S3: School Zone Safety System Based on Wireless Sensor Network
Identifieur interne : 000793 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 000792; suivant : 000794S3: School Zone Safety System Based on Wireless Sensor Network
Auteurs : Seong-Eun Yoo ; Poh Kit Chong ; Daeyoung KimSource :
- Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) [ 1424-8220 ] ; 2009.
Abstract
School zones are areas near schools that have lower speed limits and where illegally parked vehicles pose a threat to school children by obstructing them from the view of drivers. However, these laws are regularly flouted. Thus, we propose a novel wireless sensor network application called School zone Safety System (S3) to help regulate the speed limit and to prevent illegal parking in school zones. S3 detects illegally parked vehicles, and warns the driver and records the license plate number. To reduce the traveling speed of vehicles in a school zone, S3 measures the speed of vehicles and displays the speed to the driver via an LED display, and also captures the image of the speeding vehicle with a speed camera. We developed a state machine based vehicle detection algorithm for S3. From extensive experiments in our testbeds and data from a real school zone, it is shown that the system can detect all kinds of vehicles, and has an accuracy of over 95% for speed measurement. We modeled the battery life time of a sensor node and validated the model with a downscaled measurement; we estimate the battery life time to be over 2 years. We have deployed S3 in 15 school zones in 2007, and we have demonstrated the robustness of S3 by operating them for over 1 year.
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/s90805968
PubMed: 22454567
PubMed Central: 3312425
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">S3: School Zone Safety System Based on Wireless Sensor Network</title><author><name sortKey="Yoo, Seong Eun" sort="Yoo, Seong Eun" uniqKey="Yoo S" first="Seong-Eun" last="Yoo">Seong-Eun Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, Poh Kit" sort="Chong, Poh Kit" uniqKey="Chong P" first="Poh Kit" last="Chong">Poh Kit Chong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, Daeyoung" sort="Kim, Daeyoung" uniqKey="Kim D" first="Daeyoung" last="Kim">Daeyoung Kim</name></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">22454567</idno><idno type="pmc">3312425</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3312425</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3312425</idno><idno type="doi">10.3390/s90805968</idno><date when="2009">2009</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000559</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000559</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000559</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">000559</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">000438</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Checkpoint">000438</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Ncbi/Merge">000793</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">S3: School Zone Safety System Based on Wireless Sensor Network</title><author><name sortKey="Yoo, Seong Eun" sort="Yoo, Seong Eun" uniqKey="Yoo S" first="Seong-Eun" last="Yoo">Seong-Eun Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, Poh Kit" sort="Chong, Poh Kit" uniqKey="Chong P" first="Poh Kit" last="Chong">Poh Kit Chong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, Daeyoung" sort="Kim, Daeyoung" uniqKey="Kim D" first="Daeyoung" last="Kim">Daeyoung Kim</name></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</title><idno type="eISSN">1424-8220</idno><imprint><date when="2009">2009</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>School zones are areas near schools that have lower speed limits and where illegally parked vehicles pose a threat to school children by obstructing them from the view of drivers. However, these laws are regularly flouted. Thus, we propose a novel wireless sensor network application called School zone Safety System (S3) to help regulate the speed limit and to prevent illegal parking in school zones. S3 detects illegally parked vehicles, and warns the driver and records the license plate number. To reduce the traveling speed of vehicles in a school zone, S3 measures the speed of vehicles and displays the speed to the driver via an LED display, and also captures the image of the speeding vehicle with a speed camera. We developed a state machine based vehicle detection algorithm for S3. From extensive experiments in our testbeds and data from a real school zone, it is shown that the system can detect all kinds of vehicles, and has an accuracy of over 95% for speed measurement. We modeled the battery life time of a sensor node and validated the model with a downscaled measurement; we estimate the battery life time to be over 2 years. We have deployed S3 in 15 school zones in 2007, and we have demonstrated the robustness of S3 by operating them for over 1 year.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sung, J" uniqKey="Sung J">J. Sung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ahn, S" uniqKey="Ahn S">S. Ahn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Park, T" uniqKey="Park T">T. Park</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jang, S" uniqKey="Jang S">S. Jang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yun, D" uniqKey="Yun D">D. Yun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kang, J" uniqKey="Kang J">J. Kang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yoo, S" uniqKey="Yoo S">S. Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, P K" uniqKey="Chong P">P.K. Chong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, D" uniqKey="Kim D">D. Kim</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yoo, S" uniqKey="Yoo S">S. Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, J" uniqKey="Kim J">J. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, T" uniqKey="Kim T">T. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ahn, S" uniqKey="Ahn S">S. Ahn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sung, J" uniqKey="Sung J">J. Sung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, D" uniqKey="Kim D">D. Kim</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Phan, T" uniqKey="Phan T">T. Phan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kwan, B W" uniqKey="Kwan B">B.W. Kwan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tung, L J" uniqKey="Tung L">L.J. Tung</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kanian, A N" uniqKey="Kanian A">A.N. Kanian</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cheung, Y S" uniqKey="Cheung Y">Y.S. Cheung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coleri, S" uniqKey="Coleri S">S. Coleri</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dundar, B" uniqKey="Dundar B">B. Dundar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ganesh, S" uniqKey="Ganesh S">S. Ganesh</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tan, C" uniqKey="Tan C">C. Tan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Varaiya, P" uniqKey="Varaiya P">P. Varaiya</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cheung, Y S" uniqKey="Cheung Y">Y.S. Cheung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coleri, S" uniqKey="Coleri S">S. Coleri</name></author><author><name sortKey="Varaiya, P" uniqKey="Varaiya P">P. Varaiya</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ding, J" uniqKey="Ding J">J. Ding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yiu, S" uniqKey="Yiu S">S. Yiu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tang, C" uniqKey="Tang C">C. Tang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Varaiya, P" uniqKey="Varaiya P">P. Varaiya</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Coleri, S" uniqKey="Coleri S">S. Coleri</name></author><author><name sortKey="Varaiya, P" uniqKey="Varaiya P">P. Varaiya</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yoo, S" uniqKey="Yoo S">S. Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, P K" uniqKey="Chong P">P.K. Chong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Park, T" uniqKey="Park T">T. Park</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, Y" uniqKey="Kim Y">Y. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, D" uniqKey="Kim D">D. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shin, C" uniqKey="Shin C">C. Shin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sung, K" uniqKey="Sung K">K. Sung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, H" uniqKey="Kim H">H. Kim</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ash, K G" uniqKey="Ash K">K.G. Ash</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Anderson, R W G" uniqKey="Anderson R">R.W.G. Anderson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mclean, A J" uniqKey="Mclean A">A.J. McLean</name></author><author><name sortKey="Farmer, M J B" uniqKey="Farmer M">M.J.B. Farmer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lee, B H" uniqKey="Lee B">B.H. Lee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brooks, C G" uniqKey="Brooks C">C.G. Brooks</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sharafsaleh, A" uniqKey="Sharafsaleh A">A. Sharafsaleh</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yoo, S" uniqKey="Yoo S">S. Yoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, P K" uniqKey="Chong P">P.K. Chong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, T" uniqKey="Kim T">T. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kang, J" uniqKey="Kang J">J. Kang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, D" uniqKey="Kim D">D. Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shin, C" uniqKey="Shin C">C. Shin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sung, K" uniqKey="Sung K">K. Sung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jang, B" uniqKey="Jang B">B. Jang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1424-8220</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22454567</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3312425</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/s90805968</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">sensors-09-05968</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>S3: School Zone Safety System Based on Wireless Sensor Network</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Yoo</surname><given-names>Seong-eun</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chong</surname><given-names>Poh Kit</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kim</surname><given-names>Daeyoung</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-sensors-09-05968"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib><aff id="af1-sensors-09-05968">Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology / Daejeon 305-701, Korea; E-Mails:<email>seyoo@kaist.ac.kr</email> (S.Y.);<email>chongpohkit@kaist.ac.kr</email> (P.C.)</aff></contrib-group><author-notes><corresp id="c1-sensors-09-05968"><label>*</label>Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: <email>kimd@kaist.ac.kr</email>; Tel.: +82-42-350-6811; Fax: +82-42-350-6810</corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2009</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day><month>7</month><year>2009</year></pub-date><volume>9</volume><issue>8</issue><fpage>5968</fpage><lpage>5988</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>21</day><month>5</month><year>2009</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>13</day><month>7</month><year>2009</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>28</day><month>7</month><year>2009</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2009 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2009</copyright-year><license><license-p><pmc-comment>CREATIVE COMMONS</pmc-comment>This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/</ext-link>).</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>School zones are areas near schools that have lower speed limits and where illegally parked vehicles pose a threat to school children by obstructing them from the view of drivers. However, these laws are regularly flouted. Thus, we propose a novel wireless sensor network application called School zone Safety System (S3) to help regulate the speed limit and to prevent illegal parking in school zones. S3 detects illegally parked vehicles, and warns the driver and records the license plate number. To reduce the traveling speed of vehicles in a school zone, S3 measures the speed of vehicles and displays the speed to the driver via an LED display, and also captures the image of the speeding vehicle with a speed camera. We developed a state machine based vehicle detection algorithm for S3. From extensive experiments in our testbeds and data from a real school zone, it is shown that the system can detect all kinds of vehicles, and has an accuracy of over 95% for speed measurement. We modeled the battery life time of a sensor node and validated the model with a downscaled measurement; we estimate the battery life time to be over 2 years. We have deployed S3 in 15 school zones in 2007, and we have demonstrated the robustness of S3 by operating them for over 1 year.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>WSN</kwd><kwd>vehicle detection</kwd><kwd>school zone</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>(a) System Description. The direction of a vehicle is from the bottom to the top (yellow arrows). Only one direction is shown in the figure. (b) System Description with network connection. The direction of a vehicle is from the right to the left (yellow arrow). Only one direction is shown in the figure.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f1"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>Level based Static Addressing scheme for a fast and light weight routing algorithm for SCN. Each rectagular box including a hexadecimal number represents a sensor node (e.g., T-Sink-v, T-Sensor-v, T-Act-v, etc.) in SCN, and the hexadecimal number is the assigned address for each node.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f2"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>Baseline Tracking Detection Algorithm block diagram.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f3"></graphic></fig><fig id="f4-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label><caption><p><italic>BaselineTracker</italic> procedure.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f4"></graphic></fig><fig id="f5-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label><caption><p>State Diagram for the <italic>decision</italic> block.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f5"></graphic></fig><fig id="f6-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label><caption><p>Speed measurement Algorithm block diagram.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f6"></graphic></fig><fig id="f7-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 7.</label><caption><p>ICC testbed. It consists of two zones. The first zone is located at the main gate of ICC, and the second zone is deployed at the main road in front of the research wing of ICC. The sky view is provided by Daum Communications (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://map.daum.net/">http://map.daum.net/</ext-link>).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f7"></graphic></fig><fig id="f8-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 8.</label><caption><p>Magnetic Field distortion by different vehicles. Carnival is a kind of van, and Musso is a kind of SUV. The others are categorized as passenger cars.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f8"></graphic></fig><fig id="f9-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 9.</label><caption><p>Old highway testbed. (a) Old highway testbed and deployed switching tape and two T-Sensor-v nodes (red circles). (b) Eight vehicles among the nine vehicles used on 12 Oct. in 2007. (c) Four vehicles used on 13 Oct. in 2007.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f9a"></graphic><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f9b"></graphic></fig><fig id="f10-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 10.</label><caption><p>(a) Speed distribution (in the left vertical axis) and MAPE (in the right vertical axis) for each speed interval. (b) Absolute percentage error distribution in measured speed. Horizontal axis represents absolute percentage error. Left vertical axis means frequency of each absolute percentage error. Right vertical axis indicates accumulated distribution of absolute percentage error. (c) Absolute percentage error distribution for different vehicles.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f10"></graphic></fig><fig id="f11-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 11.</label><caption><p>S3 in real school zones. (a) 4 T-Sensor-p nodes and 2 T-Senor-v nodes. (b) 4 T-Sensor-v nodes in two lanes. (c) Speed camera (blue circle) and T-Act-s (red rectangle). (d) T-BS (blue rectangle) and loud speakers (red circle). (e) VMS is notifying that the speed limit is 30 km/h and the current measured speed is 21 km/h (in green), 44 km/h and 49 km/h (in red).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f11"></graphic></fig><fig id="f12-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 12.</label><caption><p>Speed distribution and MAPE for each speed interval.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f12"></graphic></fig><fig id="f13-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 13.</label><caption><p>(a) Calculated battery-life time using the measured downscaled battery capacity and the measured current consumption profile of T-Sensor-v node. (b) Estimated battery life time with the actual battery and the measured current consumption profile of T-Sensor-v node.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f13"></graphic></fig><fig id="f14-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Figure 14.</label><caption><p>Battery-level (V) vs. time (D:HH:MM). Digital Voltage Meter (DVM) was used to measure the battery-level and T-Sensor-v node itself monitored its battery-level.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-05968f14"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="t1-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>Hardware platforms and development environment for TSN.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PCN</th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SCN</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1">MCU</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RadioPulse MG2400 (8051Core)</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TI MSP430F1611</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1">Transceiver</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RadioPulse MG2400</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TI CC2420</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1">Magnetic Sensor</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AMR Sensor</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AMR Sensor</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1">Network Stack</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zigbee stack of RadioPulse</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proprietary Routing/MAC</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1">Compiler</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Keil 8051 compiler</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">msp-gcc compiler</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IEEE Sniffer</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">802.15.4</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RadioPulse ZigBee packet analyzer</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TI CC2420DK packet sniffer</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 2.</label><caption><p>ICC gate testbed test results. 98.2% of vehicles were detected by two T-Sensor-v nodes and 97.7% among them is delivered to the T-BS-com-v node.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Conditions</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Num. of vehicles</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Percentage (%)</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D0: 2 T-Sensor-v detecting and T-Sink-v reporting</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">218−4=214</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.2</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D1: 1 T-Sensor-v can’t detect</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D2: 2 T-Sensor-v nodes can’t detect</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.9</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D3: Double detection</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C0: Successful end-to-end delivery including C1</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">214−5=209</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C1: Lost ACK problem in relaying</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.9</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C2: packet loss in relaying by T-Sink-r</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C4: T-Sink-v can’t receive one or two DETECT packets from T-Sensor-v</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 3.</label><caption><p>Old highway testbed. 100% of vehicles were detected by two T-Sensor-v node and 94% of them were relayed to the T-BS-com-v node.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="rows"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1"><bold>Conditions</bold></th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>12 Oct. in 2007</bold></th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>13 Oct. in 2007</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Num. of vehicles</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Percentage (%)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Num. of vehicles</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Percentage (%)</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D0: Two T-Sensor-v detects vehicle</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">183</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C4: T-Sink-v can’t receive one or two DETECT packet from T-Sensor-v</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.1</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t4-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 4.</label><caption><p>Real field deployment results. 97.8% of vehicles were detected by two T-Sensor-v nodes and speed for 98.5% of them were calculated and delivered to the T-BS-com-v node.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1"><bold>Conditions</bold></th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>Day time</bold></th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>Night time</bold></th></tr><tr><th colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr><tr><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Number of vehicles</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(%)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Number of vehicles</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(%)</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D0: 2 T-Sensor-v detecting</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">189 − 3 = 186</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.4</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">223 − 6= 217</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D1: 1 or 2 T-Sensor-v can’t detect</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.6</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.7</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5" align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C0: Successful end-to-end delivery</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">186 − 2 = 184</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.9</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">217 − 4 = 213</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.2</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C4: T-Sink-v can’t receive one or two DETECT packet from T-Sensor-v</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.8</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t5-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 5.</label><caption><p>Speed accuracy comparison between SCN and Sensys Wireless VDS [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b15-sensors-09-05968">15</xref>].</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>Sensys [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b15-sensors-09-05968">15</xref>]</bold></th><th colspan="8" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>S3</bold></th></tr><tr><th colspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr><tr><th colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>11–19 Sep., 2006</bold></th><th colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>In the morning on 20 Oct., 2007</bold></th><th colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>In the afternoon on 20 Oct., 2007</bold></th></tr><tr><th colspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2" colspan="1">15-Min Quarter Number</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1">Avg. Speed (mph)
<hr></hr></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1">Absolute Error (%)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1">15-Min Quarter Number</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1">Avg. Speed (mph)
<hr></hr></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1">Abs. Error (%)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1">15-Min Quarter Number</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1">Avg. Speed (mph)
<hr></hr></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="3" colspan="1">Abs. Error (%)</th></tr><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Laser gun Ground Truth</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VDS</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Switching tape Ground Truth</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SCN</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Switching tape Ground Truth</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SCN</th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="12" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65.9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19.1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>MAPE</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>1.4</bold></td><td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>MAPE</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>1.1</bold></td><td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><bold>MAPE</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>0.7</bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t6-sensors-09-05968" position="float"><label>Table 6.</label><caption><p>Description for each parameter in (2).</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Abbreviation</bold></th><th align="center" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Meaning</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">L</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Battery life-time of T-Sensor-v node (h)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">The capacity of battery (mAh)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cc</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average current consumption for calibrating the sensor block (mA)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cs</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average current consumption for sensing task (mA)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cp</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average current consumption for signal processing task (mA)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cr</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average current consumption for RF transmission task (mA)</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ci</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average current consumption for idle task (mA)</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list></list><tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Chong, Poh Kit" sort="Chong, Poh Kit" uniqKey="Chong P" first="Poh Kit" last="Chong">Poh Kit Chong</name><name sortKey="Kim, Daeyoung" sort="Kim, Daeyoung" uniqKey="Kim D" first="Daeyoung" last="Kim">Daeyoung Kim</name><name sortKey="Yoo, Seong Eun" sort="Yoo, Seong Eun" uniqKey="Yoo S" first="Seong-Eun" last="Yoo">Seong-Eun Yoo</name></noCountry></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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