Melatonin and viral infections
Identifieur interne : 000750 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000749; suivant : 000751Melatonin and viral infections
Auteurs : Ernesto Bonilla ; Nereida Valero ; Leonor Chacín-Bonilla ; Shirley Medina-LeendertzSource :
- Journal of Pineal Research [ 0742-3098 ] ; 2004-03.
English descriptors
- Teeft :
- Aleutian disease, Antibody titers, Antimurine antibodies, Binding sites, Bonilla, Control mice, Cytokine, Encephalitis, Encephalomyelitis, Equine, Human monocytes, Immune, Immune response, Immune system, Immunocompetent mice, Immunol, Important role, Indoleamine, Infection, Lymphocyte, Maestroni, Melatonin, Melatonin administration, Melatonin treatment, Monocyte, Mouse, Murine, Neuroimmunol, Nitric, Nitric oxide, Pineal, Pineal gland, Receptor, Semliki forest virus, Serum levels, Survival rate, Tumor necrosis, Tumor necrosis factor, Valero, Venezuelan, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, Viral, Viral infection, Viral infections, Virus, Virus infection, Virus inoculation, Virus levels.
Abstract
Abstract: The therapeutic effects of melatonin against viral infections, with emphasis on the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE), are reviewed. Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1β is blocked with antimurine IL‐1β antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐α nor IFN‐γ are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. In conclusion, the immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of melatonin suggest that this indole must be considered as an additional therapeutic alternative to fight viral diseases.
Url:
DOI: 10.1046/j.1600-079X.2003.00105.x
Links to Exploration step
ISTEX:902CA6CE2EBA0817CE4F6879F166A4CEE2E791C8Le document en format XML
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Maracaibo</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chacin Onilla, Leonor" sort="Chacin Onilla, Leonor" uniqKey="Chacin Onilla L" first="Leonor" last="Chacín-Bonilla">Leonor Chacín-Bonilla</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Medina Eendertz, Shirley" sort="Medina Eendertz, Shirley" uniqKey="Medina Eendertz S" first="Shirley" last="Medina-Leendertz">Shirley Medina-Leendertz</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, FUNDACITE‐Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j" type="main">Journal of Pineal Research</title><title level="j" type="alt">JOURNAL OF PINEAL RESEARCH</title><idno type="ISSN">0742-3098</idno><idno type="eISSN">1600-079X</idno><imprint><biblScope 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role</term><term>Indoleamine</term><term>Infection</term><term>Lymphocyte</term><term>Maestroni</term><term>Melatonin</term><term>Melatonin administration</term><term>Melatonin treatment</term><term>Monocyte</term><term>Mouse</term><term>Murine</term><term>Neuroimmunol</term><term>Nitric</term><term>Nitric oxide</term><term>Pineal</term><term>Pineal gland</term><term>Receptor</term><term>Semliki forest virus</term><term>Serum levels</term><term>Survival rate</term><term>Tumor necrosis</term><term>Tumor necrosis factor</term><term>Valero</term><term>Venezuelan</term><term>Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis</term><term>Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus</term><term>Viral</term><term>Viral infection</term><term>Viral infections</term><term>Virus</term><term>Virus infection</term><term>Virus inoculation</term><term>Virus levels</term></keywords></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">Abstract: The therapeutic effects of melatonin against viral infections, with emphasis on the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE), are reviewed. Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1β is blocked with antimurine IL‐1β antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐α nor IFN‐γ are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. In conclusion, the immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of melatonin suggest that this indole must be considered as an additional therapeutic alternative to fight viral diseases.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>wiley</corpusName><keywords><teeft><json:string>melatonin</json:string><json:string>cytokine</json:string><json:string>pineal</json:string><json:string>viral</json:string><json:string>encephalomyelitis</json:string><json:string>immune</json:string><json:string>nitric</json:string><json:string>virus infection</json:string><json:string>bonilla</json:string><json:string>equine</json:string><json:string>monocyte</json:string><json:string>indoleamine</json:string><json:string>immunol</json:string><json:string>lymphocyte</json:string><json:string>valero</json:string><json:string>neuroimmunol</json:string><json:string>murine</json:string><json:string>viral 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Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1β is blocked with antimurine IL‐1β antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐α nor IFN‐γ are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. 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[63]</json:string><json:string>[71, 72]</json:string><json:string>[44, 51]</json:string><json:string>[67, 68]</json:string><json:string>[6]</json:string><json:string>[82]</json:string><json:string>Bonilla et al.</json:string><json:string>[88]</json:string><json:string>[10, 11]</json:string><json:string>[8]</json:string><json:string>[17]</json:string><json:string>[81]</json:string><json:string>[87]</json:string><json:string>Valero et al. [51]</json:string><json:string>[49]</json:string><json:string>[80]</json:string><json:string>[86]</json:string><json:string>Shiu et al. [89]</json:string><json:string>[5]</json:string><json:string>Maestroni et al. [40]</json:string><json:string>[59]</json:string><json:string>[85]</json:string><json:string>[7]</json:string><json:string>[69]</json:string><json:string>[9]</json:string><json:string>[84]</json:string><json:string>Ben-Nathan et al. [41]</json:string><json:string>[38, 39]</json:string><json:string>Zhang et al. [43]</json:string><json:string>[79]</json:string><json:string>[19]</json:string></ref_bibl><bibl></bibl></unitex></namedEntities><ark><json:string>ark:/67375/WNG-9SJK4K9X-0</json:string></ark><categories><wos><json:string>1 - science</json:string><json:string>2 - physiology</json:string><json:string>2 - neurosciences</json:string><json:string>2 - endocrinology & metabolism</json:string></wos><scienceMetrix><json:string>1 - health sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - clinical medicine</json:string><json:string>3 - neurology & neurosurgery</json:string></scienceMetrix><scopus><json:string>1 - Life Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology</json:string><json:string>3 - Endocrinology</json:string></scopus><inist><json:string>1 - sciences appliquees, technologies et medecines</json:string><json:string>2 - sciences biologiques et medicales</json:string><json:string>3 - sciences medicales</json:string><json:string>4 - pathologie 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Zulia</orgName><address><addrLine>Maracaibo</addrLine></address></affiliation><affiliation><orgName type="institution">Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas</orgName><address><addrLine>FUNDACITE‐Zulia</addrLine><addrLine>Maracaibo, Venezuela</addrLine><country key="VE" xml:lang="en">VENEZUELA, BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF</country></address></affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0001"><persName><forename type="first">Nereida</forename><surname>Valero</surname></persName><affiliation><orgName type="institution">Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’</orgName><orgName type="department">Facultad de Medicina</orgName><orgName type="institution">Universidad del Zulia</orgName><address><addrLine>Maracaibo</addrLine></address></affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0002"><persName><forename type="first">Leonor</forename><surname>Chacín‐Bonilla</surname></persName><affiliation><orgName type="institution">Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’</orgName><orgName type="department">Facultad de Medicina</orgName><orgName type="institution">Universidad del Zulia</orgName><address><addrLine>Maracaibo</addrLine></address></affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0003"><persName><forename type="first">Shirley</forename><surname>Medina‐Leendertz</surname></persName><affiliation><orgName type="institution">Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas</orgName><address><addrLine>FUNDACITE‐Zulia</addrLine><addrLine>Maracaibo, Venezuela</addrLine><country key="VE" xml:lang="en">VENEZUELA, BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF</country></address></affiliation></author><idno type="istex">902CA6CE2EBA0817CE4F6879F166A4CEE2E791C8</idno><idno type="ark">ark:/67375/WNG-9SJK4K9X-0</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1046/j.1600-079X.2003.00105.x</idno><idno type="unit">JPI105</idno><idno type="toTypesetVersion">file:JPI.JPI105.pdf</idno></analytic><monogr><title level="j" type="main">Journal of Pineal Research</title><title level="j" type="alt">JOURNAL OF PINEAL RESEARCH</title><idno type="pISSN">0742-3098</idno><idno type="eISSN">1600-079X</idno><idno type="book-DOI">10.1111/(ISSN)1600-079X</idno><idno type="book-part-DOI">10.1111/jpi.2004.36.issue-2</idno><idno type="product">JPI</idno><idno type="publisherDivision">ST</idno><imprint><biblScope unit="vol">36</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">2</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="73">73</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="79">79</biblScope><biblScope unit="page-count">7</biblScope><publisher>Munksgaard International Publishers</publisher><pubPlace>Oxford, UK</pubPlace><date type="published" when="2004-03"></date></imprint></monogr></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><encodingDesc><schemaRef type="ODD" url="https://xml-schema.delivery.istex.fr/tei-istex.odd"></schemaRef><appInfo><application ident="pub2tei" version="1.0.10" when="2019-12-20"><label>pub2TEI-ISTEX</label><desc>A set of style sheets for converting XML documents encoded in various scientific publisher formats into a 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<ref target="http://www.tei-c.org/">We use TEI</ref></desc></application></appInfo></encodingDesc><profileDesc><abstract xml:lang="en" style="main"><p><hi rend="bold">Abstract: </hi> The therapeutic effects of melatonin against viral infections, with emphasis on the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE), are reviewed. Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1<hi rend="italic">β</hi> (IL‐1<hi rend="italic">β</hi>), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1<hi rend="italic">β</hi> is blocked with antimurine IL‐1<hi rend="italic">β</hi> antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐<hi rend="italic">α</hi>) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐<hi rend="italic">γ</hi>), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐<hi rend="italic">α</hi> nor IFN‐<hi rend="italic">γ</hi> are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. In conclusion, the immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of melatonin suggest that this indole must be considered as an additional therapeutic alternative to fight viral diseases.</p></abstract><textClass><keywords xml:lang="en"><term xml:id="k1">cytokines</term><term xml:id="k2">encephalomyelitis</term><term xml:id="k3">immune system</term><term xml:id="k4">melatonin</term><term xml:id="k5">reactive oxygen species</term><term xml:id="k6">virus infection</term></keywords><keywords rend="tocHeading1"><term>Minireview</term></keywords></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en"></language></langUsage></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2019-12-20" who="#istex" xml:id="pub2tei">formatting</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/ark:/67375/WNG-9SJK4K9X-0/fulltext.txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="Wiley, elements deleted: body"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:document><component version="2.0" type="serialArticle" xml:lang="en"><header><publicationMeta level="product"><publisherInfo><publisherName>Munksgaard International Publishers</publisherName><publisherLoc>Oxford, UK</publisherLoc></publisherInfo><doi origin="wiley" registered="yes">10.1111/(ISSN)1600-079X</doi><issn type="print">0742-3098</issn><issn type="electronic">1600-079X</issn><idGroup><id type="product" value="JPI"></id><id type="publisherDivision" value="ST"></id></idGroup><titleGroup><title type="main" sort="JOURNAL OF PINEAL RESEARCH">Journal of Pineal Research</title></titleGroup></publicationMeta><publicationMeta level="part" position="03002"><doi origin="wiley">10.1111/jpi.2004.36.issue-2</doi><numberingGroup><numbering type="journalVolume" number="36">36</numbering><numbering type="journalIssue" number="2">2</numbering></numberingGroup><coverDate startDate="2004-03">March 2004</coverDate></publicationMeta><publicationMeta level="unit" type="reviewArticle" position="0007300" status="forIssue"><doi origin="wiley">10.1046/j.1600-079X.2003.00105.x</doi><idGroup><id type="unit" value="JPI105"></id></idGroup><countGroup><count type="pageTotal" number="7"></count></countGroup><titleGroup><title type="tocHeading1">Minireview</title></titleGroup><eventGroup><event type="firstOnline" date="2004-01-30"></event><event type="publishedOnlineFinalForm" date="2004-01-30"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:BPG_TO_WML3G version:2.3.2 mode:FullText source:FullText result:FullText" date="2010-03-15"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WILEY_ML3G_TO_WILEY_ML3GV2 version:3.8.8" date="2014-02-01"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WML3G_To_WML3G version:4.1.7 mode:FullText,remove_FC" date="2014-10-30"></event></eventGroup><numberingGroup><numbering type="pageFirst" number="73">73</numbering><numbering type="pageLast" number="79">79</numbering></numberingGroup><correspondenceTo>Address reprint requests to Ernesto Bonilla, Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Apartado Postal 1151, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
E‐mail: <email>ebonillaro@yahoo.com</email></correspondenceTo><linkGroup><link type="toTypesetVersion" href="file:JPI.JPI105.pdf"></link></linkGroup></publicationMeta><contentMeta><unparsedEditorialHistory>Received August 1, 2003; accepted October 2, 2003.</unparsedEditorialHistory><countGroup><count type="figureTotal" number="0"></count><count type="tableTotal" number="0"></count></countGroup><titleGroup><title type="main">Melatonin and viral infections</title><title type="shortAuthors"><i>Bonilla et al.</i></title><title type="short"><i>Melatonin and viral infections</i></title></titleGroup><creators><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="cr1" affiliationRef="#a1 #a2"><personName><givenNames>Ernesto</givenNames><familyName>Bonilla</familyName></personName></creator><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="cr2" affiliationRef="#a1"><personName><givenNames>Nereida</givenNames><familyName>Valero</familyName></personName></creator><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="cr3" affiliationRef="#a1"><personName><givenNames>Leonor</givenNames><familyName>Chacín‐Bonilla</familyName></personName></creator><creator creatorRole="author" xml:id="cr4" affiliationRef="#a2"><personName><givenNames>Shirley</givenNames><familyName>Medina‐Leendertz</familyName></personName></creator></creators><affiliationGroup><affiliation xml:id="a1"><unparsedAffiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation><affiliation xml:id="a2" countryCode="VE"><unparsedAffiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, FUNDACITE‐Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation></affiliationGroup><keywordGroup xml:lang="en"><keyword xml:id="k1">cytokines</keyword><keyword xml:id="k2">encephalomyelitis</keyword><keyword xml:id="k3">immune system</keyword><keyword xml:id="k4">melatonin</keyword><keyword xml:id="k5">reactive oxygen species</keyword><keyword xml:id="k6">virus infection</keyword></keywordGroup><abstractGroup><abstract type="main" xml:lang="en"><p><b>Abstract: </b> The therapeutic effects of melatonin against viral infections, with emphasis on the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE), are reviewed. Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1<i>β</i> (IL‐1<i>β</i>), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1<i>β</i> is blocked with antimurine IL‐1<i>β</i> antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐<i>α</i>) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐<i>γ</i>), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐<i>α</i> nor IFN‐<i>γ</i> are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. In conclusion, the immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of melatonin suggest that this indole must be considered as an additional therapeutic alternative to fight viral diseases.</p></abstract></abstractGroup></contentMeta></header></component></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Melatonin and viral infections</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="abbreviated" lang="en"><title>Melatonin and viral infections</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" contentType="CDATA" lang="en"><title>Melatonin and viral infections</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Ernesto</namePart><namePart type="family">Bonilla</namePart><affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo</affiliation><affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, FUNDACITE‐Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Nereida</namePart><namePart type="family">Valero</namePart><affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Leonor</namePart><namePart type="family">Chacín‐Bonilla</namePart><affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas ‘Dr. Américo Negrette’, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Shirley</namePart><namePart type="family">Medina‐Leendertz</namePart><affiliation>Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, FUNDACITE‐Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="review-article" displayLabel="reviewArticle" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-L5L7X3NF-P">review-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>Munksgaard International Publishers</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Oxford, UK</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2004-03</dateIssued><edition>Received August 1, 2003; accepted October 2, 2003.</edition><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2004</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><extent unit="figures">0</extent><extent unit="tables">0</extent></physicalDescription><abstract lang="en">Abstract: The therapeutic effects of melatonin against viral infections, with emphasis on the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE), are reviewed. Melatonin has been shown to prevent paralysis and death in mice infected with the encephalomyocarditis virus and to decrease viremia. Melatonin also postpones the onset of the disease produced by Semliki Forest virus inoculation and reduces the mortality of West Nile virus‐infected mice stressed by either isolation or dexamethasone injection. An increase in the host resistance to the virus via a peripheral immunostimulatory activity is considered responsible for these effects. It has also been demonstrated that melatonin protects some strains of mink against Aleutian disease, and prevents the reduction of B‐ and T‐cells as well as Th1 cytokine secretion in mice infected with leukemia retrovirus. In VEE‐infected mice, melatonin postpones the onset of the disease and death for several days and reduces the mortality rate. This protective effect seems to be due to the increase in the production of interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), as 100% of the infected mice treated with melatonin die when IL‐1β is blocked with antimurine IL‐1β antibodies. Although melatonin administration raises serum levels of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ), the mortality observed in neutralization experiments with the corresponding anticytokine antibodies, suggests that neither TNF‐α nor IFN‐γ are essential for the protective effect of melatonin on murine VEE virus infection. Melatonin treatment also enhances the efficiency of immunization against the VEE virus. Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in the dissemination of this virus, and their deleterious effects may be diminished by melatonin. This indole inhibits nitric oxide synthetase activity and it is a potent scavenger of nitric oxide, which also plays an important role in the spread of the VEE virus. In conclusion, the immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of melatonin suggest that this indole must be considered as an additional therapeutic alternative to fight viral diseases.</abstract><subject lang="en"><genre>keywords</genre><topic>cytokines</topic><topic>encephalomyelitis</topic><topic>immune system</topic><topic>melatonin</topic><topic>reactive oxygen species</topic><topic>virus infection</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Journal of Pineal Research</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0742-3098</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1600-079X</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1111/(ISSN)1600-079X</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">JPI</identifier><part><date>2004</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>36</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>2</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>73</start><end>79</end><total>7</total></extent></part></relatedItem><relatedItem type="references" displayLabel="cit1"><titleInfo><title>Circadian rhythms of pineal function in rats</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">SA.</namePart><namePart type="family">Binkley</namePart><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><genre>journal-article</genre><note type="citation/reference">Binkley SA. 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