Experiments Testing the Causes of Namibian Fairy Circles
Identifieur interne : 000027 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000026; suivant : 000028Experiments Testing the Causes of Namibian Fairy Circles
Auteurs : Walter R. TschinkelSource :
- PLoS ONE [ 1932-6203 ] ; 2015.
Abstract
The grasslands on the sandy soils of the eastern edge of the Namib Desert of Namibia are strikingly punctuated by millions of mostly regularly-spaced circular bare spots 2 to 10 m or more in diameter, generally with a margin of taller grasses. The causes of these so called fairy circles are unknown, but several hypotheses have been advanced. In October 2009, we set up experiments that specifically tested four hypothesized causes, and monitored these 5 times between 2009 and 2015. Grass exclusion in circles due to seepage of subterranean vapors or gases was tested by burying an impermeable barrier beneath fairy circles, but seedling density and growth did not differ from barrier-less controls. Plant germination and growth inhibition by allelochemicals or nutrient deficiencies in fairy circle soils were tested by transferring fairy circle soil to artificially cleared circles in the grassy matrix, and matrix soil to fairy circles (along with circle to circle and matrix to matrix controls). None of the transfers changed the seedling density and growth from the control reference conditions. Limitation of plant growth due to micronutrient depletion within fairy circles was tested by supplementing circles with a micronutrient mixture, but did not result in differences in plant seedling density and growth. Short-range vegetation competitive feedbacks were tested by creating artificially-cleared circles of 2 or 4 m diameter located 2 or 6 m from a natural fairy circle. The natural circles remained bare and the artificial circles revegetated. These four experiments provided evidence that fairy circles were not caused by subterranean vapors, that fairy circle soil
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DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140099
PubMed: 26510015
PubMed Central: 4625006
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The grasslands on the sandy soils of the eastern edge of the Namib Desert of Namibia are strikingly punctuated by millions of mostly regularly-spaced circular bare spots 2 to 10 m or more in diameter, generally with a margin of taller grasses. The causes of these so called fairy circles are unknown, but several hypotheses have been advanced. In October 2009, we set up experiments that specifically tested four hypothesized causes, and monitored these 5 times between 2009 and 2015. Grass exclusion in circles due to seepage of subterranean vapors or gases was tested by burying an impermeable barrier beneath fairy circles, but seedling density and growth did not differ from barrier-less controls. Plant germination and growth inhibition by allelochemicals or nutrient deficiencies in fairy circle soils were tested by transferring fairy circle soil to artificially cleared circles in the grassy matrix, and matrix soil to fairy circles (along with circle to circle and matrix to matrix controls). None of the transfers changed the seedling density and growth from the control reference conditions. Limitation of plant growth due to micronutrient depletion within fairy circles was tested by supplementing circles with a micronutrient mixture, but did not result in differences in plant seedling density and growth. Short-range vegetation competitive feedbacks were tested by creating artificially-cleared circles of 2 or 4 m diameter located 2 or 6 m from a natural fairy circle. The natural circles remained bare and the artificial circles revegetated. These four experiments provided evidence that fairy circles were not caused by subterranean vapors, that fairy circle soil <italic>per se</italic>
did not inhibit plant growth, and that the circles were not caused by micronutrient deficiency. There was also no evidence that vegetative feedbacks affected fairy circles on a 2 to 10 m scale. Landscape-scale vegetative self-organization is discussed as a more likely cause of fairy circles.</p>
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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>San Francisco, CA USA</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">26510015</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4625006</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0140099</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-15-16573</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Experiments Testing the Causes of Namibian Fairy Circles</article-title>
<alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Fairy Circle Experiments</alt-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Tschinkel</surname>
<given-names>Walter R.</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="cor001" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America</addr-line>
</aff>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Singer</surname>
<given-names>Andrew C</given-names>
</name>
<role>Editor</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="edit1"><addr-line>NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, UNITED KINGDOM</addr-line>
</aff>
<author-notes><fn fn-type="conflict" id="coi001"><p><bold>Competing Interests: </bold>
The author has declared that no competing interests exist.</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="con" id="contrib001"><p>Conceived and designed the experiments: WRT. Performed the experiments: WRT. Analyzed the data: WRT. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: WRT. Wrote the paper: WRT.</p>
</fn>
<corresp id="cor001">* E-mail: <email>tschinkel@bio.fsu.edu</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>10</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<elocation-id>e0140099</elocation-id>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>16</day>
<month>4</month>
<year>2015</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>21</day>
<month>9</month>
<year>2015</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-year>2015</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>Walter R. Tschinkel</copyright-holder>
<license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>
, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="pone.0140099.pdf"></self-uri>
<abstract><p>The grasslands on the sandy soils of the eastern edge of the Namib Desert of Namibia are strikingly punctuated by millions of mostly regularly-spaced circular bare spots 2 to 10 m or more in diameter, generally with a margin of taller grasses. The causes of these so called fairy circles are unknown, but several hypotheses have been advanced. In October 2009, we set up experiments that specifically tested four hypothesized causes, and monitored these 5 times between 2009 and 2015. Grass exclusion in circles due to seepage of subterranean vapors or gases was tested by burying an impermeable barrier beneath fairy circles, but seedling density and growth did not differ from barrier-less controls. Plant germination and growth inhibition by allelochemicals or nutrient deficiencies in fairy circle soils were tested by transferring fairy circle soil to artificially cleared circles in the grassy matrix, and matrix soil to fairy circles (along with circle to circle and matrix to matrix controls). None of the transfers changed the seedling density and growth from the control reference conditions. Limitation of plant growth due to micronutrient depletion within fairy circles was tested by supplementing circles with a micronutrient mixture, but did not result in differences in plant seedling density and growth. Short-range vegetation competitive feedbacks were tested by creating artificially-cleared circles of 2 or 4 m diameter located 2 or 6 m from a natural fairy circle. The natural circles remained bare and the artificial circles revegetated. These four experiments provided evidence that fairy circles were not caused by subterranean vapors, that fairy circle soil <italic>per se</italic>
did not inhibit plant growth, and that the circles were not caused by micronutrient deficiency. There was also no evidence that vegetative feedbacks affected fairy circles on a 2 to 10 m scale. Landscape-scale vegetative self-organization is discussed as a more likely cause of fairy circles.</p>
</abstract>
<funding-group><funding-statement>The author received no specific funding for the 2009 experiments, but vehicle rental for the 2015 visit was covered by National Geographic Grant #9539-14 to Nichole Barger.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts><fig-count count="13"></fig-count>
<table-count count="5"></table-count>
<page-count count="22"></page-count>
</counts>
<custom-meta-group><custom-meta id="data-availability"><meta-name>Data Availability</meta-name>
<meta-value>All relevant data are available within the paper and its Supporting Information files.</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
<notes><title>Data Availability</title>
<p>All relevant data are available within the paper and its Supporting Information files.</p>
</notes>
</front>
</pmc>
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