethanol production</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Feed stock is cellulosic biomass (e.g., corn ears and stalks, wheat straw, or switchgrass)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Recent advances in cellulose enzymes have improved efficiencies</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Knauf and Moniruzzaman [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">87</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leather degreasing</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Developing proteases for use in soaking, dehairing, and bating processes</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proteases from <italic>Aspergillus tamarii</italic> and <italic>Alcaligenes faecalis</italic> and loosen hair without chemical assistance. Alkaline protease produced from <italic>Rhizopus oryzae</italic> through solid-state fermentation dehairs the skins completely; use of enzymes for dehairing; baterial cultures have keratinolytic activity</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thanikaivelan et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">88</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Biohydrogen production</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H<sub>2</sub> reactions catalyzed by either nitrogenase or hydrogenase enzymes</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>E. coli, Enterobacter aerogenes</italic>, and <italic>Clostridium butyricum</italic> use multienzyme systems. Can continuously produce H<sub>2</sub> photochemically and nonphotochemically. Nitrogenase enzymes from <italic>Rhodopseudomonas palustris</italic> and <italic>Rhodobacter sphaeroides</italic> generate H<sub>2</sub> under N-limited conditions</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US Department of Energy, Office of Science [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">89</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chemical/biological warfare agent decontamination</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzymatic processes can speed the decomposition of organophosphate nerve agents and other warfare agents</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bacterial enzymes catalyze hydrolysis from bacteria genetically modified to express protein variants, for example phosphotriesterase and organophosphorus anhydrolase</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Richardt and Blum [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">90</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pulp and paper bleaching</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Xylanase is applied before bleaching, replacing Cl-containing compounds in the first stage of the five-stage bleaching sequence. While rot fungus (<italic>Phanerochaete chrysosporium</italic>) degrades lignin in bioreactor wood chips injected with fungus and a growth medium, incubate for 2 weeks, followed by traditional chemical or mechanical processes</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzyme replaces traditional Cl-addition. Biotechnology process reduces the amount of Cl-containing compounds by more than 10%. Bioreactor method reduces bleaching-related energy requirements by 40%, with concomitant pollution reduction</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Roncero et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">91</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Electroplating/metal cleaning</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzymes make degreasing/metal cleaning. Fungi can be used to treat metal-laden waste</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proteases may be similar to those listed for leather degreasing <italic>Aspergillus japonicus</italic> used to sorp metal ions, for example, Fe (II), Ni (II), Cr (VI), and Hg (II)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ahluwalia and Goyal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">92</xref>]</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p>Source: adapted from: [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">93</xref>].</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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