Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow
Identifieur interne : 000A42 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000A41; suivant : 000A43Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow
Auteurs : Thomas C. Grenfell ; Stephen G. Warren ; Vladimir F. Radionov ; Vladimir N. Makarov ; Sergei A. ZimovSource :
- Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union [ 0096-3941 ] ; 2009-10-27.
Abstract
Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [Warren and Wiscombe, 1985; Clarke and Noone, 1985]. An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004].
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DOI: 10.1029/2009EO430002
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ISTEX:182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71Le document en format XML
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Radionov</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Makarov, Vladimir N" sort="Makarov, Vladimir N" uniqKey="Makarov V" first="Vladimir N." last="Makarov">Vladimir N. Makarov</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Zimov, Sergei A" sort="Zimov, Sergei A" uniqKey="Zimov S" first="Sergei A." last="Zimov">Sergei A. 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Grenfell</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Warren, Stephen G" sort="Warren, Stephen G" uniqKey="Warren S" first="Stephen G." last="Warren">Stephen G. Warren</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Radionov, Vladimir F" sort="Radionov, Vladimir F" uniqKey="Radionov V" first="Vladimir F." last="Radionov">Vladimir F. Radionov</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Makarov, Vladimir N" sort="Makarov, Vladimir N" uniqKey="Makarov V" first="Vladimir N." last="Makarov">Vladimir N. Makarov</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Zimov, Sergei A" sort="Zimov, Sergei A" uniqKey="Zimov S" first="Sergei A." last="Zimov">Sergei A. Zimov</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>North-East Scientific Station, Pacific Institute for Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Cherskiy, Russia</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j">Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union</title><title level="j" type="abbrev">Eos Trans. AGU</title><idno type="ISSN">0096-3941</idno><idno type="eISSN">2324-9250</idno><imprint><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><date type="published" when="2009-10-27">2009-10-27</date><biblScope unit="volume">90</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">43</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="386">386</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="387">387</biblScope></imprint><idno type="ISSN">0096-3941</idno></series><idno type="istex">182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1029/2009EO430002</idno><idno type="ArticleID">EOST16979</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc><seriesStmt><idno type="ISSN">0096-3941</idno></seriesStmt></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract">Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [Warren and Wiscombe, 1985; Clarke and Noone, 1985]. An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004].</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>wiley</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Thomas C. Grenfell</name><affiliations><json:string>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Stephen G. Warren</name><affiliations><json:string>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Vladimir F. Radionov</name><affiliations><json:string>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Vladimir N. Makarov</name><affiliations><json:string>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Sergei A. Zimov</name><affiliations><json:string>North-East Scientific Station, Pacific Institute for Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Cherskiy, Russia</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><subject><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>northern Russia</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>soot</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>snow</value></json:item></subject><articleId><json:string>EOST16979</json:string></articleId><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>shortCommunication</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [Warren and Wiscombe, 1985; Clarke and Noone, 1985]. An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004].</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>4.212</score><pdfVersion>1.4</pdfVersion><pdfPageSize>612 x 792 pts (letter)</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractCharCount>1079</abstractCharCount><pdfWordCount>1480</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>9491</pdfCharCount><pdfPageCount>2</pdfPageCount><abstractWordCount>186</abstractWordCount></qualityIndicators><title>Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title><refBibs><json:item><author><json:item><name>T. C. Bond</name></json:item><json:item><name>R. W. Bergstrom</name></json:item></author><host><volume>40</volume><pages><last>67</last><first>27</first></pages><author></author><title>Aerosol Sci. Technol.</title></host><title>Light absorption by carbonaceous particles: An investigative review</title></json:item><json:item><author><json:item><name>A. D. Clarke</name></json:item><json:item><name>K. J. Noone</name></json:item></author><host><volume>19</volume><pages><last>2053</last><first>2045</first></pages><author></author><title>Atmos. Environ.</title></host><title>Soot in the Arctic snowpack: A cause for perturbations in radiative transfer</title></json:item><json:item><author><json:item><name>J. Hansen</name></json:item><json:item><name>L. Nazarenko</name></json:item></author><host><volume>101</volume><pages><last>428</last><first>423</first></pages><author></author><title>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.</title></host><title>Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos</title></json:item><json:item><author><json:item><name>D. A. Hegg</name></json:item><json:item><name>S. G. Warren</name></json:item><json:item><name>T. C. Grenfell</name></json:item><json:item><name>S. J. 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Wiscombe</name></json:item></author><host><volume>313</volume><pages><last>470</last><first>467</first></pages><author></author><title>Nature</title></host><title>Dirty snow after nuclear war</title></json:item></refBibs><genre><json:string>brief-communication</json:string></genre><host><volume>90</volume><publisherId><json:string>EOST</json:string></publisherId><pages><total>2</total><last>387</last><first>386</first></pages><issn><json:string>0096-3941</json:string></issn><issue>43</issue><subject><json:item><value>CRYOSPHERE</value></json:item><json:item><value>Snow</value></json:item><json:item><value>Contaminants</value></json:item><json:item><value>Distribution</value></json:item></subject><genre><json:string>journal</json:string></genre><language><json:string>unknown</json:string></language><eissn><json:string>2324-9250</json:string></eissn><title>Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union</title><doi><json:string>10.1002/(ISSN)2324-9250</json:string></doi></host><categories><wos></wos><scienceMetrix><json:string>natural sciences</json:string><json:string>earth & environmental sciences</json:string><json:string>meteorology & atmospheric sciences</json:string></scienceMetrix></categories><publicationDate>2009</publicationDate><copyrightDate>2009</copyrightDate><doi><json:string>10.1029/2009EO430002</json:string></doi><id>182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71</id><score>0.039139073</score><fulltext><json:item><extension>pdf</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>application/pdf</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71/fulltext/pdf</uri></json:item><json:item><extension>zip</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/zip</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71/fulltext/zip</uri></json:item><istex:fulltextTEI uri="https://api.istex.fr/document/182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71/fulltext/tei"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><authority>ISTEX</authority><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><availability><p>©2009. 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All Rights Reserved.</p></availability><date>2009</date></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title><author xml:id="author-1"><persName><forename type="first">Thomas C.</forename><surname>Grenfell</surname></persName><affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-2"><persName><forename type="first">Stephen G.</forename><surname>Warren</surname></persName><affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-3"><persName><forename type="first">Vladimir F.</forename><surname>Radionov</surname></persName><affiliation>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-4"><persName><forename type="first">Vladimir N.</forename><surname>Makarov</surname></persName><affiliation>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-5"><persName><forename type="first">Sergei A.</forename><surname>Zimov</surname></persName><affiliation>North-East Scientific Station, Pacific Institute for Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Cherskiy, Russia</affiliation></author></analytic><monogr><title level="j">Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union</title><title level="j" type="abbrev">Eos Trans. AGU</title><idno type="pISSN">0096-3941</idno><idno type="eISSN">2324-9250</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1002/(ISSN)2324-9250</idno><imprint><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><date type="published" when="2009-10-27"></date><biblScope unit="volume">90</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">43</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="386">386</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="387">387</biblScope></imprint></monogr><idno type="istex">182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1029/2009EO430002</idno><idno type="ArticleID">EOST16979</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><creation><date>2009</date></creation><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage><abstract><p>Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [Warren and Wiscombe, 1985; Clarke and Noone, 1985]. An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004].</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="keyword"><list><head>keywords</head><item><term>northern Russia</term></item><item><term>soot</term></item><item><term>snow</term></item></list></keywords></textClass><textClass><keywords scheme="Journal Subject"><list><head>index-terms</head><item><term>CRYOSPHERE</term></item><item><term>Snow</term></item><item><term>Contaminants</term></item><item><term>Distribution</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2009-10-27">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="Wiley, elements deleted: body"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:document><component type="serialArticle" version="2.0" xml:lang="en" xml:id="eost16979"><header><publicationMeta level="product"><doi>10.1002/(ISSN)2324-9250</doi><issn type="print">0096-3941</issn><issn type="electronic">2324-9250</issn><idGroup><id type="product" value="EOST"></id><id type="coden" value="ETAGCT"></id></idGroup><titleGroup><title type="main" xml:lang="en" sort="EOS, TRANSACTIONS AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION">Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union</title><title type="short">Eos Trans. 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All Rights Reserved.</copyright><eventGroup><event type="firstOnline" date="2011-06-03"></event><event type="publishedOnlineFinalForm" date="2011-06-03"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="SPi Global Converter:AGUv1.0_TO_WileyML3Gv1.0.3 version:1.2" date="2012-11-12"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WILEY_ML3G_TO_WILEY_ML3GV2 version:3.8.8" date="2014-01-25"></event><event type="xmlConverted" agent="Converter:WML3G_To_WML3G version:4.1.7 mode:FullText,remove_FC" date="2014-10-16"></event></eventGroup><numberingGroup><numbering type="pageFirst">386</numbering><numbering type="pageLast">387</numbering></numberingGroup><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0700">CRYOSPHERE</subject><subjectInfo><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0736">Snow</subject><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0792">Contaminants</subject><subject href="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0772">Distribution</subject></subjectInfo></subjectInfo><selfCitationGroup><citation xml:id="eost16979-cit-0000" type="self"><author><familyName>Grenfell</familyName>, <givenNames>T. C.</givenNames></author>, <author><givenNames>S. G.</givenNames> <familyName>Warren</familyName></author>, <author><givenNames>V. F.</givenNames> <familyName>Radionov</familyName></author>, <author><givenNames>V. N.</givenNames> <familyName>Makarov</familyName></author>, and <author><givenNames>S. A.</givenNames> <familyName>Zimov</familyName></author> (<pubYear year="2009">2009</pubYear>), <articleTitle>Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</articleTitle>, <journalTitle>Eos Trans. AGU</journalTitle>, <vol>90</vol>(<issue>43</issue>), <pageFirst>386</pageFirst>–<pageLast>387</pageLast>, doi:<accessionId ref="info:doi/10.1029/2009EO430002">10.1029/2009EO430002</accessionId>.</citation></selfCitationGroup><linkGroup><link type="toTypesetVersion" href="file:EOST.EOST16979.pdf"></link></linkGroup></publicationMeta><contentMeta><titleGroup><title type="main">Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title><title type="shortAuthors">Grenfell ET AL.</title></titleGroup><creators><creator xml:id="eost16979-cr-0001" affiliationRef="#eost16979-aff-0001"><personName><givenNames>Thomas C.</givenNames><familyName>Grenfell</familyName></personName></creator><creator xml:id="eost16979-cr-0002" affiliationRef="#eost16979-aff-0001"><personName><givenNames>Stephen G.</givenNames><familyName>Warren</familyName></personName></creator><creator xml:id="eost16979-cr-0003" affiliationRef="#eost16979-aff-0002"><personName><givenNames>Vladimir F.</givenNames><familyName>Radionov</familyName></personName></creator><creator xml:id="eost16979-cr-0004" affiliationRef="#eost16979-aff-0003"><personName><givenNames>Vladimir N.</givenNames><familyName>Makarov</familyName></personName></creator><creator xml:id="eost16979-cr-0005" affiliationRef="#eost16979-aff-0004"><personName><givenNames>Sergei A.</givenNames><familyName>Zimov</familyName></personName></creator></creators><affiliationGroup><affiliation xml:id="eost16979-aff-0001" type="organization"><unparsedAffiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation><affiliation xml:id="eost16979-aff-0002" type="organization"><unparsedAffiliation>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation><affiliation xml:id="eost16979-aff-0003" type="organization"><unparsedAffiliation>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation><affiliation xml:id="eost16979-aff-0004" type="organization"><unparsedAffiliation>North-East Scientific Station, Pacific Institute for Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Cherskiy, Russia</unparsedAffiliation></affiliation></affiliationGroup><keywordGroup type="author"><keyword xml:id="eost16979-kwd-0001">northern Russia</keyword><keyword xml:id="eost16979-kwd-0002">soot</keyword><keyword xml:id="eost16979-kwd-0003">snow</keyword></keywordGroup><abstractGroup><abstract type="main"><p xml:id="eost16979-para-0001">Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [<i>Warren and Wiscombe</i>, 1985; <i>Clarke and Noone</i>, 1985].</p><p xml:id="eost16979-para-0002">An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [<i>Hansen and Nazarenko</i>, 2004].</p></abstract></abstractGroup></contentMeta></header></component></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" contentType="CDATA" lang="en"><title>Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Thomas C.</namePart><namePart type="family">Grenfell</namePart><affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Stephen G.</namePart><namePart type="family">Warren</namePart><affiliation>Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Vladimir F.</namePart><namePart type="family">Radionov</namePart><affiliation>Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Vladimir N.</namePart><namePart type="family">Makarov</namePart><affiliation>Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk, Russia</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Sergei A.</namePart><namePart type="family">Zimov</namePart><affiliation>North-East Scientific Station, Pacific Institute for Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Cherskiy, Russia</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="brief-communication" displayLabel="shortCommunication"></genre><originInfo><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2009-10-27</dateIssued><edition>Grenfell, T. C., S. G. Warren, V. F. Radionov, V. N. Makarov, and S. A. Zimov (2009), Expeditions to the Russian Arctic to Survey Black Carbon in Snow, Eos Trans. AGU, 90(43), 386–387, doi:10.1029/2009EO430002.</edition><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2009</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract>Snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth, with an albedo (the ratio of reflected to incident light) typically between 70% and 85%. Because the albedo of snow is so high, it can be reduced by small amounts of dark impurities. Black carbon (BC) in amounts of a few tens of parts per billion (ppb) can reduce the albedo by a few percent depending on the snow grain size [Warren and Wiscombe, 1985; Clarke and Noone, 1985]. An albedo reduction of a few percent is not detectable by eye and is below the accuracy of satellite observations. Nonetheless, such a reduction is significant for climate. For a typical incident solar flux of 240 watts per square meter at the snow surface in the Arctic during spring and summer, an albedo change of 1% modifies the absorbed energy flux by an amount comparable to current anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing. As a result, higher levels of BC could cause the snow to melt sooner in the spring, uncovering darker underlying surfaces (tundra and sea ice) and resulting in a positive feedback on climate [Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004].</abstract><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>northern Russia</topic><topic>soot</topic><topic>snow</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="abbreviated"><title>Eos Trans. AGU</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><subject><genre>index-terms</genre><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0700">CRYOSPHERE</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0736">Snow</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0792">Contaminants</topic><topic authorityURI="http://psi.agu.org/taxonomy5/0772">Distribution</topic></subject><identifier type="ISSN">0096-3941</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">2324-9250</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1002/(ISSN)2324-9250</identifier><identifier type="CODEN">ETAGCT</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">EOST</identifier><part><date>2009</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>90</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>43</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>386</start><end>387</end><total>2</total></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">182D1EEF8928CDFC68EF9426F1E5D11849821B71</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1029/2009EO430002</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">EOST16979</identifier><accessCondition type="use and reproduction" contentType="copyright">©2009. 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