Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations
Identifieur interne : 000C84 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000C83; suivant : 000C85Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations
Auteurs : Kathryn C. Dowling ; James N. SeiberSource :
- International Journal of Toxicology [ 1091-5818 ] ; 2002-09.
Abstract
In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.
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DOI: 10.1080/10915810290096612
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Seiber</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">ISTEX</idno><idno type="RBID">ISTEX:9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB</idno><date when="2002" year="2002">2002</date><idno type="doi">10.1080/10915810290096612</idno><idno type="url">https://api.istex.fr/document/9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB/fulltext/pdf</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Istex/Corpus">000C84</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Istex" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="ISTEX">000C84</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Dowling, Kathryn C" sort="Dowling, Kathryn C" uniqKey="Dowling K" first="Kathryn C." last="Dowling">Kathryn C. Dowling</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Seiber, James N" sort="Seiber, James N" uniqKey="Seiber J" first="James N." last="Seiber">James N. Seiber</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j">International Journal of Toxicology</title><idno type="ISSN">1091-5818</idno><idno type="eISSN">1092-874X</idno><imprint><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</pubPlace><date type="published" when="2002-09">2002-09</date><biblScope unit="volume">21</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">5</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="371">371</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="381">381</biblScope></imprint><idno type="ISSN">1091-5818</idno></series><idno type="istex">9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1080/10915810290096612</idno><idno type="ArticleID">10.1080_10915810290096612</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc><seriesStmt><idno type="ISSN">1091-5818</idno></seriesStmt></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>sage</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Kathryn C. Dowling</name><affiliations><json:string>Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>James N. Seiber</name><affiliations><json:string>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><subject><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Agricultural</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Exposure</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Pesticides</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Residents</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Respiratory</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Workers</value></json:item></subject><articleId><json:string>10.1080_10915810290096612</json:string></articleId><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>research-article</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>7.808</score><pdfVersion>1.2</pdfVersion><pdfPageSize>578.268 x 737.008 pts</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractCharCount>1712</abstractCharCount><pdfWordCount>8333</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>51193</pdfCharCount><pdfPageCount>11</pdfPageCount><abstractWordCount>234</abstractWordCount></qualityIndicators><title>Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title><genre><json:string>research-article</json:string></genre><host><volume>21</volume><publisherId><json:string>IJT</json:string></publisherId><pages><last>381</last><first>371</first></pages><issn><json:string>1091-5818</json:string></issn><issue>5</issue><genre><json:string>journal</json:string></genre><language><json:string>unknown</json:string></language><eissn><json:string>1092-874X</json:string></eissn><title>International Journal of Toxicology</title></host><categories><wos><json:string>science</json:string><json:string>toxicology</json:string><json:string>pharmacology & pharmacy</json:string></wos><scienceMetrix><json:string>health sciences</json:string><json:string>biomedical research</json:string><json:string>toxicology</json:string></scienceMetrix></categories><publicationDate>2002</publicationDate><copyrightDate>2002</copyrightDate><doi><json:string>10.1080/10915810290096612</json:string></doi><id>9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB</id><score>0.042786267</score><fulltext><json:item><extension>pdf</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>application/pdf</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB/fulltext/pdf</uri></json:item><json:item><extension>zip</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/zip</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB/fulltext/zip</uri></json:item><istex:fulltextTEI uri="https://api.istex.fr/document/9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB/fulltext/tei"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><authority>ISTEX</authority><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</pubPlace><availability><p>SAGE</p></availability><date>2002</date></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title><author xml:id="author-1"><persName><forename type="first">Kathryn C.</forename><surname>Dowling</surname></persName><affiliation>Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-2"><persName><forename type="first">James N.</forename><surname>Seiber</surname></persName><affiliation>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</affiliation></author></analytic><monogr><title level="j">International Journal of Toxicology</title><idno type="pISSN">1091-5818</idno><idno type="eISSN">1092-874X</idno><imprint><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</pubPlace><date type="published" when="2002-09"></date><biblScope unit="volume">21</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">5</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="371">371</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="381">381</biblScope></imprint></monogr><idno type="istex">9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1080/10915810290096612</idno><idno type="ArticleID">10.1080_10915810290096612</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><creation><date>2002</date></creation><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="keyword"><list><head>keywords</head><item><term>Agricultural</term></item><item><term>Exposure</term></item><item><term>Pesticides</term></item><item><term>Residents</term></item><item><term>Respiratory</term></item><item><term>Workers</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2002-09">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus sage not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.3" xml:lang="EN"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">spijt</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">IJT</journal-id><journal-title>International Journal of Toxicology</journal-title><issn pub-type="ppub">1091-5818</issn><publisher><publisher-name>SAGE Publications</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/10915810290096612</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">10.1080_10915810290096612</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Dowling</surname><given-names>Kathryn C.</given-names></name><aff>Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Seiber</surname><given-names>James N.</given-names></name><aff>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>09</month><year>2002</year></pub-date><volume>21</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>371</fpage><lpage>381</lpage><abstract><p>In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, <italic>Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data</italic>, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal <italic>Clean Air Act</italic> amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Agricultural</kwd><kwd>Exposure</kwd><kwd>Pesticides</kwd><kwd>Residents</kwd><kwd>Respiratory</kwd><kwd>Workers</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value> Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations Kathryn C. Dowling1 and James N. Seiber2 1 Of ce of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA 2 Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures signi cantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection. Keywords Agricultural, Exposure, Pesticides, Residents, Respiratory, Workers Received 4 April 2002; accepted 9 June 2002. The present address of James N. Seiber is Western Regional Research Center, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Albany, California, USA. Richard G. Ames, Michael J. Di Bartolomeis, James S. Le Noir, and David W. Rice are gratefully recognized for their valuable suggestions to improve this manuscript. Address correspondence to Kathryn C. Dowling, OEHHA, 1515 Clay Street, Sixteenth Floor, Oakland, CA 94612, USA. E-mail: kdowling@oehha.ca.gov International Journal of Toxicology, 21:371–381, 2002 Copyright–c 2002 American College of Toxicology 1091-5818/02 $12.00 +.00 DOI: 10.1080/1091581029009661 2 Exposures to pesticides occur, generally, by three routes: (1)ingestion of residues in food and water, (2) dermal penetration of residues deposited on clothing and skin and dermal contact with contaminated surfaces, and (3) inhalation of airborne vapors and aerosol/particulate matter. Althoughingestion is the principal route of exposure for the vast majority of people (particularly those who do not reside or work in or near settings where pesticides might be used), dermal exposure represents the major exposure route for people who work directly with pesticides or in pesticide-treated elds, gardens, greenhouses, and the like. Inhalation exposure among these same populations generally occurs at a lower rate, except when the chemical in use is quite volatile, when application is in an enclosed, poorly ventilated area, or when the manner of application leads to an aerosol cloud of nely dispersed droplets or particulates that do not readily settle. In addition to the degree of volatility, pesticide polarity governs the ability to reach and be absorbed by the respiratory tract. With the notable exception of sulfur, sodium chlorate, Bordeaux mixture, and a few other inorganics, the majority of the pesticides currently in use are synthetic organics, which facilitates their ability to cross biomembranes. Pesticide reactivity also affects inhalation exposure. A chemical of low vapor pressure reacting in or on soil, foliage, or water to form a product of greater volatility and/or toxicity than the parent is said to be “activated” (Wolfe and Seiber 1993). For example, several parent compounds undergo hydrolysis to form the irritant mercaptans. Methamidophos hydrolyzes to methyl mercaptan (Quistad, Fukuto, and Metcalf 1970), ethoprop breaks down to n-propyl mercaptan (Ames and Stratton 1991), and the defoliants S, S, Stributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF) and S, S, S-tributyl phosphorotrithioite (which rapidly degrades to DEF) form butyl mercaptan (Scarborough et al. 1989). Chloropicrin photolytically degrades to the potent lachrimant, phosgene; metamsodium decomposes in soil to methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), a low-melting, volatile solid with a vapor pressure of 0.021 atm; and oxidation on foliage surfaces and in the vapor phase converts organophosphorothioates, such as parathion, to the far 371 372 K. C. DOWLING AND J. N. SEIBER more toxic oxons (Woodrow et al. 1977). The transformation of pesticides in the atmosphere has received less study than on surfaces and in water, but can be an important factor in increasing exposure to breakdown products (Atkinson et al. 1999). Human exposure concerns center around the relatively high toxicity of many of the insecticides, nematicides, and fungicides, particularly among high-exposure groups such as farm workers and structural pest control operators. Consequently, many studies of pesticide exposure and health effects concentrate on agricultural workers. Increasingly, attention is focusing on the exposure of residents of communities in or near regions where agricultural activities are carried out. This paper will examine the respiratory aspects of pesticide exposure in the agricultural population, including nonoccupationally exposed persons. As Wolfe, Durham, and Armstrong rst showed in their 1967 review of 40 previous exposure cases in the literature plus 30 new cases measured via their “direct” measurement method, for the vast majority of reported cases, the dermal route greatly exceeds inhalation uptake in occupational pesticide exposures. Further research in the three intervening decades has strengthened this thesis in the vast majority of instances; respiratory exposure nearly always accounts for less than 10%, and commonly less than 1%, of overall exposure. In certain cases, however, respiratory exposure assumes great importance, especially for highly volatile pesticides. The soil fumigants include methyl bromide (a gas at room temperatures), 1,3-dichloropropen e (1,3-D), chloropicrin, and ethylene dibromide (banned in 1984 due to ground water contamination and carcinogenicity concerns), and will gure prominently in this paper. The food commodity fumigants, such as aluminum phosphide (which reacts with water to form phosphine), and the structural fumigants, such as sulfuryl uoride (Vikane), also warrant mention. Due to the volatility and rapid evaporation of the fumigants (all have vapor pressures greater than 0.02 atm), occupational exposure is of greatest concern (Ecobichon 1996). Each year accidental deaths are reported in California due to nonoccupational fumigant exposure in con ned spaces (Mehler, O'Malley, and Krieger 1992). The herbicide paraquat merits special mention because its site of toxic action is primarily the lung, which concentrates the herbicide via an active uptake mechanism. Because paraquat's vapor pressure is extremely low, respiratory exposure is generally insigni cant. Because dermal exposure does not appear to contribute signi cantly to poisoning, ingestion (accidental or suicidal) is the primary exposure route. Pasi (1978) notes that “lung effects frequently appear only after a latent period of several days when the poisoned patient has already started to recover from the toxic effects of the chemical on other organs. Moreover, once signs and symptoms of respiratory insuf ciency appeared, in most cases, they progressed rapidly and relentlessly in spite of adequate intensive care until fatality occurred.” This second phase of paraquat poisoning is characterized by brosis; death is invariably due to progressive respiratory insuf ciency. EXPOSURE MONITORING Direct respiratory exposure monitoring techniques capture gases, vapors, and aerosols present in the air for subsequent analysis. The most common collection equipment is sorbent air sampling tubes or respirator collection pads. To represent total worker inhalation exposure, respiratory monitors should trap both volatile pesticides and aerosols created from the handling and application of the pesticide formulation. Care must be taken to minimize respirator contact with droplets too large to be inhaled, or results will be skewed. Air sampling masks in which worker respiration directs the ow rate are generally superior. Durham and Wolfe (1962) modi ed ordinary singlestage respirators by covering the lter end with a plastic funnel plugged with a cork. Into the underside of the funnel were drilled two holes approximately the size of a nostril. Alpha-cellulose pads located within the respirator absorbed the compound of interest and then were extracted and analyzed. This downward orientation and aperture restriction is perhaps the most realistic approach to inhalation monitoring and is still widely used today. Personal air samplers are much less cumbersome and uncomfortable than respirators. The air sampling tubes are positioned in the breathing zone, pointed downward to mimic nostril orientation. This technique has several drawbacks; it is not representative of the variations that may occur in worker breathing rate. In addition, sampling tubes often are packed with small particles that restrict air ow to rates much lower than breathing rates, effectively reducing the detection capability. Consequently, airsampling techniques require estimations of the worker's breathing rate. Because breathing rates vary depending on gender and type of work, exposure estimates based on air sampler data assume realistic breathing rates were chosen (Equation 1). Exposure rate (</meta-value> </custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><ref><citation citation-type="other" xlink:type="simple">Agricultural Research Institute. 1988. Improving On-Target Placement of Pesticides: A Conference. 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Toxicol.</source><volume>6</volume>:<fpage>175</fpage>–<lpage>191</lpage>.</citation></ref></ref-list></back></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>Importance of Respiratory Exposure to Pesticides Among Agricultural Populations</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Kathryn C.</namePart><namePart type="family">Dowling</namePart><affiliation>Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California, USA</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">James N.</namePart><namePart type="family">Seiber</namePart><affiliation>Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article"></genre><originInfo><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2002-09</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2002</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract lang="en">In the majority of cases, respiratory exposure accounts for a small fraction of total body exposure to pesticides; however, higher volatility pesticides pose a greater risk for exposure, particularly in enclosed spaces and near application sites. In 2000, nearly 22 million pounds of activeingredients designated as toxic air contaminants (TACs) were applied as pesticides in California (combined agricultural and reportable non-agricultural uses; California Department of Pesticide Regulation, 2001a, Summary of Pesticide Use Report Data, 2000, Sacramento, CA: author). Agricultural workers and agricultural community residents are at particular risk for exposure to these compounds. The TAC program in California, and more recently the federal Clean Air Act amendments, have begun to address the exposures of these groups and have promulgated exposure guidelines that are, in general, much more stringent than the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) worker exposure guidelines. Choosing lower volatility pesticides, lower concentrations of activeingredients, and handling equipment designed to minimize exposure can often reduce worker respiratory exposures significantly. The use of personal protective equipment, which would be facilitated by the development of more ergonomic alternatives, is important in these higher respiratory exposure situations. Finally, in the case of community residents, measures taken to protect workers often translate to lower ambient air concentrations, but further study and development of buffer zones and application controls in a given area are necessary to assure community protection.</abstract><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>Agricultural</topic><topic>Exposure</topic><topic>Pesticides</topic><topic>Residents</topic><topic>Respiratory</topic><topic>Workers</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>International Journal of Toxicology</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">1091-5818</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1092-874X</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">IJT</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spijt</identifier><part><date>2002</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>21</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>5</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>371</start><end>381</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">9FC38E0BA4D832E08146E3A098780846AC80D4AB</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1080/10915810290096612</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1080_10915810290096612</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource>SAGE</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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