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New Claims for Wild Carrot (Daucus carota subsp. carota) Essential Oil

Identifieur interne : 001F63 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 001F62; suivant : 001F64

New Claims for Wild Carrot (Daucus carota subsp. carota) Essential Oil

Auteurs : Jorge M. Alves-Silva [Portugal] ; M Nica Zuzarte [Portugal] ; Maria José Gonçalves [Portugal] ; Carlos Cavaleiro [Portugal] ; Maria Teresa Cruz [Portugal] ; Susana M. Cardoso [Portugal] ; Lígia Salgueiro [Portugal]

Source :

RBID : PMC:4769755

Abstract

The essential oil of Daucus carota subsp. carota from Portugal, with high amounts of geranyl acetate (29.0%), α-pinene (27.2%), and 11αH-himachal-4-en-1β-ol (9.2%), was assessed for its biological potential. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes, and Aspergillus strains. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal lethal concentration (MLC) were evaluated showing a significant activity towards Gram-positive bacteria (MIC = 0.32–0.64 μL/mL), Cryptococcus neoformans (0.16 μL/mL), and dermatophytes (0.32–0.64 μL/mL). The inhibition of the germ tube formation and the effect of the oil on Candida albicans biofilms were also unveiled. The oil inhibited more than 50% of filamentation at concentrations as low as 0.04 μL/mL (MIC/128) and decreased both biofilm mass and cell viability. The antioxidant capacity of the oil, as assessed by two in chemico methods, was not relevant. Still, it seems to exhibit some anti-inflammatory potential by decreasing nitric oxide production around 20% in LPS-stimulated macrophages, without decreasing macrophages viability. Moreover, the oils safety profile was assessed on keratinocytes, alveolar epithelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes. Overall, the oil demonstrated a safety profile at concentrations below 0.64 μL/mL. The present work highlights the bioactive potential of D. carota subsp. carota suggesting its industrial exploitation.


Url:
DOI: 10.1155/2016/9045196
PubMed: 26981143
PubMed Central: 4769755

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PMC:4769755

Le document en format XML

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<italic> carota</italic>
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<name sortKey="Alves Silva, Jorge M" sort="Alves Silva, Jorge M" uniqKey="Alves Silva J" first="Jorge M." last="Alves-Silva">Jorge M. Alves-Silva</name>
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<name sortKey="Cruz, Maria Teresa" sort="Cruz, Maria Teresa" uniqKey="Cruz M" first="Maria Teresa" last="Cruz">Maria Teresa Cruz</name>
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<name sortKey="Salgueiro, Ligia" sort="Salgueiro, Ligia" uniqKey="Salgueiro L" first="Lígia" last="Salgueiro">Lígia Salgueiro</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1">
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<series>
<title level="j">Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM</title>
<idno type="ISSN">1741-427X</idno>
<idno type="eISSN">1741-4288</idno>
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<div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">
<p>The essential oil of
<italic> Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
from Portugal, with high amounts of geranyl acetate (29.0%),
<italic>α</italic>
-pinene (27.2%), and 11
<italic>α</italic>
H-himachal-4-en-1
<italic>β</italic>
-ol (9.2%), was assessed for its biological potential. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes, and
<italic> Aspergillus</italic>
strains. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal lethal concentration (MLC) were evaluated showing a significant activity towards Gram-positive bacteria (MIC = 0.32–0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL),
<italic> Cryptococcus neoformans</italic>
(0.16 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL), and dermatophytes (0.32–0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL). The inhibition of the germ tube formation and the effect of the oil on
<italic> Candida albicans</italic>
biofilms were also unveiled. The oil inhibited more than 50% of filamentation at concentrations as low as 0.04 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL (MIC/128) and decreased both biofilm mass and cell viability. The antioxidant capacity of the oil, as assessed by two
<italic> in chemico</italic>
methods, was not relevant. Still, it seems to exhibit some anti-inflammatory potential by decreasing nitric oxide production around 20% in LPS-stimulated macrophages, without decreasing macrophages viability. Moreover, the oils safety profile was assessed on keratinocytes, alveolar epithelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes. Overall, the oil demonstrated a safety profile at concentrations below 0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL. The present work highlights the bioactive potential of
<italic> D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
suggesting its industrial exploitation.</p>
</div>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="research-article">
<pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Evid Based Complement Alternat Med</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Evid Based Complement Alternat Med</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ECAM</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1741-427X</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1741-4288</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Hindawi Publishing Corporation</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmid">26981143</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4769755</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2016/9045196</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Research Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>New Claims for Wild Carrot (
<italic>Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
) Essential Oil</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Alves-Silva</surname>
<given-names>Jorge M.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Zuzarte</surname>
<given-names>Mónica</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1">
<sup>*</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Gonçalves</surname>
<given-names>Maria José</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Cavaleiro</surname>
<given-names>Carlos</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Cruz</surname>
<given-names>Maria Teresa</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Cardoso</surname>
<given-names>Susana M.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="false">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0948-821X</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Salgueiro</surname>
<given-names>Lígia</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="I1">
<sup>1</sup>
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de S. Comba, 3000-354 Coimbra, Portugal</aff>
<aff id="I2">
<sup>2</sup>
Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal</aff>
<aff id="I3">
<sup>3</sup>
Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de S. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal</aff>
<aff id="I4">
<sup>4</sup>
Department of Chemistry & QOPNA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="cor1">*Mónica Zuzarte:
<email>mzuzarte@uc.pt</email>
</corresp>
<fn fn-type="other">
<p>Academic Editor: Hajime Nakae</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub">
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>14</day>
<month>2</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="pmc-release">
<day>14</day>
<month>2</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on the . </pmc-comment>
<volume>2016</volume>
<elocation-id>9045196</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>13</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2015</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>14</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2015</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>15</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2015</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright © 2016 Jorge M. Alves-Silva et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2016</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<p>The essential oil of
<italic> Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
from Portugal, with high amounts of geranyl acetate (29.0%),
<italic>α</italic>
-pinene (27.2%), and 11
<italic>α</italic>
H-himachal-4-en-1
<italic>β</italic>
-ol (9.2%), was assessed for its biological potential. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes, and
<italic> Aspergillus</italic>
strains. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal lethal concentration (MLC) were evaluated showing a significant activity towards Gram-positive bacteria (MIC = 0.32–0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL),
<italic> Cryptococcus neoformans</italic>
(0.16 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL), and dermatophytes (0.32–0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL). The inhibition of the germ tube formation and the effect of the oil on
<italic> Candida albicans</italic>
biofilms were also unveiled. The oil inhibited more than 50% of filamentation at concentrations as low as 0.04 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL (MIC/128) and decreased both biofilm mass and cell viability. The antioxidant capacity of the oil, as assessed by two
<italic> in chemico</italic>
methods, was not relevant. Still, it seems to exhibit some anti-inflammatory potential by decreasing nitric oxide production around 20% in LPS-stimulated macrophages, without decreasing macrophages viability. Moreover, the oils safety profile was assessed on keratinocytes, alveolar epithelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes. Overall, the oil demonstrated a safety profile at concentrations below 0.64 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL. The present work highlights the bioactive potential of
<italic> D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
suggesting its industrial exploitation.</p>
</abstract>
</article-meta>
</front>
<floats-group>
<fig id="fig1" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<p>Biofilm biomass after treatment with
<italic> D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
essential oil, using the crystal violet assay. Biofilm biomass was determined using the formula (Abs
<sub>620</sub>
sample/Abs
<sub>620</sub>
control)
<italic></italic>
100. Results are shown as mean ± standard deviation of at least three independent determinations carried out in duplicate.
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.001,
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.0001, compared to control using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test. Control (100%) corresponds to an absorbance mean value of 1.587.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="ECAM2016-9045196.001"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="fig2" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<p>Biofilm viability after treatment with
<italic> D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
essential oil using the XTT viability assay. Results are shown as mean ± standard deviation of at least three independent determinations carried out in duplicate.
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.05,
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.01, and
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.001, compared to control using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test. Control (100%) corresponds to an absorbance mean value of 0.621.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="ECAM2016-9045196.002"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="fig3" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<p>NO scavenging activity of
<italic> Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
essential oil. Different concentrations of essential oil (1.25–0.08 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL) were incubated with the NO donor, SNAP (100 mM), in culture medium for 3 h. Results are shown as mean ± SEM of three independent assays, done in duplicate.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="ECAM2016-9045196.003"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="fig4" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<p>Anti-inflammatory effect of
<italic> Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic> carota</italic>
in LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 macrophages: (a) NO production and (b) cell viability. Macrophages were treated with essential oil (1.25–0.08 
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL) for 1 h prior to LPS (1 
<italic>μ</italic>
g/mL) activation and further incubated for 24 h. NO release was determined in the supernatants of the cultures using the Griess reagent (a) and cell viability was assessed on adherent cells using the resazurin reagent and expressed as percentage of cell viability by control cells (b). Results are shown as mean ± SEM of at least three independent assays. (
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.05;
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.01;
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.0001, compared to LPS). Cell viability control (100%) corresponds to an absorbance mean value of 0.435.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="ECAM2016-9045196.004"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="tab1" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<p>Composition of the essential oil of
<italic>Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RI
<sup>a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RI
<sup>p</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Compounds
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">%</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">922</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1030</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>α</italic>
-Thujene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">t</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">930</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1030</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>α</italic>
-Pinene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">943</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1073</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Camphene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">964</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sabinene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">970</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1118</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>β</italic>
-Pinene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">980</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1161</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Myrcene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1006</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1185</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>α</italic>
-Terpinene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">t</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1013</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1272</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>p</italic>
-Cymene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1020</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1206</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Limonene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1025</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1235</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Z</italic>
-
<italic>β</italic>
-Ocimene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1035</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1250</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>E</italic>
-
<italic>β</italic>
-Ocimene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1047</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1250</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>γ-</italic>
Terpinene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1081</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1543</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Linalool</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">t</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1158</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1595</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Terpinen-4-ol</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1176</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1699</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Verbenone</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1233</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1838</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Geraniol</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1266</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1574</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bornyl acetate</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1345</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1466</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>α</italic>
-Longipene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1362</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1753</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Geranyl acetate</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1411</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1590</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>E</italic>
-
<italic>β</italic>
-Caryophyllene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1443</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1660</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>α</italic>
-Humulene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1459</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2172</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(
<italic>E</italic>
)
<italic>-</italic>
Methyl isoeugenol</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1466</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1699</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Germacrene D</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1488</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1699</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>β</italic>
-Himachalene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1498</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1720</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>β</italic>
-Bisabolene</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1557</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1968</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Caryophyllene oxide</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1581</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2001</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Carotol</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1623</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2089</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11
<italic>α</italic>
H-Himachal-4-en-1
<italic>β</italic>
-ol</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">
<hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Monoterpene hydrocarbons</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">46.6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oxygen containing monoterpenes</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oxygen containing sesquiterpenes</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15.6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Others</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">
<hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">96.6</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
Compounds listed in order to their elution on the SPB-1 column.</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>t: traces (≤0.05%).</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>RI
<sup>a</sup>
: retention indices on the SPB-1 column relative to C
<sub>8</sub>
to C
<sub>24</sub>
  
<italic>n</italic>
-alkanes.</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>RI
<sup>p</sup>
: retention indices on the SupelcoWax-10 column relative to C
<sub>8</sub>
to C
<sub>24</sub>
  
<italic>n</italic>
-alkanes.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tab2" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<p>Antibacterial activity (MIC and MLC) of
<italic>D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
essential oil.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Strains</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Essential oil</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Ampicillin</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MIC
<sup>a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MLC
<sup>a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MIC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MLC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gram-positive</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic>
ATCC 6633</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.06</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.025</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Listeria monocytogenes</italic>
CBISA 3183</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>
ATCC 6538</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.25</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gram-negative</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Escherichia coli</italic>
ATCC 25922</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Salmonella typhimurium</italic>
ATCC 14028</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>MIC and MLC were determined by a macrodilution method and expressed in
<sup>a</sup>
<italic>μ</italic>
L/mL and in
<sup>b</sup>
<italic>μ</italic>
g/mL.</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>Results were obtained from three independent experiments performed in duplicate.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tab3" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption>
<p>Antifungal activity (MIC and MLC) of
<italic>Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
essential oil for
<italic>Candida</italic>
spp.,
<italic>Cryptococcus neoformans</italic>
, dermatophyte, and
<italic>Aspergillus</italic>
strains.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Strains</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Essential oil</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Fluconazole</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Amphotericin</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MIC
<sup>a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MLC
<sup>a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MIC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MLC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MIC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MLC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida albicans </italic>
ATCC 10231</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida guilliermondii </italic>
MAT23</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida krusei </italic>
H9</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64–128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida parapsilosis </italic>
ATCC 90018</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida tropicalis </italic>
ATCC 13803</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Cryptococcus neoformans </italic>
CECT 1078</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Epidermophyton floccosum </italic>
FF9</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Microsporum canis </italic>
FF1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Microsporum gypseum </italic>
CECT 2908</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Trichophyton mentagrophytes </italic>
FF7</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16–32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32–64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Trichophyton mentagrophytes </italic>
var.
<italic>interdigitale </italic>
CECT 2958</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.25</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Trichophyton rubrum </italic>
CECT 2794</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Trichophyton verrucosum </italic>
CECT 2992</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>128</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Aspergillus flavus </italic>
F44</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Aspergillus fumigatus </italic>
ATCC 46645</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Aspergillus niger </italic>
ATCC 16404</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.25</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>10</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NT</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-2</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>MIC and MLC were determined by a macrodilution method and expressed in
<sup>a</sup>
<italic>µ</italic>
L/mL and in
<sup>b</sup>
<italic>µ</italic>
g/mL.</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>Results were obtained from three independent determinations performed in duplicate.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tab4" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption>
<p>Influence of subinhibitory concentrations of the essential oil of
<italic>Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
on germ tube formation of
<italic>C. albicans</italic>
ATCC 10231. </p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Essential oil concentration</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Candida albicans </italic>
ATCC 10231</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(
<italic>µ</italic>
L/mL)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(% of filamentous cells)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.00 (control)
<sup>a</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100.00 ± 0.00</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.00 (MIC)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.00 ± 0.00</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.50 (MIC/2)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.59 ± 1.0 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.25 (MIC/4)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.88 ± 1.54</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64 (MIC/8)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.63 ± 2.82 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32 (MIC/16)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.52 ± 4.36 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.16 (MIC/32)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.90 ± 1.25 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.08 (MIC/64)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.49 ± 10.89</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04 (MIC/128)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44.44 ± 8.60 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02 (MIC/256)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">68.54 ± 5.09</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>
<sup>a</sup>
Samples with 1% (v/v) DMSO.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tab5" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 5</label>
<caption>
<p>Antioxidant analysis of
<italic>D. carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
essential oil.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sample</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ABTS
<sup>•+a</sup>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ORAC
<sup>b</sup>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Essential oil</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1924.25</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.13</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Trolox</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.53</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>
<sup>a</sup>
Values expressed as IC
<sub>50</sub>
(
<italic>µ</italic>
g/mL).</p>
</fn>
<fn>
<p>
<sup>b</sup>
Values expressed as
<italic>µ</italic>
mol TE/mg.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tab6" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<label>Table 6</label>
<caption>
<p>Effect of
<italic>Daucus carota</italic>
subsp.
<italic>carota</italic>
essential oil on cell lines viability.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Essential oil</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Macrophages</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epithelial alveolar</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hepatocytes</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Keratinocytes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(
<italic>µ</italic>
L/mL)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Raw 264.7 (%)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> cells A549 (%)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HepG2 (%)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HaCaT (%)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.00 (control)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100 ± 0.0</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100 ± 0.0</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100 ± 0.0</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100 ± 0.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.25</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.01 ± 9.01
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64.25 ± 4.66
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34.54 ± 4.92
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">55.76 ± 5.03
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">92.83 ± 1.04</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86.25 ± 5.78</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60.73 ± 6.51
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.30 ± 0.54
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.32</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">123.60 ± 15.28</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">110.60 ± 5.72</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.40 ± 5.49</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">85.21 ± 2.35
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.16</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">141.50 ± 14.56
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">130.80 ± 9.96
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">108.80 ± 4.81</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.44 ± 2.94</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.08</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">154.60 ± 15.55
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">201.90 ± 19.43
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">122.60 ± 10.43
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">104.23 ± 2.10</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn>
<p>Results expressed as percentage of resazurin reduction compared to control cells maintained in culture medium. Each value represents mean ± SEM of at least three independent experiments done in duplicate. Statistical differences compared to control cells (
<sup>
<italic></italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.05,
<sup>
<italic>∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.01,
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.001, and
<sup>
<italic>∗∗∗∗</italic>
</sup>
<italic>p</italic>
< 0.0001 using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test).</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</floats-group>
</pmc>
<affiliations>
<list>
<country>
<li>Portugal</li>
</country>
</list>
<tree>
<country name="Portugal">
<noRegion>
<name sortKey="Alves Silva, Jorge M" sort="Alves Silva, Jorge M" uniqKey="Alves Silva J" first="Jorge M." last="Alves-Silva">Jorge M. Alves-Silva</name>
</noRegion>
<name sortKey="Cardoso, Susana M" sort="Cardoso, Susana M" uniqKey="Cardoso S" first="Susana M." last="Cardoso">Susana M. Cardoso</name>
<name sortKey="Cavaleiro, Carlos" sort="Cavaleiro, Carlos" uniqKey="Cavaleiro C" first="Carlos" last="Cavaleiro">Carlos Cavaleiro</name>
<name sortKey="Cavaleiro, Carlos" sort="Cavaleiro, Carlos" uniqKey="Cavaleiro C" first="Carlos" last="Cavaleiro">Carlos Cavaleiro</name>
<name sortKey="Cruz, Maria Teresa" sort="Cruz, Maria Teresa" uniqKey="Cruz M" first="Maria Teresa" last="Cruz">Maria Teresa Cruz</name>
<name sortKey="Cruz, Maria Teresa" sort="Cruz, Maria Teresa" uniqKey="Cruz M" first="Maria Teresa" last="Cruz">Maria Teresa Cruz</name>
<name sortKey="Goncalves, Maria Jose" sort="Goncalves, Maria Jose" uniqKey="Goncalves M" first="Maria José" last="Gonçalves">Maria José Gonçalves</name>
<name sortKey="Goncalves, Maria Jose" sort="Goncalves, Maria Jose" uniqKey="Goncalves M" first="Maria José" last="Gonçalves">Maria José Gonçalves</name>
<name sortKey="Salgueiro, Ligia" sort="Salgueiro, Ligia" uniqKey="Salgueiro L" first="Lígia" last="Salgueiro">Lígia Salgueiro</name>
<name sortKey="Salgueiro, Ligia" sort="Salgueiro, Ligia" uniqKey="Salgueiro L" first="Lígia" last="Salgueiro">Lígia Salgueiro</name>
<name sortKey="Zuzarte, M Nica" sort="Zuzarte, M Nica" uniqKey="Zuzarte M" first="M Nica" last="Zuzarte">M Nica Zuzarte</name>
<name sortKey="Zuzarte, M Nica" sort="Zuzarte, M Nica" uniqKey="Zuzarte M" first="M Nica" last="Zuzarte">M Nica Zuzarte</name>
</country>
</tree>
</affiliations>
</record>

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