The F-PEC Scale of Family Influence: A Proposal for Solving the Family Business Definition Problem1
Identifieur interne : 001069 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001068; suivant : 001070The F-PEC Scale of Family Influence: A Proposal for Solving the Family Business Definition Problem1
Auteurs : Joseph H. Astrachan ; Sabine B. Klein ; Kosmas X. SmyrniosSource :
- Family Business Review [ 0894-4865 ] ; 2002-03.
Abstract
This article proposes an alternative method for assessing the extent of family influence on any enterprise, enabling the measurement of the impact of family on outcomes such as success, failure, strategy, and operations. This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail.
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DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x
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ISTEX:6AF6FC5F4A8BC4D24D7C3C467E704251762FA318Le document en format XML
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Astrachan</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Kennesaw State University</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Klein, Sabine B" sort="Klein, Sabine B" uniqKey="Klein S" first="Sabine B." last="Klein">Sabine B. Klein</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Trier University, ProMit, Department Mittelstandökonomie</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Smyrnios, Kosmas X" sort="Smyrnios, Kosmas X" uniqKey="Smyrnios K" first="Kosmas X." last="Smyrnios">Kosmas X. Smyrnios</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>AXA Australia Family Business Research Unit, Department of Accounting & Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j">Family Business Review</title><idno type="ISSN">0894-4865</idno><idno type="eISSN">1741-6248</idno><imprint><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</pubPlace><date type="published" when="2002-03">2002-03</date><biblScope unit="volume">15</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">1</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="45">45</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="58">58</biblScope></imprint><idno type="ISSN">0894-4865</idno></series><idno type="istex">6AF6FC5F4A8BC4D24D7C3C467E704251762FA318</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1111/j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</idno><idno type="ArticleID">10.1111_j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc><seriesStmt><idno type="ISSN">0894-4865</idno></seriesStmt></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">This article proposes an alternative method for assessing the extent of family influence on any enterprise, enabling the measurement of the impact of family on outcomes such as success, failure, strategy, and operations. This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>sage</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Joseph H. Astrachan</name><affiliations><json:string>Kennesaw State University</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Sabine B. Klein</name><affiliations><json:string>Trier University, ProMit, Department Mittelstandökonomie</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Kosmas X. 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This article discusses these scales in detail.</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>5.867</score><pdfVersion>1.3</pdfVersion><pdfPageSize>576 x 720 pts</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractCharCount>551</abstractCharCount><pdfWordCount>4907</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>32493</pdfCharCount><pdfPageCount>14</pdfPageCount><abstractWordCount>80</abstractWordCount></qualityIndicators><title>The F-PEC Scale of Family Influence: A Proposal for Solving the Family Business Definition Problem1</title><refBibs><json:item><author><json:item><name>C.E. Aronoff</name></json:item><json:item><name>J.L. Ward</name></json:item></author><host><volume>8</volume><pages><last>130</last><first>121</first></pages><issue>2</issue><author></author><title>Family Business Review</title></host><title>Family owned businesses: A thing of the past or a model for the future</title></json:item><json:item><author><json:item><name>J.A. Barach</name></json:item><json:item><name>J.B. 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This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail.</p></abstract></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2002-03">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/6AF6FC5F4A8BC4D24D7C3C467E704251762FA318/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus sage not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.3" xml:lang="EN"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">spfbr</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">FBR</journal-id><journal-title>Family Business Review</journal-title><issn pub-type="ppub">0894-4865</issn><publisher><publisher-name>SAGE Publications</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">10.1111_j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>The F-PEC Scale of Family Influence: A Proposal for Solving the <italic>Family Business</italic> Definition Problem1</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Astrachan</surname><given-names>Joseph H.</given-names></name><aff>Kennesaw State University</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Klein</surname><given-names>Sabine B.</given-names></name><aff>Trier University, ProMit, Department Mittelstandökonomie</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Smyrnios</surname><given-names>Kosmas X.</given-names></name><aff>AXA Australia Family Business Research Unit, Department of Accounting & Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>03</month><year>2002</year></pub-date><volume>15</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>45</fpage><lpage>58</lpage><abstract><p><italic>This article proposes an alternative method for assessing the extent of family influence on any enterprise, enabling the measurement of the impact of family on outcomes such as success, failure, strategy, and operations. This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail.</italic></p></abstract><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value>45 The F-PEC Scale of Family Influence: A Proposal for Solving the Family Business Definition Problem1 SAGE Publications, Inc.200210.1111/j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x Joseph H.Astrachan Kennesaw State University Sabine B.Klein Trier University, ProMit, Department Mittelstandökonomie Kosmas X.Smyrnios AXA Australia Family Business Research Unit, Department of Accounting & Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University This article proposes an alternative method for assessing the extent of family influence on any enterprise, enabling the measurement of the impact of family on outcomes such as success, failure, strategy, and operations. This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail. The Definition Problem in Family Business Research Although in 1989, Handler said that “defining the family firm is the first and most obvious chal- lenge facing family business researchers” (p. 258), more then 10 years later, the challenge remains. To date, there is “no widely accepted definition of a family business” (Littunen, & Hyrsky, 2000, p. 41). Instead, various definitions are reported in the literature. An analysis of the literature suggests three principal ways in which to consider the plethora of definitions: content, purpose, and form. Most definitions and classifications focus on content (e.g., Handler, 1989; Heck & Scannell, 1999; Litz, 1995). However, definitions cited earlier in the literature mostly concern ownership (e.g., Berry, 1975; Lansberg, Perrow, & Rogolsky, 1988), ownership and management involvement of an owning family (Burch, 1972; Barnes & Hershon, 1976), and generational transfer (Ward, 1987). In contrast, more recent definitions con- centrate on family business culture (Litz, 1995; Dreux IV & Brown, 1999). A definition of family business can either serve a distinct research purpose (e.g., Dean, 1992) or assist in differentiating family from nonfamily firms (Klein, 2000a). Moreover, definitions can be employed for structural pur- poses, such as subdividing a sample into vari- ous categories (Daily & Thompson, 1994). Definitions can also be employed for explana- tory purposes. For instance, Harris, Martinez, and Ward (1994) use a multifaceted definition to develop a theory about the evolution of fam- ily-owned businesses from founder-managed firms to cousin-run enterprises. Somewhat problematically, however, a num- 1 This paper is seeded in the thoughts of the first named author, though these early ideas were fully realized only following the second meeting of the International Family Enterprise Academy in Amsterdam in 2000. Since this time, a number of discussions have been held on this topic and researchers around the world (e.g., Germany, United States, Australia) have begun an international collaboration on this research. The operationalization of family vs. nonfamily enterprises has been a matter of concern from the very beginning of family business research. In most studies, the categorization of firms has culminated in the use of the classification as an independent variable. This approach, while important, has contributed to several problems, such as the lack of comparability of empirical data, confusion over what is meant by the term family business , and unconstructive discussion among researchers. 46 ber of investigators avoid the use of clear defini- tions, maintaining that classification of family business is done on a case-to-case basis. Lack of definitional clarity can be attributed to difficul- ties associated with differentiating family from nonfamily enterprises (Wortman, 1995). Operationalization and specificity of defini- tions has improved in recent times. However, one concern remains: A definition of family is often missing. This notable absence poses prob- lems, particularly in an international context where families and cultures differ not only across geographical boundaries, but also over time. One way of overcoming this problem, especially in empirical research, is to specify levels and types of relationships as well as kinship ties of involved persons. Another way is to provide from the out- set a clear and concise definition of what is meant by family. Another, though less frequent, concern re- lates to difficulties associated with categorizing companies that are influenced by two or more unrelated families. For example, two families— Miele and Zinkann, who are descendants of un- related founders—own and manage Miele in Germany. Although two families influence this company, the influence of one family balances the other. Thus, the influence of multiple-fam- ily ownership is not necessarily additive. Given this situation, we suggest in such circumstances that the influence of each family must be consid- ered within any measure that assesses family in- fluence. To be functional, a definition must be un- ambiguous and transparent in such a way that it can be quantified. For example, Lea's (1998) defi- nition is very difficult to operationalize: A business is a family business when it is an enterprise growing out of the family's needs, built on the family's abilities, worked by its hands and minds, and guided by its moral and spiritual values; when it is sustained by the family's com- mitment, and passed down to its sons and daughters as a legacy as precious as the family's name (p. 1). Furthermore, a definition should measure what it purports to measure and assist in provid- ing reliable (replicable) research results. In an early attempt to view family businesses as nonmonolithic, Shanker and Astrachan (1996) classify definitions by degree of family involve- ment. Their three-tier categorization ranges from broad (little direct family involvement), to middle (some family involvement), to narrow (a lot of family involvement). In contrast, Klein (2000b) prepared a modular classification in which different criteria are regarded as indepen- dent rather than additive. Definitions that differ only slightly make it difficult not only to compare across investiga- tions but also to integrate theory. Smyrnios, Tanewski, and Romano (1998) point out that “complexities associated with arriving at a sound definition of a family firm raised a number of methodological concerns related to sampling issues, appropriate group comparisons, and es- tablishing appropriate measures used to derive statistics” (p. 51). This complexity can raise con- fusion and call into question the credibility of family business research (Habbershon & Will- iams, 1999). It is our view that a family business definition should be clear about to which di- mensions it refers. Moreover, a definition should be transparent and unambiguous. Perhaps most important, a definition should be modular, and its operationalization should lead to reliable and valid results. A detailed review of definitions employed in studies reveals that there is no clear demar- cation between family and nonfamily businesses and that no single definition can capture the distinction between the two types of entities. Artificially dichotomizing family vs. nonfamily firms when no such clear-cut dichotomy exists creates more problems than it attempts to solve. In this paper, we propose that there are discrete and particular qualities or characteristics of a business that are more appropriately measured on a continuous rather than dichotomous scale. We also suggest measures that can be used to tap different qualities of businesses. These mea- sures make it possible to differentiate levels of 47 family involvement. In addition, these measures provide a framework integrating different theo- retical and methodological approaches to the study of family business. From the One Definition Toward a Continuum of Family Business Utilizing the “family universe bull's-eye,” Shanker and Astrachan (1996) outline a con- tinuum ranging from high to low levels of family involvement. One difficulty associated with this approach is that different aspects of family in- volvement are directly found on the continuum itself. For example, Shanker and Astrachan sug- gest that a business with much family involve- ment has at least one family member in a man- agement position and multiple generations work in and own the company. As this scheme com- prises three categories of family involvement, finer distinctions that could be useful in under- standing family business behavior appear with- out recognition. A relevant issue, therefore, is not whether a business is family or nonfamily, but the extent and manner of family involvement in and influ- ence on the enterprise. In our view, there are three important dimensions of family influence that should be considered: power, experience, and culture. These three dimensions, or subscales, comprise the F-PEC, an index of family influ- ence. This index enables comparisons across busi- nesses concerning levels of family involvement and its effects on performance as well as other business behaviors. The F-PEC also allows researchers to uti- lize data derived from subscales and total scores as independent, dependent, mediating, or mod- erating variables. Interestingly, during the late 1930s, Lazarsfeld (1937, p.127f, quoted after Schnell, Hill & Esser 1995, p.161) identified three reasons for developing a scale: functional reduction, arbitrary numerical reduction, and pragmatic reduction. With respect to the F-PEC, pragmatic reduction is perhaps the most impor- tant reason for its development. As well as pragmatic implications, the F-PEC will herald objectivity and standardization of measurement across investigations. F-PEC de- velopment is based on main themes derived from an in-depth content analysis of various defini- tions of family business. Scales of the F-PEC pro- vide an overall measure of family influence. A discussion of the three subscales of the F-PEC follows. Figure 1. Dimensions of the F-PEC Power Subscale 48 The Power Dimension of Family Influence: Ownership, Governance, and Management Participation A family can influence a business via the extent of its ownership, governance, and management involvement (see Figure 1). A measure should not only take these issues into account, but also le- gal, political, and economic considerations asso- ciated with different countries. For example, in the case of board structures and compositions, most western countries, including the United States, involve a one-level board system. Ger- many, Switzerland, and the Netherlands have a two-level system in which a board member of one board (management or governance) is, by law, not permitted to be a concurrent member of both levels of governance. The F-PEC power subscale takes into account the percentage of family mem- bers on each board level as well as the percent- age of members who are named through family members on the management and governance boards. The involvement of family members as lead- ers of family firms has been a matter of interest for researchers and practitioners since the early 1970s (e.g., Danco, 1975). This interest has fo- cused on a number of different topics, including legitimate leadership (Kehr, 1996), performance (Monsen, 1996), principal-agent theory (Aronoff & Ward, 1995), and governance structure (Neubauer & Lank, 1998). Although these top- ics are important, the F-PEC is not concerned with whether a nonfamily CEO would serve the business better, whether a family CEO will re- duce control costs, or whether a family CEO is highly motivated (Aronoff & Ward, 1995). The F-PEC power subscale assesses the degree of overall influence or power either in the hands of family members or in those named by the family. This level of influence via ownership, manage- ment, and governance is, therefore, viewed as interchangeable as well as additive. In line with this view, Klein (2000a, 2000b) integrates ownership, governance, and manage- ment involvement of the family into a definition in which the level of influence in another could balance a lack of influence in one of these three domains. Although the Klein definition provides only a discrete determination (family vs. nonfamily), it does combine several criteria into one continuum and, thus, shows a number of precursor characteristics appropriate for the de- velopment of an index or scale. Discussing how this continuum functions, Klein (2000a) states that “influence in a substantial way is considered if the family either owns the complete stock or, if not, the lack of influence in ownership is bal- anced through either influence through corpo- rate governance or influence through manage- ment” (p. 158). Notwithstanding, Klein did not comment on the importance of indirect influences for in- ternational comparisons. This issue is impor- tant as tax and legal structures across national boundaries encourage different forms of own- ership. In some countries, for example, it is an advantage to own a company through other en- tities (e.g., trusts, companies, or holding com- panies), and understanding the actual levels of family ownership and governance control can be difficult to decipher. For instance, it can be difficult to assess the extent of influence of a family who owns a business through a holding company. Faccio and Lang (2000, p. 10) take into account the indirect influence of a stake- holder through “the product of two ownership stakes along the chain” of owning companies or family members. An example of this ownership chain includes a family that owns 100% of a holding company that itself owns 100% of the company. Obviously, this family has 100% in- fluence through ownership. However, a family that owns 50% of a holding company that itself owns 50% of the stock of a company has only a 25% influence via ownership. Family influence through governance and management can be measured as the proportion of family representatives who are members of the governance or management boards. In contrast, indirect influence might mean members of a board who are named through family members but are not family members themselves. A family's influence through this means, although indirect, 49 is usually considerable. To assess this direct in- fluence optimally, a weighting system must be employed. In mixed cases, the proportion of fam- ily members on the board will be added to a weighted proportion of members. Consider the following example: two of five board members are family, two are nominated or elected by family members, and one is repre- sentative of a minor nonfamily shareholder. Our weighting system suggests that this board com- prises 44% of family influence to the overall power subscale. This proportion is calculated by aggregating 40% of family influence (i.e., two of five members are family) and 4% of indirect influence (two of five multiplied by 0.1). The Experience Dimension of Family Influence: Generation in Charge This section discusses the family business expe- rience subscale in relation to succession and the number of family members who contribute to the business. A number of authors (e.g., Barach & Ganitsky, 1995; Birley, 1986; Heck et al., 1999; Ward, 1987, 1988) state that an enterprise can be viewed only as a family business when a trans- fer to the next generation is intended. Other au- thors (e.g., Daily & Thompson, 1994) consider that at least one generational transfer should have occurred. For others (e.g., Klein, 2000b), a founder-run entity can be regarded as a specific case of a family business. Despite these differ- ences in viewpoints, all authors agree that each succession adds considerable valuable business experience to the family and the company. It could be argued that the level of experi- ences gained from the succession process is great- est during the shift from first to second genera- tions. During the first generation of ownership, many new rituals are installed. Thus, second and subsequent generations of ownership contribute proportionally less value to this process. As shown in Figure 2, family business experience of suc- cession is regarded as involving an exponential continuum. Accordingly, dimensions involving a generation of family ownership and who is on the management and governance boards are weighted according to a nonlinear algorithm. The number of family members associated with the business also contributes to the experi- ence dimension. As a case in point, the wife of the family CEO can influence the business in a substantial way. Posa and Messer (2001) state that “CEO spouses play a key, even if often invisible, role in most family-controlled corporations” Figure 2. The Experience of Succession Curve 50 Figure 3. Dimensions of the F-PEC Experience Subscale (p. 25). Furthermore, discussions between owner- parents and their young adult children on busi- ness topics can enrich the business in a substan- tial way. In some families, the contribution of the young generation over time is even more visible. One example is the Schmidt family in Germany. The youngest son of the Schmidt family, which owns and manages a bank in Southern Germany, in 1994 founded Consors—a subsidiary dealing with online brokerage. Today, Consors is one of the biggest online banks in Europe and has been listed on the Frankfurt stock exchange since 1999. The contribution of the son to the family busi- ness by founding his own business as a start-up in a similar field is undeniable, even given the recent difficulties facing the Schmidt bank itself and, therefore, Consors as well. The family gained substantial experience as a result of their son's entrepreneurial input. Therefore, the num- ber of family members dedicated to the business is viewed as an important indicator of how much experience the business receives from the family. Figure 3 shows the dimensions of the F-PEC experience subscale. The Culture Dimension of Family Business: Family and Business Values Gallo (2000) considers business culture an im- portant family enterprise element. According to his perspective, a firm can be considered a family business when family and business share assump- tions and values. Other researchers define a fam- ily firm in terms of how the CEO, its managers, or its owners view the business. For example, it is reasonable to assume that owners or managers who regard their enterprise as a family business are highly likely to be attentive to issues and opin- ions of family members, as well as meeting the needs of family members. However, anchoring values in an organiza- tion takes time. Klein (1991) finds that core val- ues of key personnel (i.e., individuals who have led an organization for more than 10 years) usu- ally form part of the culture of their organiza- tion. The values of these significant individuals can be seen embedded in internal political mat- ters, the ways in which conflicts are handled, and the degree of centralization vs. decentralization. Notwithstanding, evaluating overlap of company and family values can be difficult, as issues per- taining to definition and time need to be consid- ered. For example, the values of an organization might well be rooted in family values of a former generation, but not necessarily manifest in the current family. The F-PEC assesses the extent to which fam- ily and business values overlap, as well as the family's commitment to the business. According to Carlock and Ward (2001), “the family's com- mitment and vision of itself are shaped by what the family holds as important … For these rea- 51 Figure 4. Dimensions of the F-PEC Culture Subscale sons, core family values are the basis for devel- oping a commitment to the business” (p. 35). In light of this view, families that are highly com- mitted to the business are highly likely to have a substantial impact on the business. In line with Carlock and Ward (2001), commitment is viewed as involving three principal factors: a personal belief and support of the organization's goals and visions, a willingness to contribute to the orga- nization, and a desire for a relationship with the organization. A number of items comprising the Carlock and Ward (2001) Family Business Com- mitment Questionnaire are integrated into the F-PEC culture subscale (see the appendix). The F-PEC Scale As discussed earlier, the F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. The F-PEC measures the extent of family influence on any enterprise. In marked contrast to previ- ous work in this field, the F-PEC is not concerned with arriving at a precise or all-encompassing definition of family business or with differentiat- ing this type of enterprise from its counterparts. However, development of a standardized instru- ment, like the F-PEC, enables sound compari- sons across investigations and use of measures of family influence as either dependent, indepen- dent, moderating, or mediating variables. Fig- ure 5 shows subscales along with their dimen- sions making up the F-PEC scale. Procedures for Determining the Psychomet- ric Properties of the F-PEC Scale. A team of ex- perts, including academic researchers, family business owners, and practitioners, developed all items forming part of the F-PEC. Development of the scale proceeded through focus group dis- cussions and pilot testing on a number of family business owners. Data relating to the F-PEC were analyzed utilizing principal components and maximum likelihood factor analytic procedures and structural equation modeling techniques. Items demonstrating ambiguity, redundancy, and lack of discriminatory power were eliminated. Dimensions of the F-PEC Measure. Fol- lowing suggestions by Gorsuch (1983), McDonald (1985), and Pedhazur and Pedhazur Schmelkin (1991), both factor analytic methods were used to assess the stability, number, and sim- plicity of factor structures. A cutoff score of r = .40 was considered reasonable for inclusion of a variable in interpretation of a factor (Stevens, 1986; Lambert, Wildt, & Durand, 1991). Items that did not meet the above-mentioned item load- ing criterion and those items that lacked discrimi- natory power were deleted. Psychometric Properties. Internal reliability (consistency) coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) for the F-PEC subscales and overall scale were also deter- mined. Cronbach's alpha assessed the degree to which items making up a factor are intercorrelated or share similarities in their measurement of a par- ticular construct, such as culture. 52 Figure 5. The F-PEC Scale Items that make up the three subscales of the index were then evaluated for unidimensionality and reliability. A unidimensional factor comprises items that share a similar trait or construct. Con- generic measurement models were produced by allowing each item to respond to its underlying concept (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1989). Goodness of fit of a measure was used to assess the degree to which observed data scores are predicted by an estimated model. Results should indicate whether items adequately fit hypothesized mod- els and whether items have acceptable reliabilities (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). External Validity. To demonstrate external validity (i.e., generalizability), the F-PEC was tested on large sample groups (e.g., n > 500) in different countries, including the United States, Germany, Australia, and Britain as well as in Europe. Cross-cultural comparisons also in- volved subjecting the F-PEC to the rigorous sta- tistical procedures outlined previously. Discussion The F-PEC index of family influence on the business provides researchers, for the first time, with a tested standardized instrument that allows integration of different theoretical positions as well as comparisons of different types of data. Once the F-PEC's reliability and validity are demonstrated, it will encourage researchers to conduct more international research on a solid 53 basis, as well as encourage researchers from out- side the family business field to include family business issues in their research. The time so far spent on definition problems might be invested in either pure research of fundamental questions to develop a theoretical framework of family busi- nesses and/or in empirical studies—both cross- national and an in-depth understanding of spe- cial items. In the long run, international studies might lead to a better understanding of national peculiarity, thereby enriching the discussion of researchers, consultants, and family business members so that they can learn from each other and from other nationalities. We also hope that practitioners will regain trust in research results, which might help en- courage and finance further research. Questions concerning family businesses that consultants, family business members, and companies deal- ing with family businesses raise could lead to di- rect projects that don't depend on first having to define family business. At the same time, it would be possible to compare the obtained data with already-existing data that were gained on the same basis. Apart from research implications, the F-PEC will help teachers and scholars of the family busi- ness field to understand the possible ways through which family members and families as an entity gain, loose, or maintain influence on their busi- ness. This will help in the development of agen- das for both university courses and executive courses, emphasizing the management of this family influence on the business in a way that balances family and business needs. Such knowl- edge helps both the family and the business to perform even better. We believe that the F-PEC is only the be- ginning and will help to establish the family busi- ness as an independent research field attracting high-standard researchers and dedicated practi- tioners. References Aronoff, C.E., & Ward, J.L. (1995). Family owned businesses: A thing of the past or a model for the future? Family Business Review, 8(2), 121-130. Barach, J.A., & Ganitsky, J.B. (1995). Successful succession in family business. Family Business Review 8(2), 131-155. Barnes, L.B., & Hershon, S.A. (1976). Transferring power in the business. Harvard Business Review, July-Aug, 105-114. Berry, B. (1975). The development of organization structure in the family firm. Journal of General Management, III(1), 42-60. Birley, S. (1986). Succession in the family firm: The inheritor's view. Journal of Small Business Management, 24(3), 36-43. Burch, P. (1972). Managerial revolution reassessed: Family control in America's largest corporations. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Carlock, R.S., & Ward, J.L. (2001). Strategic planning for the family business-Parallel planing to unify the family and business. Houndsmill, NY: Palgrave. Daily, C.M., & Thompson, S.S. (1994). Ownership structure, strategic posture, and firm growth: An empirical examination. Family Business Review, 7(3), 237-250. Danco, L. (1975). Beyond survival-A business owner's guide for success . Cleveland: The Univerity Press . Dean, S.M. (1992). Characteristics of African American family-owned businesses in Los Angeles. Family Business Review, 5(4), 373-395. Dreux, D.R., IV, & Brown, B.M. (1999). Marketing private banking services to family businesses . Available: http://www.genusresources.com/ Mark.Priv.Bank.Dreux_5.html Gallo, M.A. (2000). Conversation with S. Klein at the IFERA meeting held at Amsterdam University, April 2000. Gorsuch, R.L. (1983). Factor analysis (2nd Ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum . Habbershon, T.G., & Williams, M.L. (1999). A resource-based framework for assessing the strategic advantages of family firms. Family Business Review, 13(1), 1-25. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., & Black, W.C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Handler, W.C. (1989), Methodological issues and considerations in studying family businesses. Family Business Review, 2(3), 257-276. Harris, D., Martinez, J.I., & Ward, J.L. (1994). Is strategy different for the family-owned business ? Family Business Review, 7(2), 159-174. Heck, R.K.Z., & Scannell Trent, E. (1999). The prevalance of family business from a household sample. Family Business Review, 12(3), 209-224. 54 Jöreskog, K.G., & Sörbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7: A Guide to the Program and Application . Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc. Kehr, H. (1996). Die Legitimation von Führung. Published (on microfiche) doctoral dissertation, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. Klein, S.B. (1991). Der Einfluß von Werten auf die Gestaltung von Organisationen. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. Klein, S.B. (2000a). Family businesses in Germany: Significance and structure. Family Business Review, 13(3), 157-181. Klein, S.B. (2000b). Familienunternehmen-Theoretische und empirische Grundlagen. Wiesbaden: Gabler. Lambert, Z., Wildt, A., & Durand, R. (1991). Approximating confidence intervals for factor loadings. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(3), 421-434. Lansberg, I., Perrow, E.L., & Rogolsky, S. (1988). Family business as an emerging field. Family Business Review, 1(1), 1-8. Lazarsfeld, P.F. (1937). Some remarks on the typological procedures in social research. Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 119-139. Lea, J. (1998): What is a family business? More than you think . Available: http://www.bizjournals.com/ triangle/stories/1998/11/02/smallb3.html Littunen, H., & Hyrsky, K. (2000). The early entrepreneurial stage in Finish family and nonfamily firms. Family Business Review, 13(1), 41-54. Litz, R.A. (1995). The family business: Toward definitional clarity . Family Business Review, 8(2), 71-81. McDonald, R.P. (1985). Factor analysis and related methods. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Monsen, J. (1996). Ownership and management: The effect of separation on performance. In C. E., Aronoff, J. H. Astrachan, & J. L. Ward (Eds.), Family Business Sourcebook II (pp. 26-33). Marietta, GA: Business Owner Resources. Neubauer, F., & Lank, A.G. (1998). The family business-1st governance for sustainability . London: MacMillan. Pedhazur, E., & Pedhazur Schmelkin L. (1991). Measurement, design, and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Poza, E.J. & Messer, T. (2001): Spousal leadership and continuity in the family firm. Family Business Review, 14(1), 25-36. Schnell, R., Hill, P.B., & Esser, E. (1995). Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung (5th completely revised edition). München , Wien: R.Oldenbourg. Shanker, M.C., & Astrachan, J.H. (1996). Myths and realities: Family businesses' contribution to the US economy-A framework for assessing family business statistics. Family Business Review, 9(2), 107-119. Smyrnios, K. X., Tanewski, G. A., & Romano, C. A. (1998). Development of a measure of the characteristics of family business. Family Business Review, 11(1), 49-60. Stevens, J. (1986). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd Ed.). Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum. Ward, J.L. (1988). The special role of strategic planning for family businesses. Family Business Review, 1(2), 105-117. Ward, J.L. (1987). Keeping the family business healthy: How to plan for continuing growth profitability and family leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wortman, M.S. (1995). Critical issues in family business: An international perspective of practice and research. Proceedings of the 40th International Council for Small Business Research Conference. Sydney: NCP Printing, University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia. We would like to thank the participants of the 2000 (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) and 2001 (INSEAD, Fontainebleau) International Family Enterprise Research Academy for their valuable, pro- vocative, and challenging thoughts and comments. 55 Appendix. F-PEC Questionnaire 56 Astrachan, Klein, Smyrnios 57 Definitions 58 We thank you very much for your support!</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front><back><notes><p><list list-type="order"><list-item><p>1 This paper is seeded in the thoughts of the first named author, though these early ideas were fully realized only following the second meeting of the International Family Enterprise Academy in Amsterdam in 2000. Since this time, a number of discussions have been held on this topic and researchers around the world (e.g., Germany, United States, Australia) have begun an international collaboration on this research. The operationalization of family vs. nonfamily enterprises has been a matter of concern from the very beginning of family business research. In most studies, the categorization of firms has culminated in the use of the classification as an independent variable. 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This proposed method, utilizing a standardized and valid instrument— the F-PEC—enables the assessment of family influence on a continuous scale rather than restrict its use as a categorical (e.g., yesqno) variable. The F-PEC comprises three subscales: power, experience, and culture. This article discusses these scales in detail.</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Family Business Review</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0894-4865</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1741-6248</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">FBR</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spfbr</identifier><part><date>2002</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>15</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>45</start><end>58</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">6AF6FC5F4A8BC4D24D7C3C467E704251762FA318</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1111/j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1111_j.1741-6248.2002.00045.x</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource>SAGE</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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