COVID-19: A Call for Physical Scientists and Engineers
Identifieur interne : 000003 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000002; suivant : 000004COVID-19: A Call for Physical Scientists and Engineers
Auteurs : Haiyue Huang ; Chunhai Fan ; Min Li ; Hua-Li Nie ; Fu-Bing Wang ; Hui Wang ; Ruilan Wang ; Jianbo Xia ; Xin Zheng ; Xiaolei Zuo ; Jiaxing HuangSource :
- ACS Nano [ 1936-0851 ] ; 2020.
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is one of those global challenges that transcends territorial, political, ideological, religious, cultural, and certainly academic boundaries. Public health and healthcare workers are at the frontline, working to contain and to mitigate the spread of this disease. Although intervening biological and immunological responses against viral infection may seem far from the physical sciences and engineering that typically work with inanimate objects, there actually is much that can—and should—be done to help in this global crisis. In this Perspective, we convert the basics of infectious respiratory diseases and viruses into physical sciences and engineering intuitions, and through this exercise, we present examples of questions, hypotheses, and research needs identified based on clinicians’ experiences. We hope researchers in the physical sciences and engineering will proactively study these challenges, develop new hypotheses, define new research areas, and work with biological researchers, healthcare, and public health professionals to create user-centered solutions and to inform the general public, so that we can better address the many challenges associated with the transmission and spread of infectious respiratory diseases.
Url:
DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c02618
PubMed: 32267678
PubMed Central: 7144807
Links to Exploration step
PMC:7144807Le document en format XML
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<author><name sortKey="Huang, Haiyue" sort="Huang, Haiyue" uniqKey="Huang H" first="Haiyue" last="Huang">Haiyue Huang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Materials Science and Engineering,<institution>Northwestern University</institution>
, Evanston, Illinois 60208,<country>United States</country>
</nlm:aff>
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<author><name sortKey="Fan, Chunhai" sort="Fan, Chunhai" uniqKey="Fan C" first="Chunhai" last="Fan">Chunhai Fan</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200240,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Institute of Molecular Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Li, Min" sort="Li, Min" uniqKey="Li M" first="Min" last="Li">Min Li</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4">Department of Laboratory Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Nie, Hua Li" sort="Nie, Hua Li" uniqKey="Nie H" first="Hua-Li" last="Nie">Hua-Li Nie</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5">College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology,<institution>Donghua University</institution>
, Shanghai 201620,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Fu Bing" sort="Wang, Fu Bing" uniqKey="Wang F" first="Fu-Bing" last="Wang">Fu-Bing Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff6">Department of Laboratory Medicine,<institution>Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University</institution>
, Wuhan 430071,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Hui" sort="Wang, Hui" uniqKey="Wang H" first="Hui" last="Wang">Hui Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff7">Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 200025,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Wang, Ruilan" sort="Wang, Ruilan" uniqKey="Wang R" first="Ruilan" last="Wang">Ruilan Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff8">Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 201600,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Xia, Jianbo" sort="Xia, Jianbo" uniqKey="Xia J" first="Jianbo" last="Xia">Jianbo Xia</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff9">Department of Laboratory Medicine, Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430070,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
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<author><name sortKey="Zheng, Xin" sort="Zheng, Xin" uniqKey="Zheng X" first="Xin" last="Zheng">Xin Zheng</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff10">Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430022,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Zuo, Xiaolei" sort="Zuo, Xiaolei" uniqKey="Zuo X" first="Xiaolei" last="Zuo">Xiaolei Zuo</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200240,<country>China</country>
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<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Institute of Molecular Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
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<author><name sortKey="Huang, Jiaxing" sort="Huang, Jiaxing" uniqKey="Huang J" first="Jiaxing" last="Huang">Jiaxing Huang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Materials Science and Engineering,<institution>Northwestern University</institution>
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, Evanston, Illinois 60208,<country>United States</country>
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<author><name sortKey="Fan, Chunhai" sort="Fan, Chunhai" uniqKey="Fan C" first="Chunhai" last="Fan">Chunhai Fan</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200240,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Institute of Molecular Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Li, Min" sort="Li, Min" uniqKey="Li M" first="Min" last="Li">Min Li</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4">Department of Laboratory Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Nie, Hua Li" sort="Nie, Hua Li" uniqKey="Nie H" first="Hua-Li" last="Nie">Hua-Li Nie</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5">College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology,<institution>Donghua University</institution>
, Shanghai 201620,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
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<author><name sortKey="Wang, Fu Bing" sort="Wang, Fu Bing" uniqKey="Wang F" first="Fu-Bing" last="Wang">Fu-Bing Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff6">Department of Laboratory Medicine,<institution>Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University</institution>
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<author><name sortKey="Wang, Hui" sort="Wang, Hui" uniqKey="Wang H" first="Hui" last="Wang">Hui Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff7">Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 200025,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Ruilan" sort="Wang, Ruilan" uniqKey="Wang R" first="Ruilan" last="Wang">Ruilan Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff8">Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 201600,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Xia, Jianbo" sort="Xia, Jianbo" uniqKey="Xia J" first="Jianbo" last="Xia">Jianbo Xia</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff9">Department of Laboratory Medicine, Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430070,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<author><name sortKey="Zheng, Xin" sort="Zheng, Xin" uniqKey="Zheng X" first="Xin" last="Zheng">Xin Zheng</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff10">Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430022,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Zuo, Xiaolei" sort="Zuo, Xiaolei" uniqKey="Zuo X" first="Xiaolei" last="Zuo">Xiaolei Zuo</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200240,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Institute of Molecular Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Huang, Jiaxing" sort="Huang, Jiaxing" uniqKey="Huang J" first="Jiaxing" last="Huang">Jiaxing Huang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Materials Science and Engineering,<institution>Northwestern University</institution>
, Evanston, Illinois 60208,<country>United States</country>
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<series><title level="j">ACS Nano</title>
<idno type="ISSN">1936-0851</idno>
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<imprint><date when="2020">2020</date>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p content-type="toc-graphic"><graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0005" id="ab-tgr1"></graphic>
</p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic is one of those global challenges that transcends territorial,
political, ideological, religious, cultural, and certainly academic boundaries. Public
health and healthcare workers are at the frontline, working to contain and to mitigate
the spread of this disease. Although intervening biological and immunological responses
against viral infection may seem far from the physical sciences and engineering that
typically work with inanimate objects, there actually is much that can—and
should—be done to help in this global crisis. In this Perspective, we convert the
basics of infectious respiratory diseases and viruses into physical sciences and
engineering intuitions, and through this exercise, we present examples of questions,
hypotheses, and research needs identified based on clinicians’ experiences. We
hope researchers in the physical sciences and engineering will proactively study these
challenges, develop new hypotheses, define new research areas, and work with biological
researchers, healthcare, and public health professionals to create user-centered
solutions and to inform the general public, so that we can better address the many
challenges associated with the transmission and spread of infectious respiratory
diseases.</p>
</div>
</front>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="review-article" xml:lang="EN"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">ACS Nano</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">ACS Nano</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nn</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="coden">ancac3</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>ACS Nano</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1936-0851</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1936-086X</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>American Chemical Society</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">32267678</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">7144807</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/acsnano.0c02618</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group><subject>Perspective</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>COVID-19: A Call for Physical Scientists and Engineers</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath1"><name><surname>Huang</surname>
<given-names>Haiyue</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath2"><name><surname>Fan</surname>
<given-names>Chunhai</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff3" ref-type="aff">§</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath3"><name><surname>Li</surname>
<given-names>Min</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff4" ref-type="aff">∥</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath4"><name><surname>Nie</surname>
<given-names>Hua-Li</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff5" ref-type="aff">⊥</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath5"><name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Fu-Bing</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff6" ref-type="aff">#</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath6"><name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Hui</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff7" ref-type="aff">¶</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath7"><name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Ruilan</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff8" ref-type="aff">●</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath8"><name><surname>Xia</surname>
<given-names>Jianbo</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff9" ref-type="aff">▼</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath9"><name><surname>Zheng</surname>
<given-names>Xin</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff10" ref-type="aff">■</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath10"><name><surname>Zuo</surname>
<given-names>Xiaolei</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff3" ref-type="aff">§</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes" id="ath11"><name><surname>Huang</surname>
<given-names>Jiaxing</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="cor1" ref-type="other">*</xref>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1"><label>†</label>
Department of Materials Science and Engineering,<institution>Northwestern University</institution>
, Evanston, Illinois 60208,<country>United States</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3"><label>§</label>
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200240,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2"><label>‡</label>
Institute of Molecular Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4"><label>∥</label>
Department of Laboratory Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University</institution>
, Shanghai 200127,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5"><label>⊥</label>
College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology,<institution>Donghua University</institution>
, Shanghai 201620,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6"><label>#</label>
Department of Laboratory Medicine,<institution>Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University</institution>
, Wuhan 430071,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7"><label>¶</label>
Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 200025,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8"><label>●</label>
Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital,<institution>Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine</institution>
, Shanghai 201600,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff9"><label>▼</label>
Department of Laboratory Medicine, Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430070,<country>China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff10"><label>■</label>
Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College,<institution>Huazhong University of Science and Technology</institution>
, Wuhan 430022,<country>China</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><label>*</label>
Email:
<email>jiaxing-huang@northwestern.edu</email>
.</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>08</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2020</year>
</pub-date>
<elocation-id>acsnano.0c02618</elocation-id>
<history></history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2020 American Chemical Society</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2020</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>American Chemical Society</copyright-holder>
<license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted RESEARCH
re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original
source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization
(WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p content-type="toc-graphic"><graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0005" id="ab-tgr1"></graphic>
</p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic is one of those global challenges that transcends territorial,
political, ideological, religious, cultural, and certainly academic boundaries. Public
health and healthcare workers are at the frontline, working to contain and to mitigate
the spread of this disease. Although intervening biological and immunological responses
against viral infection may seem far from the physical sciences and engineering that
typically work with inanimate objects, there actually is much that can—and
should—be done to help in this global crisis. In this Perspective, we convert the
basics of infectious respiratory diseases and viruses into physical sciences and
engineering intuitions, and through this exercise, we present examples of questions,
hypotheses, and research needs identified based on clinicians’ experiences. We
hope researchers in the physical sciences and engineering will proactively study these
challenges, develop new hypotheses, define new research areas, and work with biological
researchers, healthcare, and public health professionals to create user-centered
solutions and to inform the general public, so that we can better address the many
challenges associated with the transmission and spread of infectious respiratory
diseases.</p>
</abstract>
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<meta-value>nn0c02618</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
<custom-meta><meta-name>document-id-new-14</meta-name>
<meta-value>nn0c02618</meta-value>
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<notes id="notes-d1e21-autogenerated"><fn-group><fn fn-type="" id="d30e246"><p>This article is made available for a limited time sponsored by ACS under the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/page/policy/freetoread/index.html">ACS Free to Read
License</ext-link>
, which permits copying and redistribution of the article for
non-commercial scholarly purposes.</p>
</fn>
</fn-group>
</notes>
</front>
<body><p id="sec1">COVID-19, an infectious respiratory disease caused by a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, has
quickly evolved into a global pandemic in just over two months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>
</sup>
Public
health and healthcare professionals are at the frontline, working to contain and to mitigate
the spread of this disease. Remarkably rapid progress has been made in biological and
biomedical research, including identifying the virus, sequencing its genes, and resolving
cogent protein structures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref>
−<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref4">4</xref>
</sup>
The manufacture of testing
and diagnosis kits and development and trials of vaccines, antiviral drugs, and other
medical and psychological interventions are also being accelerated. Although these
activities may seem a bit far from the fields of physical sciences and engineering that
typically work with inanimate objects, there actually is much that can—and
should—be done to help in such a global crisis. To start, one would need to establish
basic understanding of the infection pathways of respiratory diseases and the virion
(<italic>i.e.</italic>
, viable virus) structure.</p>
<sec id="sec2"><title>General Infection Pathways</title>
<p>The general infectious pathways for respiratory diseases such as influenza, SARS, MERS, and
COVID-19 are illustrated in <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
, all of which
start from virion-laden respiratory fluid droplets (from <1 to 2000 μm in diameter)
released by an infected person through coughing, sneezing, and potentially even
talking.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>
</sup>
These droplets immediately start to evaporate and to shrink.
Most of the droplets and dried nuclei deposit on various objects (<italic>e.g.</italic>
,
door knobs, tabletops, buttons, handrails, and touchscreens), turning them into potentially
infectious “fomites”, but some may even become airborne for a period of time.
Direct infection could thus occur through inhalation by other people within close proximity
(<italic>e.g.</italic>
, 1–2 m), especially for a crowd in a relatively closed
space. Infection could also occur when virions released by an infected person are spread on
their hands and clothing and then transferred to others through close contact, such as
handshaking. Fomites infection<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>
</sup>
is indirect and rather stealthy; it
occurs only if a person first picks up the virions from contaminated objects and surfaces
(<italic>e.g.</italic>
, by their hands) and then transfers them to his or her mouth, nose,
or eyes. Throughout these processes, the virions need to endure a complex and dynamic set of
environmental conditions outside the human body. Therefore, there are many opportunities to
set up barriers using physical sciences and engineering (dashed lines in <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
) to block and to deactivate the overwhelming majority of
released virions before they reach hosts and breach the final biological and immunological
defenses. Some examples include (a) isolating infectious patients and/or reducing the spread
of their respiratory fluid droplets, (b) cleaning and sanitizing objects and surfaces, (c)
filtering potentially contaminated air, (d) washing hands frequently, (e) establishing
better personal hygiene habits, and (f) wearing personal protection equipment (PPE).
Understanding the basic structure of virions and their surroundings is required for
designing inactivation and removal strategies and maximizing the effectiveness of these
barriers (<xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
a–f). All of these defense
barriers contribute to blocking the source of virions, breaking the spread pathways, and
protecting the susceptible hosts. Compared to other known infectious diseases caused by
coronaviruses, COVID-19 can spread through an additional stealth mode of asymptomatic
transmission,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref7">7</xref>
−<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref>
</sup>
which dramatically
increases the difficulty of detecting, monitoring, and preventing its spread.</p>
<fig id="fig1" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>Graphic illustrating common transmission pathways of respiratory diseases, which start
with an infected person releasing virion-laden respiratory fluid droplets (left). Within
close proximity, other people could be infected by directly inhaling airborne droplets
or dried nuclei or by receiving virions through contact transfer. Indirect fomite
infection occurs when virion-laden nuclei are picked up from contaminated surfaces
(<italic>e.g.</italic>
, by hands) and then delivered to the mouth, nose, or eyes.
There are many opportunities to set up several layers of defense barriers (dashed lines
a–f) along the infection pathways to remove or to deactivate virions before they
reach the next person.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0001" id="gr1" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec3"><title>Basic Virion Structure</title>
<p>Generally speaking, viruses are essentially metastable, core–shell nanoparticles
that are biologically produced in cells with a quite remarkable self-assembly
process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>
</sup>
The core is made of a coiled genomic polymer and tightly
packaged in a protective protein shell called a capsid, which is tiled up by presynthesized
subunits. For coronaviruses (<xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
), such as
those that cause SARS, MERS, and COVID-19, the RNA is directly complexed with and protected
by a helical protein shell to form a coiled nucleocapsid. It is then enveloped by a lipid
bilayer membrane decorated with various other proteins, such as the protruding
“corona” spikes, which interact with the host cell. The biological function of
viruses to preserve and, eventually, to deliver their nucleic acids to host cells depends on
the virus’ structural integrity. For example, for enveloped viruses, their lipid
bilayer must stay intact throughout the pathways to keep them infectious. The protein capsid
must be sufficiently strong to confine the elastically strained genomic coil and
sufficiently tough to sustain osmotic pressure fluctuation in changing surroundings, yet
they must be able to disassemble readily inside the host cells to release the genomic core.
These constraints demand rather intricate protein building blocks that also must maintain
desirable configurations to avoid malfunction. The envelope and capsid, however, can be
compromised by an array of physical treatments, such as UV irradiation, heating, and
desiccation, as well as by chemical sanitization using acids, oxidants, alcohols, or some
specialized surfactants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>
−<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref12">12</xref>
</sup>
Approaches like these may
seem relatively primitive; however, they can be extremely effective in slowing down or even
preventing virus spread and transmission.</p>
<fig id="fig2" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><p>Structural model of a coronavirus particle, showing the nucleocapsid coil (green)
inside an envelope (brown) with protruding spike proteins (red). The inset shows the
bilayer structure of the envelope and a segment of the nucleocapsid.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0002" id="gr2" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4"><title>Questions, Hypotheses, and Research Needs in Physical Sciences and Engineering</title>
<p>Although intervening biological and immunological responses against viral infection seem to
be out of the realm of physical sciences and engineering, surfactant bilayers,
core–shell nanoparticles, self-assembly, surface functionalization, and mechanical
stability of hollow shells are familiar subjects. There are many ways to contribute, so that
more effective and user-centered strategies can be developed to battle virus transmission.
To begin, one should examine the very beginning of the chain of events.</p>
<sec id="sec4.1"><title>Virions Are Usually a Minority Component in Respiratory Droplets</title>
<p>The first barrier to infection should be put up at the starting point (<xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
, dashed line a) to reduce the number and viability of
virions released by an infected person. To this end, infected patients are required to
wear medical masks, which can block and absorb large coughed droplets and reroute the
smaller ones to reduce their forward traveling distance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref13">13</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref14">14</xref>
</sup>
Masks are an important component in PPE (<xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
, dashed line f) for frontline healthcare
workers. In the current COVID-19 pandemic, there has been much discussion about whether
masks are capable of blocking virus nanoparticles, which are typically around 100 nm in
diameter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref>
</sup>
However, this implies that virions released by an
infected person stay airborne as individual uncoated nanoparticles, which is rather
misleading. As shown in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
, respiratory
fluid droplets contain a variety of other components, typically of a few weight
percent,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref16">16</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref17">17</xref>
</sup>
including insoluble particulates such as proteins, enzymes, commensal microflora
(<italic>i.e.</italic>
, bacteria) colonized in the upper respiratory tract, and cell
debris from the respiratory tract lining; amphiphilic liposomal matter such as lung
surfactants and cholesterol; and soluble molecular species such as salt and lactate.
Therefore, in the flying droplets or the final dried nuclei, virions are always surrounded
by these materials and are usually a minority component, the loading of which varies by
the conditions of the patients.</p>
<fig id="fig3" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>Typical components of a virus-laden respiratory fluid droplet. As it shrinks during
evaporation, all components are concentrated. Finally, the virus particles are
embedded in a semidried mass called “nuclei”.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0003" id="gr3" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>The pictorial representation in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
reminds
us that when designing physical and chemical approaches to deactivate virions, their
surrounding respiratory mass must be factored in. These noninfectious components may act
as a protective matrix for the virions, rendering sanitization treatments ineffective, or
they can be manipulated for accelerated inactivation. For example, it has been reported
that both SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 virions can remain infectious for days on smooth
surfaces such as glass, plastics, and stainless steel, whereas they remain infectious for
just hours on porous surfaces such as textile and paper materials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref18">18</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>
</sup>
This observation is somewhat
surprising and worrisome, especially because stainless steel is ubiquitous for making
medical supplies and equipment, as well as most engineering structures and appliances.
However, to the best of our knowledge, the effect of surface porosity is not
well-understood. One hypothesis is that nuclei particles are more likely to pick up
moisture from the air through capillary condensation on smooth surfaces than on porous
ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>
</sup>
The
water-soluble, hygroscopic components in the nuclei can hold condensed water to protect
embedded virions from desiccation. On porous surfaces, condensed water can be drained away
from the nuclei to equilibrate with the rest of the surface, leading to faster water loss
around the virions. Desiccation is effective for deactivating enveloped virions because
the assembly of the membrane bilayer relies on water.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref22">22</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>
</sup>
Moreover, capillary compression<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>
</sup>
can also mechanically squeeze the mixture in the drying droplets and
potentially deform and damage the virion particles inside.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.2"><title>Chemical Modulation of Respiratory Fluid Droplets</title>
<p>In addition to blocking the droplets, it would also be effective to deactivate virions at
the origin of the chain events leading up to infection. Here, one might employ ways to
“pollute” virion-laden droplets with antiviral or sanitizing
molecules<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>
</sup>
when they pass through a mask. For example, a useful
strategy may involve on-mask chemical modulation in which such molecules are loaded on the
mask to presanitize the exhaled droplets. These molecules should be released in the warm
and moisturized air during exhalation but stay fixed on the mask during the inhalation of
colder and drier air. It would be most useful to use the chemical modifier as a drop-in
accessory, such as in the form of a sticky and permeable film that can adhere to the outer
surface of a mask as needed. This may facilitate widespread use and does not need to
disrupt the manufacturing and supply chain management of masks, which is already highly
stressed by the explosive surge in demand.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>
</sup>
</p>
<p>It is also well-known that metabolism and food can dramatically affect the composition of
exhaled air (<italic>e.g.</italic>
, bad breath). Therefore, with the help of medical
researchers and doctors, perhaps one could think of some <italic>in situ</italic>
methods
for altering the chemical composition of respiratory fluids by taking “saliva
modifiers” (<italic>e.g.</italic>
, ingredients that help to inactivate virions) in
the form of pills, lozenges, cough drops, or even chewing gums. One may even customize a
diet or use food supplements such that antiviral molecules can be self-generated in the
respiratory fluids by metabolism. Both on-mask and <italic>in situ</italic>
chemical
modulation approaches would benefit from the third power scaling law of droplet volume and
diameter, which can greatly concentrate the antiviral molecules during droplet
evaporation. Both strategies can be enhanced by deeper and more relevant scientific
understandings in the molecular mechanisms of virion inactivation.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.3"><title>Self-Sanitizing Surfaces</title>
<p>Fomite transmission is hard to trace but common for many respiratory diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>
</sup>
This transmission is often mitigatable with physical and chemical
sanitization, such as through spraying or wiping. However, sanitization is labor- and
materials-intensive, impractical for covering all exposed areas, and needs to be reapplied
periodically. Water- or alcohol-based sanitizers may not be able to act fully and
uniformly across entire surfaces during practical operation due to issues related to
dewetting and volatility. Therefore, it will be useful to engineer self-sanitizing
surfaces that can slowly release disinfecting chemicals to mitigate fomite transmission.
Such coatings should be durable against rubbing and washing, long-lasting, and nontoxic
and should be grown easily on the surfaces of already-installed objects that people
frequently touch. This direction can leverage knowledge gained through numerous material
studies about control-release processes and may even define new research needs.</p>
<p>For metal objects, copper metal or cations have broad spectrum antiviral effects and low
toxicity to humans.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>
</sup>
Therefore, surface copperization could provide stainless steel objects
self-sanitizing properties, which could significantly cut down fomite infection rates due
to stainless steel’s widespread use in hospitals and public spaces. In addition,
properly patterned surfaces can avoid local capillary condensation of water,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>
</sup>
which can bring additional self-desiccation property to deactivate
virions. One may even design active or stimuli-responsive antiviral coatings based on
photocatalytic, photothermal, or electrothermal treatments, either continuously or in
pulsed mode, all of which are quite well-studied in materials science.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.4"><title>Personal Protection Equipment</title>
<p>The PPE used by healthcare professionals tending COVID-19 patients includes facial masks
or respirators, protective suits, spill gowns, gloves, boot covers, and goggles or face
shields for eye protection (<xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
), and they
are critical for protecting healthcare workers. It typically takes 30 min just to suit up
to ensure proper protection, and frontline workers usually need to wear it continuously
for extended hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref29">29</xref>
</sup>
During usage, the entire outer surface of their
PPE must be treated as fomites, which requires extra caution when undressing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>
</sup>
User experiences under high stress speak for much needed improvement over
current PPE. For example, goggle fogging turns out to be quite problematic because one
cannot risk contamination to clear them by usual means. Therefore, antifogging
functionality must be added.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>
</sup>
For facial masks such as N95 aspirators,
they usually need to be tightly fit to one’s face (<italic>e.g.</italic>
, with
strong rubber bands) and can cause a great deal of discomfort or allergic
reactions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref>
</sup>
In practice, the one-size-fits-all aspirators sometimes
do not match the diverse facial profiles of different users, leading to potential safety
issues due to leakage or skin damage. Therefore, more adaptive, skin-friendly materials
and interface design are needed to ensure good seal over extended periods of time and
changing skin conditions due to perspiration.</p>
<fig id="fig4" position="float"><label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><p>(a) Photo showing a typical set of personal protection equipment used by clinicians
tending COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, China, including N95 respirator, protective suit
(with marker-written information for identification purposes), gloves, goggles, and
boot covers (shown in b). (b) Additional medical mask, spill gown, and face shield are
used before entering the isolation ward. (c) Additional helmet with pressured air (on
the right) is needed before tracheal intubation procedures for COVID-19 patients.
Image credit: Zhengyu Liu.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02618_0004" id="gr4" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>Hazmat suits are usually made of broad-spectrum protective synthetic fabrics with
vapor-blocking functions. Although such fabrics serve as an effective barrier to virions
and virion-laden droplets and nuclei, due to poor ventilation and heat dissipation, they
become uncomfortable to wear for frontline healthcare workers, who often need to wear them
for extended periods of time when there is a shortage in PPE supply or manpower. This
discomfort adds to healthcare workers’ already high physical and psychological
stress. Therefore, smart fabrics that can effectively block virions but enable better heat
transfer and moisture control would be an ideal suit material. In addition, for the
clinicians in emergency departments, the tedious and time-consuming processes of dressing
up and undressing the entire set of PPE takes valuable time away from treating critically
ill patients. Therefore, a multifunctional helmet-like unit with integrated mask
compartment, goggles, and face shield, yet still maintain lightweight and durability,
would be desirable. The development of smart, multifunctional PPE suits equipped with
wireless communication capabilities and microsensors or even actuators for detecting
virus, controlling humidity and temperature, and monitoring clinicians’
physiological conditions without compromising protective function and flexibility, will be
extremely helpful. This need suggests many new research directions for researchers in
materials chemistry, flexible electronics, and wearable devices, which have rapidly
progressed in the past decade.</p>
<p>The shortage of PPE has been reported globally, especially at the early stages of
outbreak in various areas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref>
</sup>
which prevents frontline healthcare
workers from replacing their PPE as needed and, under extreme conditions, may even need to
reuse them. Therefore, durable antiviral surface coatings on PPE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref34">34</xref>
</sup>
especially at the junctions of different parts, would be useful to prevent users from
being infected and from infecting others.</p>
<p>On the other hand, when the supply of PPE is stabilized, another point of concern is
their safe disposal and sustainable waste processing. Disposable PPE, such as facial
masks, protective suits, facial shields, gowns, gloves, and boot covers, are mostly made
of plastic materials, and they are used in massive quantities in a global pandemic. It
will be worthwhile to develop biodegradable PPE for the future, enabling alternative ways
to process this waste safely in addition to incineration.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.5"><title>High-Throughput and Reconfigurable Manufacturing</title>
<p>Any innovation in diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of infectious respiratory diseases
must be compatible with high-throughput manufacturing to be relevant because the explosive
surge in demand puts great stress on the healthcare infrastructure and supply chains. Over
the long-term, flexible manufacturing design should be implemented so that the production
lines can be readily reconfigured and repurposed to meet the surging demands during a
pandemic. Learning from and collaborating with manufacturing engineers would help to
accelerate the impact of new discoveries. Innovations that can retrofit existing products
(<italic>e.g.</italic>
, PPE) or already-installed appliances and surfaces to endow them
with antiviral functions would also be desirable.</p>
<p>Testing is crucial for monitoring and containing the spread of all infectious disease.
Current virus tests are typically accomplished by first collecting samples and then
sending them to centralized analytical facilities for genome extraction, amplification,
and analysis. If portable systems with sample-in-result-out rapid turnaround become
available and widely deployed, it will enable much faster data acquisition, enabling
public health workers and policy makers to respond to an outbreak more rapidly and
precisely. To acquire such capability, close collaboration among scientists, engineers,
and biomedical researchers will be needed.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.6"><title>Model Systems for Virions</title>
<p>One of the major roadblocks preventing physical scientists and engineers from making more
contributions is the lack of access to virions, such as those causing infectious diseases,
because access is limited to only a small number of specialized laboratories. Many
physical sciences and engineering approaches for virion deactivation are based on rather
broad-spectrum mechanisms, and model systems for such studies, at least in the initial
stages, do not need to be genome specific nor to contain any genomic material at all. For
example, model systems that enable the study of how the lipid envelope bilayer is
stabilized and destabilized, how the capsid or nucleocapsid is assembled and
disintegrated, or how the virion particles interact with their surroundings in the flying
droplets and surfaces after they land, with or without the respiratory mass, would be
extremely useful and would help accelerate engineering solutions to slow and to prevent
virus transmission and spread and to enhance our overall readiness to respond to any
future virus outbreaks.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5"><title>Outlook</title>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic is the type of global challenge that transcends territorial,
political, ideological, religious, cultural, and academic boundaries. Researchers in
physical sciences and engineering should rally to study such challenges, to develop new
hypotheses, to define new research problems, to create user-centered solutions, and to
educate ourselves and the general public, so that we can better work with biological and
medical researchers to address the many aspects of challenges associated with the
transmission and spread of infectious respiratory diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref35">35</xref>
</sup>
</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back><notes notes-type="" id="notes1"><title>Author Contributions</title>
<p>H.H. and J.H. drafted the first version of the manuscript. Other authors placed in the
middle are alphabetically ordered. All authors made substantial contributions through
discussions of ideas, as well as commenting and polishing of the manuscript.</p>
</notes>
<notes notes-type="COI-statement" id="NOTES-d7e717-autogenerated"><p>The authors declare no competing financial interest.</p>
</notes>
<bio id="BIO-d7e636-autogenerated" rid="ath1"><p>Haiyue Huang (<email>haiyuehuang2022@u.northwestern.edu</email>
) is a graduate student in
the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Northwestern University, Evanston,
IL, United States. She believes all problems have solutions, some are just waiting to be
created or discovered. She is developing material solutions to enhance personal protection
equipment (PPE) for better protecting clinicians.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e642-autogenerated" rid="ath2"><p>Chunhai Fan (<email>fanchunhai@sjtu.edu.cn</email>
) is a K.C. Wong Chair Professor at
Shanghai Jiao Tong University. He is a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, an
Associate Editor of <italic>ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces</italic>
, and on the
editorial advisory board of <italic>ACS Nano</italic>
. He is conducting research in nucleic
acid chemistry and biophotonics.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e654-autogenerated" rid="ath3"><p>Min Li (<email>rjlimin@shsmu.edu.cn</email>
) is the Director of Department of Laboratory
Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Her work
focuses on the pathogenic mechanism and rapid laboratory diagnosis of infectious pathogens.
She supervises the laboratory tests in Renji Hospital to assist clinicians in screening for
suspected COVID-19 patients.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e660-autogenerated" rid="ath4"><p>Hua-Li Nie (<email>niehuali@dhu.edu.cn</email>
) is an Associate Professor in the College of
Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology at Donghua University in Shanghai, China.
She is conducting research about responsive materials enhanced PPE for healthcare
workers.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e666-autogenerated" rid="ath5"><p>Fu-Bing Wang (<email>wfb20042002@sina.com</email>
) is a professor in the Department of
Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University. He is interested in circulating
biomarker and tumor biopsy. He oversees the nucleic acid and antibody tests to help
clinicians screen for suspected COVID-19 cases and leads a team to investigate environmental
contamination of SARS-CoV-2 in hospitals and methods of mitigation.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e672-autogenerated" rid="ath6"><p>Hui Wang (<email>huiwang@shsmu.edu.cn</email>
) is the Dean of the School of Public Health,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine. Her research areas include drug discovery
and molecular pharmacology and toxicology. She is leading a major public health campaign to
inform the general public and combat misinformation about COVID-19.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e678-autogenerated" rid="ath7"><p>Ruilan Wang (<email>wangyusun@hotmail.com</email>
) is a Professor and the Director of
Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong
University School of Medicine. She conducts basic and clinical research on severe pneumonia,
including viral pneumonia. At the early stage of COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, she led a team
of ICU clinicians from Shanghai to work in the Wuhan Third Hospital with their counterparts
to treat COVID-19 patients for 55 days.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e684-autogenerated" rid="ath8"><p>Jianbo Xia (<email>xiajianbo@hbfy.com</email>
) is the director of the Department of
Laboratory Medicine, Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province, Tongji Medical
College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China. His work focuses on
laboratory diagnosis of viral infections. He oversees the laboratory tests in the Maternal
and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province to screen and to evaluate COVID-19 cases.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e690-autogenerated" rid="ath9"><p>Xin Zheng (<email>xin11@hotmail.com</email>
) is a Professor and Director of the Department
of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of
Science and Technology in Wuhan, China. She is the head of the COVID-19 expert team in her
hospital and supervises the isolation wards of COVID-19 patients.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e696-autogenerated" rid="ath10"><p>Xiaolei Zuo (<email>zuoxiaolei@sjtu.edu.cn</email>
) is a Professor in the Institute of
Molecular Medicine at Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. His
research focuses on the biosensor development and biomedical applications. He is developing
RNA standard reference material of SARS-CoV-2.</p>
</bio>
<bio id="BIO-d7e702-autogenerated" rid="ath11"><p>Jiaxing Huang (<email>jiaxing-huang@northwestern.edu</email>
) is a Professor of Materials
Science and Engineering at Northwestern University in Evanston, IL, United States. He is
interested in materials innovations for better living. He is developing physical science
hypotheses and solutions to mitigate the spread of infectious respiratory diseases.</p>
</bio>
<ack><title>Acknowledgments</title>
<p>The authors thank Profs. R.A. Lamb, J. Cao, L.T. Sun, Z.Y. Tang, S.T. Wang, and Dr. H. Park
for helpful discussions; S.J. Fodor, C.T. Kang, Prof. Y. Huang, and Drs. L.S. Sapochak, B.
Schwenzer, and C.M. Oertel for warm encouragement; E. Huang, A. Morris, and the <italic>ACS
Nano</italic>
editorial team for editing and proofreading the manuscript. J.H. thanks the
support of the National Science Foundation (RAPID DMR-2026944). The authors salute the
healthcare, public health workers, and many others that are at the frontline of this global
pandemic and wish to see people breaking the boundaries and working together to create
solutions.</p>
</ack>
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