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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>)</title><author><name sortKey="Van Noort, Simon" sort="Van Noort, Simon" uniqKey="Van Noort S" first="Simon" last="Van Noort">Simon Van Noort</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Natural History Department, Iziko South African Museum, PO Box 61, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Buffington, Matthew L" sort="Buffington, Matthew L" uniqKey="Buffington M" first="Matthew L." last="Buffington">Matthew L. Buffington</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A3">Systematic Entomology Lab, USDA, c/o Smithsonian NMNH, 10th & Constitution Ave NW, Washington DC 20013</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Forshage, Mattias" sort="Forshage, Mattias" uniqKey="Forshage M" first="Mattias" last="Forshage">Mattias Forshage</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A4">Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Entomology, Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">25878545</idno><idno type="pmc">4389221</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4389221</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4389221</idno><idno type="doi">10.3897/zookeys.493.6353</idno><date when="2015">2015</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000448</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>)</title><author><name sortKey="Van Noort, Simon" sort="Van Noort, Simon" uniqKey="Van Noort S" first="Simon" last="Van Noort">Simon Van Noort</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Natural History Department, Iziko South African Museum, PO Box 61, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Buffington, Matthew L" sort="Buffington, Matthew L" uniqKey="Buffington M" first="Matthew L." last="Buffington">Matthew L. Buffington</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A3">Systematic Entomology Lab, USDA, c/o Smithsonian NMNH, 10th & Constitution Ave NW, Washington DC 20013</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Forshage, Mattias" sort="Forshage, Mattias" uniqKey="Forshage M" first="Mattias" last="Forshage">Mattias Forshage</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A4">Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Entomology, Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">ZooKeys</title><idno type="ISSN">1313-2989</idno><idno type="eISSN">1313-2970</idno><imprint><date when="2015">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><label>Abstract</label><p>The Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> are represented by 306 described species and 54 genera in four families: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content>, the latter represented by a single introduced species. Seven of these genera are only represented by undescribed species in the region. Seven new genus-level synonymies, one genus resurrected from synonymy, 54 new combinations, one combination reinstated, and one new replacement name are presented. We provide identification keys to the families, subfamilies and genera of cynipoid wasps occurring in the Afrotropical region (Africa south of the Sahara, including Madagascar and southern Arabian Peninsula). Online interactive Lucid Phoenix and Lucid matrix keys are available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm">http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm</ext-link>. An overview of the biology and checklists of species for each genus are provided. This paper constitutes the first contributory chapter to the book on Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Abe, Y" uniqKey="Abe Y">Y Abe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Melika, G" uniqKey="Melika G">G Melika</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stone, Gn" uniqKey="Stone G">GN Stone</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Allemand, R" uniqKey="Allemand R">R Allemand</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lemaitre, C" uniqKey="Lemaitre C">C Lemaitre</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frey, F" uniqKey="Frey F">F Frey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bouletreau, M" uniqKey="Bouletreau M">M Boulétreau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vavres, F" uniqKey="Vavres F">F Vavres</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nordlander, G" 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Zookeys</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Zookeys</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ZooKeys</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>ZooKeys</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1313-2989</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1313-2970</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Pensoft Publishers</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25878545</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4389221</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3897/zookeys.493.6353</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>)</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>van Noort</surname><given-names>Simon</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Buffington</surname><given-names>Matthew L.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Forshage</surname><given-names>Mattias</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A4">4</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="A1"><label>1</label>Natural History Department, Iziko South African Museum, PO Box 61, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa</aff><aff id="A2"><label>2</label>Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa</aff><aff id="A3"><label>3</label>Systematic Entomology Lab, USDA, c/o Smithsonian NMNH, 10th & Constitution Ave NW, Washington DC 20013</aff><aff id="A4"><label>4</label>Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Entomology, Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden</aff><author-notes><corresp>Corresponding author: Simon van Noort (<email xlink:type="simple">svannoort@iziko.org.za</email>)</corresp><fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Academic editor: M. Engel</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>1</day><month>4</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><issue>493</issue><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>176</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>30</day><month>9</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>22</day><month>12</month><year>2014</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</copyright-statement><license license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="zoobank" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://zoobank.org/1FBFFA4C-A71F-495C-AD22-F2EB680FEF95">http://zoobank.org/1FBFFA4C-A71F-495C-AD22-F2EB680FEF95</self-uri><abstract><label>Abstract</label><p>The Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> are represented by 306 described species and 54 genera in four families: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content>, the latter represented by a single introduced species. Seven of these genera are only represented by undescribed species in the region. Seven new genus-level synonymies, one genus resurrected from synonymy, 54 new combinations, one combination reinstated, and one new replacement name are presented. We provide identification keys to the families, subfamilies and genera of cynipoid wasps occurring in the Afrotropical region (Africa south of the Sahara, including Madagascar and southern Arabian Peninsula). Online interactive Lucid Phoenix and Lucid matrix keys are available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm">http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm</ext-link>. An overview of the biology and checklists of species for each genus are provided. This paper constitutes the first contributory chapter to the book on Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>.</p></abstract><kwd-group><label>Keywords</label><kwd>Africa</kwd><kwd>Afrotropical</kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content></kwd><kwd>identification key</kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content></kwd><kwd>Madagascar</kwd><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</kwd-group></article-meta><notes><sec sec-type="Citation"><title>Citation</title><p>van Noort S, Buffington ML, Forshage M (2015) Afrotropical Cynipoidea (Hymenoptera). ZooKeys 493: 1–176. doi: <ext-link ext-link-type="doi" xlink:href="10.3897/zookeys.493.6353">10.3897/zookeys.493.6353</ext-link></p></sec></notes></front><body><sec sec-type="Introduction"><title>Introduction</title><p>The Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> are taxonomically and biologically poorly known, a situation typical for wasp taxa from this region. The lack of knowledge in cynipoid systematics is exemplified by the recent revisions that have increased the number of described species (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content>: <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>: <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2009</xref>; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>: <xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">Nielsen and Buffington 2011</xref>) as well as the description of a new genus (<xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2012</xref>). As a consequence of the under-documentation of the region’s diversity, the process of unraveling the biology of the Afrotropical cynipoid wasps is also in its infancy. Some headway has been made with a recent biological study of the cynipid <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">loewi</named-content></named-content></italic> Mayr, 1881 (van Noort et al. 2006) and the discovery of two true indigenous gall formers, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">neserorum</named-content></named-content></italic><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo (2007)</xref>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scolopiae</named-content></named-content></italic> Liljeblad, Nieves-Aldrey & Melika (2011), the latter meriting the description of a new genus and establishment of a new tribe (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>). However, the majority of the species and generic level diversity within the Afrotropical cynipoids can be found within the eucoiline <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, a monophyletic group that are primary koinobiont endoparasitoids of muscomorphan <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1999</xref>, <xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">Fontal-Cazalla et al. 2002</xref>, <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">2012</xref>).</p><p>Cynipoid knowledge was first systematised in a scientific form in Europe. To the systematic entomologists in Linnaeus's time, most cynipoids were too small to warrant recognition, and it was mostly the large-sized ibaliids and the cynipids (accessible via their obvious galls) that were studied in the early days. The first more systematical treatment of figitids was that of Westwood in the 1830s, followed by Hartig, Dahlbom, Giraud, Thomson and Förster, and eventually the three massively productive authors of the previous turn of century: Ashmead, Cameron and Kieffer. Of these, Peter Cameron and Jean-Jacques Kieffer were given single cynipoid specimens from European expeditions to different parts of Africa, and thereby became the first to treat Afrotropical taxa of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">Cameron 1904</xref>, <xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">1905</xref>, <xref rid="B121" ref-type="bibr">Kieffer 1904</xref>, <xref rid="B124" ref-type="bibr">1910a</xref>, <xref rid="B125" ref-type="bibr">b</xref>, <xref rid="B126" ref-type="bibr">c</xref>, <xref rid="B127" ref-type="bibr">d</xref>, <xref rid="B128" ref-type="bibr">1911a</xref>, <xref rid="B129" ref-type="bibr">b</xref>, <xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">1912</xref>, 1913). Single Afrotropical taxa were added by <xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">Hedicke (1912)</xref>, <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">Bridwell (1919)</xref> and <xref rid="B138" ref-type="bibr">Kinsey (1919)</xref>. Later, Louis Weld in the United States made a major effort to summarise and recheck all cynipoid knowledge and revise all classifications based on type studies. His thoroughness made his compendium of cynipoidology (<xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1952</xref>, with a major appendix: <xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1962</xref>) an important groundwork, which was also applicable for the Afrotropical fauna. Further, single taxa were added by <xref rid="B253" ref-type="bibr">Weld (1944)</xref>, <xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">Risbec (1956)</xref>, <xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">Masner (1960)</xref>, <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Belizin (1973)</xref> and Dessart (1976).</p><p>Two systematists authored major faunistic efforts, describing a large number of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> in a comprehensive format. The first was carried out by <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">P L G Benoit (1955</xref>, <xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">1956a</xref>, <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">b</xref>, <xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">c</xref>, <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">d</xref>, <xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">e</xref>), investigating the fauna of Congo and Rwanda. The second was John Quinlan, whose work attempted to document the entire Afrotropical region (<xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1979</xref>, <xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">1984</xref>, <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">1986</xref>, <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>). Quinlan’s papers followed <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander’s (1982</xref> and papers therein), providing the first treatment of Afrotropical cynipoids that employed phylogenetic considerations (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>). More recently there have <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>been only smaller taxonomic group revisions: Ronquist (1995) on <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> (worldwide); <xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">Allemand et al. (2002)</xref> on Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré and Pujade-Villar (2006)</xref> on world <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref> on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2007)</xref> on <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content>; <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2009)</xref> on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">Nielsen and Buffington (2011)</xref> on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B195" ref-type="bibr">Paretas-Martinez et al. (2009)</xref> and <xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar and Ferrer-Suay (2012)</xref> on Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic>; <xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. (2012</xref>, <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">2013</xref>) on Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic>; or single taxa added <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">Buffington (2010</xref>, <xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">2012</xref>), <xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">Jimenez and Pujade-Villar (2008)</xref>; <xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar (2012)</xref>; and <xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">Mata-Casanova et al. (2014)</xref>. <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref> and <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref> treated the Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> to the species level. The Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> were reviewed by <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. (2014)</xref>.</p><p>Higher-level cynipoid phylogenetics traditionally follows <xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist (1999)</xref>, whose data suggested the rare, Australian-endemic <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Austrocynipidae</named-content></named-content> was sister-group to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content> + <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> + (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> + <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>), or (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content> + <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content>) + (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> + <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>). Liopterid phylogenetics were investigated by Ronquist (1995) based solely on morphology; the rarity of many groups of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> precludes the use of molecular data, so this study remains the most thorough and up to date treatment. <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> phylogenetics has been intensely studied by <xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. (2008)</xref>, <xref rid="B218" ref-type="bibr">Rokas et al. (2002)</xref>, <xref rid="B225" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist and Liljeblad (2001)</xref>, as well as the doctoral dissertation of <xref rid="B193" ref-type="bibr">Nylander (2004)</xref>; <xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey et al. (2009)</xref> recently described a new tribe of cynipids, while <xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. (2011)</xref> provided an updated key to cynipid tribes. A preliminary analysis of the phylogeny of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> demonstrated that the family was monophyletic (<xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1999</xref>). Subsequent analyses, employing more thorough taxon and character sampling, found the family monophyletic (<xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2007</xref>) and paraphyletic (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>), the latter study having recovered <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> as sister-group to the figitid subfamilies <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Thrasorinae</named-content></named-content> + (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> + <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mikeiinae</named-content></named-content>). Further phylogenetic interpretation of cynipoids is beyond the scope of this study, however, it should be pointed out that cynipids are very rare in the Afrotropical region, and the gall-associated figitid subfamilies <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Thrasorinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Parnipinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mikeiinae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Plectocynipinae</named-content></named-content> have not been recorded to date.</p><p>A few species of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> are of agricultural importance. The siricid wood-wasp, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirex</named-content><named-content content-type="species">noctilio</named-content></named-content></italic> Fabricius is detrimental to commercial pine tree plantations in South Africa (<xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">Tribe and Cillie 2004</xref>, <xref rid="B247" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Picker 2011</xref>), and the ibaliid <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">leucospoides</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hochenwarth) has been introduced to both Australia and South Africa for biological control (<xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">Hurley et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B247" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Picker 2011</xref>). The gall wasp <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dryocosmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kuriphilus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Yasumatsu) negatively impacts commercial chestnut (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Castanea</named-content></named-content></italic>) production, destroying the chestnut itself through galling, and is spreading rapidly throughout Europe (<xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">Brussino et al. 2003</xref>), Asia (<xref rid="B265" ref-type="bibr">Yasumatsu 1951</xref>, reviewed by <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">Melika 2006</xref>) and North America (Payne and Anagnostakis 1993). A few eucoiline <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> have been evaluated for biological control of pestiferous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content>, but only <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Banacuniculus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">utilis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Beardsley) (formerly <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspidium</named-content></named-content></italic>) and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">daci</named-content></named-content></italic> (Weld) have been actually utilized commercially (<xref rid="B199" ref-type="bibr">Petcherat and Johnson 1988</xref>, <xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">Wharton et al. 1998</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p>The world cynipoid fauna has not been catalogued since <xref rid="B59" ref-type="bibr">Dalla Torre and Kieffer (1910)</xref>, but in recent years efforts have been made to provide overviews of regional faunas, starting with the European cynipoid catalogue within the Fauna Europaea database project (<xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist and Forshage 2004</xref>). A North American catalog of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">Forshage et al. 2013</xref>) and an Australian catalog of the entire superfamily have been recently published (<xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">Paretas-Martínez et al. 2013</xref>). The Australian region comprises 37 recorded genera: one each for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Austrocynipidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content>; two for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>; and 32 for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">Paretas-Martínez et al. 2013</xref>). While ibaliids are species-poor (with 20 species) and largely confined to the Holarctic, the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> are relatively rare in all biogeographic regions with the exception of the Oriental region, which supports an unusually high diversity of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> species (<xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>, <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>). The Holarctic region supports a rich gall-wasp fauna (<xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">Askew et al. 2013</xref>, <xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey 2001</xref>, <xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist and Forshage 2004</xref>, <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">Melika 2006</xref>), but Eastern (<xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">Abe et al. 2007</xref>) and Southeast Asia (<xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">Tang et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">2011a</xref>, <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">2011b</xref>, <xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">Melika et al. 2011a</xref>, <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">2011b</xref>) are just beginning to be explored. The Neotropical cynipids are relatively understudied as well, and recent descriptions suggest our knowledge of this region is in its infancy (Medianero et al. 2011, <xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B156" ref-type="bibr">Medianero and Nieves-Aldrey 2010</xref>, 2011, <xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey and Medianero 2010</xref>, <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">2011</xref>, <xref rid="B163" ref-type="bibr">Melika et al. 2009</xref>, 2010, 2012, <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">Melika et al. 2011</xref>). Cynipids are very rare in the Afrotropical region, with the recent descriptions of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Aylacini</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>), <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Synergini</named-content></named-content> (van Noort et al. 2006) and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Qwaqwaini</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>) providing a glimpse into a hitherto unknown fauna.</p><p><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> are likely the most diverse cynipoid group, though the majority of species remain to be described (<xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1984</xref>, <xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1999</xref>, <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2007</xref>, Buffington, Forshage, and van Noort pers. obsv.). Within <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> dominate at both the generic and species level of diversity; tropical areas tend to be more species rich, though Holarctic regions can be very rich, including tall-grass prairie and high-elevation deserts in North America (Buffington pers. obsv.). Eucoiline species diversity of Australia is relatively depauperate compared to the rest of the world (Paretas-Martinez et al. 2012). Afrotropical species and generic diversity of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> is not as high as that of the Neotropics (Buffington and Forshage pers. obsv.), but there is one endemic subfamily (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content>, with three genera), a few endemic (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic>) or almost endemic (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic>) genera, as well as species-rich genera (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>). Furthermore, much of this species and generic richness is widespread in the Old World Tropics, with numerous species and genera found in Southeast Asia, the Afrotropical region and the Oceanic region (<xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">Lin 1988</xref>, Buffington and Forshage pers. obsv.).</p><p>This treatment is part of the initiative to document Afrotropical hymenopteran richness published as a series in ZooKeys (a peer-reviewed, open-access, rapidly produced journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in systematic zoology) (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/index.htm">http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/index.htm</ext-link>). The virtual book, including well-illustrated dichotomous identifica<pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>tion keys in each chapter will be published as a series of stand alone peer-reviewed scientific papers with all chapters linked together as a virtual book on the ZooKeys website. The publication will include links to online interactive Lucid dichotomous and matrix based keys hosted on WaspWeb. The goal of this paper is to provide a current synthesis of Afrotropical cynipoid systematics, including an overview of biological associations, and the first key to cynipoid genera of the Afrotropical region. The development of this resource is aimed to facilitate future research on this ecologically and agriculturally important superfamily of wasps. To this end, we provide keys to all of the genera of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>. As part of this overview assessment we present seven new genus-level synonymies, one genus resurrected from synonymy, 54 new combinations, one combination reinstated, and one new replacement name.</p></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods"><title>Materials and methods</title><p>Character states diagnostic of each taxon were discerned from material in extensive recent collections of African <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> housed at the Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town; California Academy of Arts and Science, San Francisco; National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution), Washington DC, and Natural History Museum, London. Historically there are important <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> collections from the region that are housed in a number of European Museums including the Natural History Museums in Paris, Tervuren, and Berlin, to name a few. We have also made use of material housed in the Museum of Zoology of Lund University, Sweden, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm; South African National Collection, Pretoria; Biologiezentrum, Linz; and elsewhere. The wealth of recently sampled <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> residing in African, European and USA museums has been built up over the last 20 years by extensive and rigorous quantified and replicated inventory surveys using a wide diversity of collecting methods (Malaise traps, yellow pan traps, sweeping, pitfall traps, Winkler bag extraction of leaf litter, UV light trapping and tree canopy fogging) carried out across large parts of Africa and Madagascar by Simon van Noort (Iziko South Afrian Museum); Brian Fisher and colleagues (Californa Academy of Sciences); Bob Copeland (affiliated with National Museums of Kenya and the National Museum of Natural History); Michael Sharkey (University of Kentucky); and John Noyes (Natural History Museum London). The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> from these samples provide an unparalleled resource from which the systematics and diversity of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> can continue to be elucidated. All the collections where we have been studying Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> are listed below.</p><p>Freshly collected specimens were point-mounted on black or white, acid-free cards for examination (using a Leica MZ9.5, Z16 or M205c stereomicroscope with incandescent and fluorescent light sources), photography and long-term preservation. Representative specimens were imaged using the EntoVision multiple-focus imaging system to illustrate diagnostic characters. Methods for generating these photographs <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>follow those in <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2009)</xref>. Diffused lighting was achieved using techniques summarized in <xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2005)</xref>, <xref rid="B116" ref-type="bibr">Kerr et al. (2009)</xref> and <xref rid="B40" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and Gates (2009)</xref>. Scanning electron micrographs were generated using a Hitachi TM3000 desktop scanning electron microscope; specimens were coated in 25–30 nm gold-palladium alloy, or imaged uncoated, using ‘analysis’ voltage, running in ‘compo’ mode. All new images generated for this project are deposited in Morphbank.</p><p>Morphological terminology follows that of <xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">Fontal-Cazalla et al. (2002)</xref> and <xref rid="B224" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist and Nordlander (1989)</xref>; cuticular surface terminology follows <xref rid="B89" ref-type="bibr">Harris (1979)</xref>. Character matrices were generated and edited using Microsoft Excel; matrices were then used as input into Lucid matrix key production (<xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">Penev et al. 2009</xref>) Online interactive keys were produced using Lucid and Lucid Phoenix meeting the requirements of publishing both static and dynamic interactive keys under an open access model (<xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">Penev et al. 2009</xref>). All keys were illustrated using high quality annotated images, highlighting diagnostic characters. The images are integrated into the key above each couplet resulting in a user-friendly output. This key format circumvents the requirement of familiarity with morphological terminology associated with a particular taxonomic group, because the characters are visually illustrated making the keys usable by a wide range of end-users including the lay person. These keys are available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm">http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm</ext-link>. End users can choose between three different key formats depending on their personal preference. The keys are available in three formats. Although Lucid Phoenix keys are interactive keys they are still dichotomous and a choice needs to be made at each key couplet to continue. Lucid matrix keys, on the other hand, use a different approach where relevant states from multiple character features can be selected independently until identification is achieved. For more information concerning Lucid keys visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.lucidcentral.org">http://www.lucidcentral.org</ext-link>. This publication is available in 4 different formats: (1) high-resolution, full-colour print version, to satisfy the current requirements of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), as well as for readers who prefer hardcopy, and for the purposes of paper archiving; (2) PDF to provide an electronic version identical to the printed one, to be archived in BHL and PubMedCentral; (3) HTML to provide links to external resources and semantic enhancements to published texts for interactive reading, and (4) XML version based on the TaxPub XML schema to provide archiving document format for PubMedCentral and a machine-readable copy of the contents to facilitate future data mining (<xref rid="B198" ref-type="bibr">Penev et al. 2010b</xref>).</p><p>The Afrotropical region is a relatively uncontroversial concept (Fig. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F1">1</xref>) conforming to the old Ethiopian region of Sclater and Wallace from the earliest days of zoogeography, with the name changed as of <xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">Crosskey and White (1977)</xref>. As in all the authoritative versions of delimitations, Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean are included, as is the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, the South Atlantic islands of Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha and Gough, as well as the Cape Verde Islands and the Gulf of Guinea islands (<xref rid="B61" ref-type="bibr">Darlington 1957</xref>, <xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">Crosskey 1980</xref>). <xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">Crosskey and White (1977)</xref> defined the northern limit of the region by the 10 inch <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>(254 mm) precipitation isohyet. With climate change and aridification this boundary is constantly in a state of flux. Here we use the boundary between the arid and hyper-arid climatological zones as defined by the World Meterological Organization and United Nations Environment Program derived from mean monthly precipitation and potential evapotranspiration surfaces (<xref rid="B62" ref-type="bibr">Desanker and Magadza 2001</xref>). This corresponds to the northern edge of the Sahel region bordering with the southern limits of the Sahara desert, a boundary which is usually demarcated by the 150 mm isohyet (<xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">White 1983</xref>, <xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">Fensholt et al. 2013</xref>). <xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">White (1983)</xref> and Linder (2012) further subdivide the sub-Saharan region into cohesive biogeographical subentities based on plant and vertebrate data. Patterns of invertebrate distributions would be expected to correlate with the environmental partitioning of the region.</p><fig id="F1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>The Afrotropical region is depicted in green. The northern limits correspond to the boundary between the arid and hyper-arid climatological zones, delimited by the 150 mm precipitation isohyet.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41155.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g001"></graphic></fig><p>We have not included major systematic revisionary work in the preparation of this paper, but have implemented taxonomic nomenclatural acts, as required, to bring <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>the systematic treatment of the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> in line with a contemporary assessment of the superfamily. The main rationale behind this initiative is to produce workable, accessible keys to generic level based on current taxonomic knowledge, a contemporary state-of-the-art resource that will be available to facilitate future systematic revisions. With continued ongoing sampling new taxon discoveries are being made all the time and this treatment will be out of date as soon as it is published. However, the online taxon treatment and identification keys available on WaspWeb will be expanded and updated as taxonomic progress is made. This is one of the major advantages of electronic output.</p><p>All images presented in this paper are available through <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://morphbank.net">http://morphbank.net</ext-link> and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org">http://www.waspweb.org</ext-link> using the link to individual collections.</p><p>Synonyms (for species-level taxa as well as higher taxa) are cited only to the extent they are relevant for the discussion of the knowledge of the Afrotropical fauna. For each genus, we summarise the knowledge of its biology and its worldwide distribution, as well as provide a list of Afrotropical country records with references. In most of the figitids, our knowledge is not yet at the level where the diversity has been systematically treated on the species level. As a result, only a minority of the specimens (and thus of the country records) are assignable to a species name; for these, it is the genus-level treatment which is the basic unit and which contains the most information. Since this is a checklist rather than an actual catalogue, we do not give full references to original descriptions, cite type repositories, full synonymies and nomenclatural histories (except in the cases involving nomenclatural acts made here); we provide standard authorship designation and list the genus if different to the original combination in a parenthesis. In the most extensive treatment of Afrotropical taxa before this, <xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1979</xref>, <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">1986</xref>, <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>) was sometimes inconsistent in terms of gender agreement in the scientific names, and a certain number of gender endings are changed accordingly. Further, certain genera have been inconsistently treated in terms of gender throughout scientific history, and we strive to add consistency here.</p><p>This project is the result of more than 40 years’ worth of cumulative research by all three authors. SvN sampled extensive areas across Africa from 1992 to present for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, supplemented by MB and other initiatives listed above. Management of curation of the extensive recent collections of material in Iziko SAMC was conducted by SvN, of those in USNM by MB. MF spent the last 10 years reviewing generic and species concepts and generating generic keys for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>; MB has spent the last 10 years similarly studying the entire <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, but especially the genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content>. MB and SvN have been publishing on endemic African groups of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> for some time, and SvN about the region’s <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>. Responsibilities for taxonomic assessment (specimen examination and identification of material in said museums as well as numerous international museums, including assessment of generic concepts and delimitation, dichotomous and matrix key formulation and catalogue production) were generally divided as follows: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>: <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> (MB and SvN); <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (MF and MB); <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>; <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> (MB, MF and SvN). Imaging of type material and representative taxa in various international institutions was carried out by SvN and MB. New SEM images were done by MB (others downloaded from MorphBank). Lucid key production and image plate production for the keys was done by SvN. Keys to genera of figitids was originally developed by MF; keys to liopterids by SvN and MB. The format and production of this project was conceptualised by SvN in consultation with MB and MF as part of the Afrotopical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> Initiative virtual book project (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/index.htm">http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/index.htm</ext-link>). All authors collaborated on the final writing and editing of the paper.</p><sec sec-type="List of depositories"><title>List of depositories</title><p>We have considered it relevant to list in some detail the collections referred to in this paper, especially in terms of holdings of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>.</p><p><abbrev>BMNH<def><p> Natural History Museum, London, UK. Curator David Notton. Large amounts of material, mostly identified by John Quinlan and MF, a lot from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia but also dozens of other countries, and mostly older material. Several <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> type specimens from Quinlan, and recently described types by SvN, MB & MF from historical material.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>CASC<def><p> California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, USA. Curator Bob Zuparko. Vast recently collected material from Madagascar; the mounted parts thereof currently housed in USNM.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>CNCI<def><p> Canadian National Collection of Insects, Ottawa, Canada. Curator Andrew Bennett. Large amount of material, mostly wet. Especially Botswana, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, but also various other countries.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>CUMZ<def><p> Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, UK. Curator William Foster. Has Kieffer paratypes from the Seychelles.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>DEI<def><p> Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut, Müncheberg, Germany. Curator Andreas Taeger. Rather large material in alcohol (coll Tschirnhaus) from Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Madagascar and elsewhere in Africa.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>HNHM<def><p> Magyar Természettudományi Múzeum, Budapest, Hungary. Curator Zoltán Vas. Small amounts of recently collected Afrotropical material.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>MNHN<def><p> Natural History Museum, Paris, France. Curator Claire Villemant. Several Kieffer types, and recently described types by SvN and MB from historical Seyrig Madagascan collections, but no recently collected material.</p></def></abbrev></p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><abbrev>MZLU<def><p> Zoologiska Museet Lunds Universitet, Lund, Sweden. Curator Christer Hansson. Especially South Africa, Gambia, Senegal, Cameroon and Sierra Leone, but also other countries, especially in the important Sporrong collection, including recently collected material, identified by Michael Sporrong and MF.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>NHRS<def><p> Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden. Curator Hege Vårdal. Recent collecting mostly from Madagascar, plus Cynipoid fractions of some other recent collecting efforts, identified by MF.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>NMKE<def><p> National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. Curator Martha Gikunga. Recently collected material from East Africa, including a couple of recently described cynipoid types by SvN and MB.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>OLML<def><p> Biologiezentrum, Oberösterreichische Landesmuseen, Linz, Austria. Curator Fritz Gusenleitner. Some recently collected material from Kenya, Zambia and elsewhere, identified by MF.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>RMCA<def><p> Musée Royal de l’Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgium. Curator Eliane de Coninck. Several Quinlan, Benoit types and some recently described types by SvN and MB from historical DRC material, but no recent material.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>SAMC<def><p> Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa. Curator Simon van Noort. Vast recently collected materials from Central African Republic, Gabon, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, as well as Yemen and many other countries; identified by SvN, MB and MF.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>SANC<def><p> South African National Collection of Insects, Pretoria, South Africa. Curator Ros Urban. Some South African material.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>SLU<def><p> Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Ultuna, Sweden. Houses the Göran Nordlander collection with a number of types.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>TARI<def><p> Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Taichung, Taiwan. No important Afrotropical material to our knowledge.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>USNM<def><p> National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC, USA. Curator Matthew Buffington. Vast recently collected materials mainly from Madagascar (from CASC) and Kenya, but also dozens of other countries, and including older material.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>ZMBH<def><p> Museum für Naturkunde, Humboldt-Universität, Berlin, Germany. Curator Frank Koch. Several Kieffer types, but no recent material to our knowledge.</p></def></abbrev></p><p><abbrev>ZMUH<def><p> Zoologisches Institut und zoologisches Museum, Universität von Hamburg, Germany. Curator: Kai Schütte. Historical material destroyed, currently no important Afrotropical material to our knowledge.</p></def></abbrev></p></sec></sec><sec><title>Key to families of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content></title><table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e1306" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41210.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i001"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasomal segment four, five or six the largest, when viewed laterally, with two to four small segments preceding largest segment (a, b). Rarely collected</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41211.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i002"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasomal segment two or three the largest, when viewed laterally (A), or fused into a syntergum (B), with at most only one small segment preceding the largest. Commonly collected</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41212.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i003"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasoma, when viewed dorsally, extremely thin, blade-like (a); marginal cell of forewing at least nine times as long as broad, closed on front margin (b). <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>Large wasps, exceeding 10 mm in body length (extra-limital family – one introduced species, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">leucospoides</named-content></named-content></italic> in South Africa)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41213.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i004"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasoma, when viewed dorsally, evenly rounded on both sides, often rather stout (A); marginal cell of forewing at most six times as long as broad (B). Small to large wasps, ranging from 2 to 10 mm in body length</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41214.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i005"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal plate present, often projecting forward, with distinct ventro-lateral margins (a, b). Mesoscutum usually smooth (at least dorsally) (a, b), occasionally microcoriaceous; may be longitudinally carinate (c). Mesopleuron usually smooth (d), often with a single longitudinal line (d). Scutellum frequently with distinct central plate (a, d), and/or posteriorly directed spine (c, d)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41215.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i006"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal plate absent or reduced, ventro-lateral margins not visible (A). Mesoscutum horizontally striate (A) or microcoriaceous (B). Mesopleuron usually entirely striate or gently rugulose, lacking a distinct longitudinal line (B). Scutellum never with a central plate or an apical spine (A)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by three of the world’s eight tribes: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Aylacini</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Synergini</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Qwaqwaiini</named-content></named-content>, and four described species. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> contains a number of undescribed species indicating that the genus is likely to be far richer in southern Africa than currently recorded.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical cynipids are biologically better known than other African cynipoids and include an endemic, specialist lethal inquiline (<xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2007</xref>) and gall formers of both herbs and trees (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>, <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The family is represented in all biogeographical regions with the majority of species occurring in the northern hemisphere (<xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2008</xref>, <xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">2011</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical cynipid genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical cynipid genera</title><table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e1462" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41216.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i007"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Occipital carina present (a); forewing areolet rhomboidal, elongate (b); hypopygium abrupt, ventral spine absent (c), with a dense tuft of long setae; gall-inducers on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Scolopia</named-content></named-content></italic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Qwaqwaiini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41217.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i008"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Occipital carina absent (A); forewing areolet triangular (B); hypopygium with a distinct, elongate ventral spine (C), subapical setae never forming a dense tuft</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41218.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i009"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasomal tergites 2+3 fused into a single segment (a); marginal cell closed, areolet present (b); inquiline in galls on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Searsia</named-content></named-content></italic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Synergini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41219.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i010"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tergites 2–7 free (A); marginal cell open, may be semi-closed (B); areolet present or absent (B); gall-inducers on herbaceous plants</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Aylacini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="Aylacini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Aylacini</named-content></named-content></title><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1860</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> Förster is closely related to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Timaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> Mayr, which is considered to be a junior synonym by some authors (<xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">Eady and Quinlan 1963</xref>, <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">Melika 2006</xref>, <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>), but not others (<xref rid="B175" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey 1994</xref>, <xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">2001</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> is immediately distinguishable from the other cynipid genera present in the Afrotropical region by the open marginal cell, which may be semi-closed (completely closed in both <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic>). The areolet, if defined, is triangular, but may be inconspicuous or absent in some species. It is large and distinct in both other genera, triangular in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic>, elongate rhomboidal in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> lacks an occipital carina as in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic>, but has free metasomal tergites, whereas <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> has tergites 2 and 3 fused.</p><fig id="F2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41156.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g002"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Afrotropical: South Africa: Western Cape Province and Eastern Cape Province. Also Palearctic including North Africa; Nearctic: USA and Canada (introduced); Neotropical: Argentina (introduced); Australasia: Australia (introduced).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Phytophagous: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">neserorum</named-content></named-content></italic> oviposit in young, soft stems of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Chrysanthemoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">monolifera</named-content></named-content></italic> (L.) Norl. (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Asteraceae</named-content></named-content>), larvae developing in cells in the pith without any visible gall formation. Adults emerge in July and August. Gall formation shows no swelling or external deformation of the stem with surface emergence holes the only indication of infestation (<xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>).</p><p>The introduced <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hypochoeridis</named-content></named-content></italic> is a gall former in stalks of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hypochaeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">radicata</named-content></named-content></italic> L. (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Asteraceae</named-content></named-content>) (<xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>).</p><p><bold>Species richness.</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hypochoeridis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1887) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aulax</named-content></named-content></italic>) (introduced to South Africa from Europe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">neserorum</named-content></named-content></italic> Melika & Prinsloo, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p>A number of undescribed species are known from South Africa.</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Synergini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Synergini</named-content></named-content></title><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Mayr, 1881</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> is morphologically similar to the Holarctic inquiline genera <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Synergus</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Saphonecrus</named-content></named-content></italic>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Synophrus</named-content></named-content></italic>, all of which typically attack oak cynipid galls. The transverse ridges of the mesoscutum, and a mesopleuron sculptured with longitudinal ridges in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> closely resemble characters in several species of the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Synergus</named-content></named-content></italic>/<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Saphonecrus</named-content></named-content></italic> complex. A sister group relationship between <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> and these three oak inquiline genera was hypothesized by <xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist (1994)</xref> and <xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad and Ronquist (1998)</xref>.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> has a closed marginal cell, a character shared with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic>. The areolet is triangular as in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic>, but larger and more distinct, whereas it is elongate rhomboidal in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic> lacks an occipital carina as in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> (present in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic>), but has tergites 2 and 3 fused, whereas these are free in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><fig id="F3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">loewi</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41157.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g003"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>South Africa: Western, Eastern and Northern Cape Provinces.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Inquiline forming secondary cells in galls induced by <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Scyrotis</named-content></named-content></italic> moths (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cecidosidae</named-content></named-content>) on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Searsia</named-content></named-content></italic> (formerly <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhus</named-content></named-content></italic>) (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Anacardiaceae</named-content></named-content>) shrubs and trees. The larval cells expand into the hollow interior of the host gall resulting in death of the gall inducing moth larva (<xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2007</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">loewi</named-content></named-content></italic> Mayr, 1881 (South Africa)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Qwaqwaiini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Qwaqwaiini</named-content></named-content></title><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Liljeblad, Nieves-Aldrey & Melika, 2011</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic> has a dorsally wide pronotum, a character shared with members of the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Synergini</named-content></named-content> and the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Aylacini</named-content></named-content> (especially some species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic>). However, the presence of only two prominent teeth on the right mandible and a parascutal carina that extends anteriorly all the way to the notaulus separate <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scolopiae</named-content></named-content></italic> from species of these two tribes (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></named-content></italic> has a strong, sharp occipital carina, which distinguishes this genus from both other Afrotropical representatives of this family where the carina is absent. Marginal cell of forewing closed, with veins heavily pigmented, a character state shared with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic>, however, the areolet is elongate rhomboidal whereas it is triangular in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></named-content></italic>. The hypopygium is short, abrupt, without a projecting ventral spine (present in both other genera), with dense setae forming an apical tuft.</p><fig id="F4" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scolopiae</named-content></named-content></italic> female (Holotype, South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41158.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g004"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Gall inducer on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Scolopia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mundii</named-content></named-content></italic> (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Warb. (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Salicaceae</named-content></named-content>), a tree in the eudicot subclass <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subclass">Rosidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>South Africa: Kwazulu-Natal; Mpumalanga.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scolopiae</named-content></named-content></italic> Liljeblad, Nieves-Aldrey & Melika, 2011 (South Africa)</p></sec></sec></sec></sec><sec><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by seven of the world’s 12 subfamilies and comprise the richest component of the Afrotropical cynipoid fauna with 236 described species. All subfamilies contain numerous undescribed species, dominated by the hyper-diverse <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical figitids are primarily endoparasitoids of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="infraorder">Muscomorpha</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content>, attacking the early instar stages of their hosts and emerging from the host puparium (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>). The two exceptions to this pattern are the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content>, of which the former are <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chrysopidae</named-content></named-content> parasitoids (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content>), and the latter are hyperparasitoids of braconids and chalcidoids in plant lice (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Sternorrhyncha</named-content></named-content>) (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>). Hosts are unknown for the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content>, as well as numerous species of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>. Ecologically, figitids are mainly associated with three environments: aphid communities on plants, where they attack aphid enemies (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>); that of plant leafminers, attacking the mining flies (many <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>); and arguably the most common is various decomposing matter, where saprophagous flies are the hosts (many <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The family is represented in all biogeographical regions, also on subantarctic islands. The largely undescribed tropical faunas are difficult to compare, but eventually the Neotropical fauna might very well turn out to be the richest of all (Buffington and Forshage pers. obsv.).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical figitid subfamilies"><title>Key to Afrotropical figitid subfamilies</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e2202" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41220.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i011"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum with a disc or cup on dorsal surface with a central or posterior pit (a, b, c). Pronotal plate well-developed, frequently produced anterio-dorsally into an anterior plate with a strong postero-lateral margin (a). Segments 2 and 3 of metasoma fused, without visible suture</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41221.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i012"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum without a disc or cup dorsally (A, B); occasionally with raised central area, but lacking a central or posterior pit (C). Pronotal plate frequently lacking a strong posterior margin. Segments two and three rarely fused</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41222.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i013"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Apical margin of forewing distinctly emarginate (a). Dense ‘foamy’ setae present on propodeum and anterior of metasoma (b). Scutellar plate occasionally present, but lacking central pit (c)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> )</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41223.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i014"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Apical margin of forewing entire (A). Propodeum and base of metasoma setose or glabrous, but never with dense, ‘foamy’ setae (B, C)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41224.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i015"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum and scutellum completely smooth and rounded, entirely lacking sculpture (a). Petiole very short, at most as long as broad (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41225.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i016"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum and scutellum frequently sculptured, most often with notauli present on mesoscutum, and the scutellum crenulate to rugose; if scutellum smooth, then with distinct posterior carina and petiole long, at least 4× longer than wide</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>4</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41226.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i017"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Marginal cell of forewing strongly reduced, closed, its veins thick and heavy. Metasoma with segments 2 and 3 forming a syntergum</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41227.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i018"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Marginal cell of forewing not reduced, open or closed along anterior margin, veins typically slender (A). Metasomal tergae free (not fused) (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>5</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41228.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i019"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Facial impression usually present between toruli (a). Tergite 2 of metasoma liguliform; hind tibiae in most genera longitudinally ridged or furrowed on outer margins or posteriorly. Scutellum with one or more longitudinal carinae and subapically with either a spine or foveae (b). Mesosoma sculptured, dull (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41229.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i020"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Facial impression absent (A). Tergite 2 of metasoma not liguliform. Hind tibia not longitudinally ridged or furrowed externally or posteriorly, at most with longitudinal carinae or groove internally. Scutellum usually without three longitudinal carinae or subapical fovea, though more frequently produced apically to form a spine (B). Mesosoma generally smooth and shining, with notauli present (B), occasionally dull and sculptured</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>6</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41230.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i021"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Petiole with dorsal lamellus, which partially covers the junction between the petiole and the nucha (a). Base of metasoma with a complete hairy ring (a, b). Mesoscutum dull, microcoreacious (a, b). Mesopleuron dorsally smooth and shiny, ventrally strigose (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41231.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i022"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Petiole lacking a dorsal lamellus, junction between petiole and nucha fully exposed (A). Base of metasoma glabrous, lacking a hairy ring (A, B). Mesoscutum lacking microcoreacious sculpture; macrosculptural elements usually present (A). Mesopleuron smooth except for distinct mesopleural line or entirely longitudinally striate (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>7</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41232.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i023"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Head, in anterior view, elongate oval to round, as wide as, or narrower than mesosoma (a). Tergite 2 of metasoma shorter than third; petiole never as long as wide (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41233.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i024"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Head, in anterior view, roughly triangular, occasionally wider than mesosoma (A). Tergite 2 of metasoma longer than third; petiole at least as long as wide, generally more than twice as long as wide (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="Anacharitinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by four genera containing 3 described, and at least one undescribed species. Additional undescribed species are present in world collections.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical anachritines are primary parasitoids of aphid-hunting <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is widespread, with many described species in the Holarctic and Neotropics, and fewer elsewhere. In the Afrotropical and Oceanic regions, there are certainly many species undescribed, and they are likely to be present also in the Oriental regions even though not recorded as such yet.</p><sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical anacharitine genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical anacharitine genera</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e2451" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41234.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i025"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum with medial longitudinal furrow with cross-carinae (a, b) mimicking the adjacent notauli</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41235.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i026"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum without medial longitudinal furrow (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41236.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i027"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Petiole shiny, often very long (a). Mesopleuron with a band of heavy sculpture (b). Scutellum short, rounded (c)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41237.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i028"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Petiole sculptured, relatively short (A, B). Mesopleuron at most with striations, without a band of heavy sculpture (A, B). Scutellum produced into a spine, which may be blunt (C)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41238.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i029"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum protruding posteriorly, overhanging propodeum, sometimes as a spine, with similar reticulate-foveolate sculpture over entire dorsal surface (a). Head transverse, distinctly wider than mesosoma (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41239.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i030"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum usually not overhanging propodeum, never as a distinct spine, smooth or more or less rugose, never rough reticulate (A); typically a circumscutellar carina can be traced around the dorsal circumference of the scutellum. Head rounded, only slightly wider than mesosoma (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Pujade-Villar, 2013</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Recently described genus endemic to the Afrotropical region.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Immediately distinguishable from other Afrotropical anacharitines by the presence of a distinct and complete medial longitudinal furrow containing cross-carinae on the mesoscutum. The ventral part of the mesopleuron is coriaceously sculptured, a unique anacharitine character state.</p><fig id="F5" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsolateral view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior-lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41159.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g005"></graphic></fig><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Afrotropical region: Comoros, Madagascar, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">Mata-Casanova and Pujade-Villar 2013</xref>; <xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">Mata-Casanova et al. 2014</xref>), Kenya (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hemicoriaceus</named-content></named-content></italic> Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar, 2014 (Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">malagasy</named-content></named-content></italic> Pujade-Villar & Mata-Casanova, 2013 (Comoros, Madagascar)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Walker in Haliday, 1835</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in Afrotropical region. The genus is often difficult to separate from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, and requires revision.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>A variable and rather unsatisfactorily circumscribed genus. Some representatives are quite similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> while some have more of the superficial appearance of small <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>. The scutellum may be pointed posteriorly but forms far less of a spine, and is less strongly foveolate so that a circumscutellar carina may follow all the way around the scutellum. Head is less transversal and triangular than in other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content>.</p><fig id="F6" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsolateral view <bold>C</bold> head, pronotal plate anteriolateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41160.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g006"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Holarctic, but present locally also in the Neotropical and Afrotropical regions. Afrotropical records: Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Only undescribed species in the Afrotropical region, as Kieffer’s <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">capensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (at current state of knowledge) is a <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Dalman, 1823</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in Afrotropical region.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Characteristic anacharitines with elongate, smooth petiole and distinctly transverse and triangular head. The scutellum does not overhang the propodeum; it has more or less reticulate sculpture (never strongly foveolate) and often has a posterior carina that forms a distinct posterodorsal edge. The mesopleura are typically more sculptured than in other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content>, and the metasoma ends in a more pointed way (the others typically more abruptly).</p><fig id="F7" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 7.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41161.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g007"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Holarctic, but also common in Australia and New Zealand, and locally present in Afrotropical region. Afrotropical records: Madagascar (<xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar 2012</xref>), Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content> larvae. (<xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B168" ref-type="bibr">Miller and Lambdin 1985</xref>, <xref rid="B54" ref-type="bibr">Cave and Miller 1987</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">madagascarensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Pujade-Villar, 2012 (Madagascar)</p><p>Several undescribed species from elsewhere in Africa.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Hartig, 1843</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Not common in the Afrotropical region. The genus is often difficult to separate from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></italic> and requires revision.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> are often easy to recognise by their very distinct scutellar spines, but several taxa have more blunt or moderate spines that are close to character states found in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></italic>. In these cases, the scutellum of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> is characterised by a heavier foveolate sculpture, where no circumscutellar carina is obvious. As currently circumscribed, the genus is somewhat heterogenous in the Afrotropical region, and a distinct species group is characterised by a strongly sculptured mesoscutum with longitudinal carinae as well as strong genal carinae.</p><fig id="F8" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 8.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsolateral view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41162.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g008"></graphic></fig><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Holarctic, but also present throughout the Old World Tropics. Afrotropical records: South Africa (<xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">Kieffer 1912</xref>), Nigeria, Uganda (<xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">Mata-Casanova et al. 2014</xref>), Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Malawi, Yemen, Zimbabwe (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B168" ref-type="bibr">Miller and Lambdin 1985</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">capensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1912), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></named-content></italic>) (South Africa, Zimbabwe) (Type supposedly in ZMBH, but not found there. However, the original description has been deemed sufficient for generic placement here)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">subsaharica</named-content></named-content></italic> Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar, 2014 (Nigeria, Uganda)</p><p>Several undescribed species from elsewhere in the region.</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Aspicerinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by four genera containing 13 described species. A number of undescribed species are present in world collections and await description.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical aspicerines are primary parasitoids of aphidophagous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Syrphidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chamaemyiidae</named-content></named-content> larvae (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content>) (<xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is widespread. Although the majority of described species are Palearctic this is a biased distribution with both the Nearctic and Neotropical faunas probably being more diverse than the Palearctic. The species numbers in the Afrotropical and Oriental regions are significantly lower (but with many undescribed species), while the subfamily has not yet been recorded at all in the Oceanic region.</p><sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical aspicerine genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical aspicerine genera</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e3010" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41240.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i031"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum rounded (a), or concave (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41241.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i032"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum with a medial spine (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41242.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i033"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum concave (a); scutellum with lateral ridges (a). Occipital carina present dorsally (medially interrupted) (a); occiput with transverse striations (a). Face with lateral carinae extending from lateral ocelli to antennal scrobes (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41243.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i034"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum rounded (A); scutellum smooth without lateral ridges (A). Occipital carina dorsally absent; occiput smooth (A). Face without carinae (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41244.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i035"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vertex with a median vertical groove backwards to occiput (a, b). Carinae extend from posterior ocelli forwards to antennae (a). Ocelli raised. Compound eyes bounded by a strong continuous carina (a, b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41245.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i036"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vertex without a groove (B). Ocelli hardly raised. Carina surrounding compound eyes always interrupted near malar space (A)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Cameron, 1904</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonym: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coelonychia</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Not common. Revised by <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2009)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>This genus is immediately separable from all other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> by the distinctive scutellar depression bounded by a pair of sharp, postero-dorsal triangular projections. The elongate petiole is somewhat variable within <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>, though the state in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic> is longer than in most other genera. The only two taxa <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic> may be confused with are <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Callaspidia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pujadella</named-content></named-content></italic>; both of these latter genera have mesoscutal sculpturing that is remininscent of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>; however, close examination of the scutellar morphology easily separates these taxa (<xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2009</xref>). <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Callaspidia</named-content></named-content></italic> has not been recorded from the Old World Tropics; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pujadella</named-content></named-content></italic> has been collected in Thailand (Buffington pers. obs.) and southern China (<xref rid="B226" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré 2007</xref>).</p><fig id="F9" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 9.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallida</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41163.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g009"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Almost endemic to the Afrotropical region with extralimital distribution in the Canary Islands. Afrotropical records: Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, Zimbabwe (Buffington and van Noort, 2009), Central African Republic, Guinea-Bissau, Malawi (here).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2009</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nicknacki</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2009 (Cameroon, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallida</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Ethiopia, South Africa; extralimital distribution in the Canary Islands)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">paragi</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">quadrus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Ethiopia, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">astrida</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rufus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1912) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coelonychia</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Ethiopia, South Africa) (identity uncertain)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">striaticeps</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron, 1904 (Angola, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">arcus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">decellius</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">elongaticornis</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">eurytergis</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">gibbosus</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigra</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sanitas</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coelonychia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">spinosipes</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">suspensus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content><named-content content-type="species">stygius</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Nigeria, Tanzania)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Dahlbom, 1842</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in the Afrotropical region.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>This taxon can be difficult to seperate from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hartigi</named-content></named-content></italic>, the only species recorded from the Afrotropical region thus far, has a much shorter scutellar spine than <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>. Additionally, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> lacks the characteristic inner-orbital carina that <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> has. Finally, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hartigi</named-content></named-content></italic> (from Yemen) is distinctly bi-chromatic, with a orange-brown mesoscutum and black mesopleuron; African <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>, to our knowledge, are all black. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> are <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> and lack the characteristic ligulate T2 of the metasoma that aspicerines have. Furthermore, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> lack the setiferous pit on the frons, a putative defining feature of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B230" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré et al. 2000</xref>).</p><fig id="F10" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 10.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hartigi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Yemen). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41164.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g010"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Holarctic, but marginally present in the Afrotropical region. Afrotropical records: Yemen (here).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p><xref rid="B229" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré and Pujade-Villar (2013)</xref> report, based on label data, that <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dianae</named-content></named-content></italic> Ros-Farré, 2013 emerged from the syrphid <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Metasyrphus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vinelandi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Curran, 1921). <xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist (1999)</xref> and <xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">Weld (1952)</xref> report <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> species are parasitoids of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Syrphidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chamaemyiidae</named-content></named-content>, but these rearing records await confirmation.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hartigi</named-content></named-content></italic> Dalla Torre, 1889 (Yemen). This species has also been reported from the UAE (<xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2010</xref> as <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> sp.), Saudi Arabia and Algeria (here)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Walker in Haliday, 1835</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in the Afrotropical region; likely non-native to the region. The classification of this taxon is unstable. Recently, <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2007)</xref> moved it to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> from <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>. As reflected in the key to subfamilies, the taxon does not neatly fit into either subfamily, and possesses a plesiomorphic morphotype reminiscent of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Thrasorinae</named-content></named-content> (Australasian), <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Plectocynipinae</named-content></named-content> (Neotropical) and some <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>. Rearing <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>records (summarized below) as well as phylogenetic analyses suggest this taxon is more closely related to the genera in <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>, and we maintain that classification here.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Distinguished from other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> by the characteristic ‘clam-shell’ petiolar lamina present on the dorsal half of the petiole. This lamina can often cover the junction between the petiole and the nucha. Superficially, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></named-content></italic> appears to be a cynipid, but can be distinguished from the Afrotropical cynipids by lacking an areola in the forewing, and by having a dorsally smooth mesopleuron. In addition, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></named-content></italic> has a setose mesoscutum.</p><fig id="F11" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 11.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">alienus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Yemen). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41165.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g011"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Holarctic but transgressing into the Old World Tropics; in the Afrotropical region found so far only in Kenya and Yemen (here) but expected to show up elsewhere.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoid of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">Evenhuis 1968</xref>, <xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>); label data of several specimens in BMNH (from Kenya and India) records them as reared from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lecopis</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chamaemyiidae</named-content></named-content>), some with host remains.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">alienus</named-content></named-content></italic> Giraud, 1860 (Kenya, Yemen; extralimital distribution: widespread in Europe and North Africa)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Kieffer, 1907</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Revised by <xref rid="B66" ref-type="bibr">Díaz (1979)</xref> and by <xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré and Pujade-Villar (2006)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>This taxon is most easily confused with Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>, but can be distinguished from that taxon by having a much longer scutellar spine, easily as long as the petiole and distinctly overhanging it (much shorter in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>, not overhanging the petiole). Further, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> has not yet been recorded from equatorial Africa, and appears to be restricted to arid portions of Mediterranean Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula (here). <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> can, to a lesser extent, be confused with the figitines <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> (all having reasonably well-developed scutellar spines); however, figitines lack the ligulate metasomal T2, and well as the facial impression, and these two characters separate <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> from figitines with scutellar spines.</p><fig id="F12" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 12.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, dorsal view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41166.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g012"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly pantropical, but extending into the southern Nearctic and the southeastern Palearctic. Afrotropical records: Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré and Pujade-Villar 2006</xref>); South Africa (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoid of aphidivorous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Syrphidae</named-content></named-content>: <xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">Ros-Farré and Pujade-Villar 2006</xref>). USNM has two specimens from Nigeria reared from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paragus</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Syrphidae</named-content></named-content>) on cotton.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">antennata</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956c) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">optiva</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">paragicida</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956c) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tropica</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1910d) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Zimbabwe)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">africana</named-content></named-content></italic> Kinsey, 1919</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kisantua</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956c</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Charipinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by four genera containing 19 described species. The African fauna was reviewed by <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. (2013)</xref>. A number of undescribed species are present in world collections and await description.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical charipines are hyperparasitoids, attacking braconids and aphelinids in aphids, or encyrtids in psyllids (<xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. 2012</xref>, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is represented in all biogeographical regions with the majority of species occurring in the Holarctic (<xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. 2012</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical charipine genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical charipine genera</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e3999" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41246.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i037"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasoma with a syntergite (sometimes with second tergite separate as a small anterior ring, but no posterior tergites visible normally) (a). Two apical segments of female antennae immovably conjoined (b). Wing veins do not reach wing edge (a)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41247.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i038"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasoma with posterior tergites visible (A). The two apical segments of antennae always movable (B). Wing veins reach wing edge</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41248.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i039"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Second tergite separate as a small anterior ring (a). Scutellum laterally smooth; apical ridge small (b). Subcosta running near wing edge. Common</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41249.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i040"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Second tergite merged with syntergite (A). Scutellum with lateral ridges (B) and pronounced apical ridge (B). Subcosta running near middle of wing. Rare</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41250.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i041"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">With mesopleural line (a). Variable but usually more “figitid-looking”, darkly colored, with a long marginal cell (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41251.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i042"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Without mesopleural line (A). Usually tiny, pale, with a short marginal cell (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Commonly collected. Reviewed for Africa by <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. (2013)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>These are the characteristic tiny pale charipines, but in fact they vary a lot in size and colour (also within species!). Colours vary from very dark brown through middle browns and reds to pale yellow, frequently with the head in a paler hue than the rest of the body. The absence of a mesopleural line is the best way to separate them from the otherwise often similar <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content></named-content></italic> also lack the mesopleural line, but can be separated by their conjoined two apical antennal articles, or by their characteristic metasoma, which is mostly covered by a syntergite and is oval in shape. The metasoma of a representative of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic> typically shows the posterior tergites separate, and is truncated at the end, often with a (cynipid-like) oblique slash. Furthermore, most <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic> are larger, paler and more pubescent (on the pronotum, metapleura and coxae) than most <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic>, and the mesoscutum is smoothly convex (rather than the hump of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic>).</p><fig id="F13" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 13.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> scutellum, dorsal view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41167.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g013"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide, but most abundant in the Holarctic region. Afrotropical records: Democratic Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956e</xref>), Kenya (<xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">Evenhuis 1974</xref>), Madagascar (<xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. 2012</xref>), Burundi, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay and Pujade-Villar 2013</xref>) Ethiopia, Ghana, Namibia, Yemen, Zambia (here). Apparently some species are synanthropically widespread, but there is no reason to assume that none of the forms present in Africa are native.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hyperparasitoids attacking aphelinid and aphidiine wasps on aphids. (<xref rid="B88" ref-type="bibr">Gutierrez and van den Bosch 1970</xref>, Evenhuis passim, <xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">Andrews 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">antananarivoi</named-content></named-content></italic> Ferrer-Suay & Pujade-Villar, 2012 (Burundi, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">antsirananae</named-content></named-content></italic> Ferrer-Suay & Pujade-Villar, 2012 (Madagascar, Zimbabwe)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">arcuata</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1902) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Allotria</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe; also Palearctic and Neotropical regions)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">brevis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Thomson, 1862) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Allotria</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Zimbabwe; also Palearctic and Neotropical regions)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">citripes</named-content></named-content></italic> (Thomson, 1862) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Allotria</named-content></named-content></italic>) (South Africa; cosmopolitan species described from the Palearctic)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fuscicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1841) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xystus</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya, South Africa; cosmopolitan species described from the Palearctic)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hendrickxi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956e) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Charips</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mullensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Cameron, 1883) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Allotria</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe; also Palearctic and Neotropical regions)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pilipennis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1840) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xystus</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Zimbabwe; also Palearctic and Neotropical regions)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Fergusson, 1986</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic>, and most easily separated by wing ventation characters: an elongate marginal cell, a subcosta running near mid-width of wing in basal part and having a distinct curve near the basal cross-vein. Other distinguishing characters, easily observed in larger specimens but hardly seen in smaller, is the scutellum with distinct lateral and posterior carinae, and the syntergite where T2 is barely visible as a separate small anterior sclerite.</p><fig id="F14" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 14.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trapezoidea</named-content></named-content></italic> (Ghana). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41168.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g014"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Palearctic, Neotropical and Afrotropical. Afrotropical records: Ethiopia (<xref rid="B234" ref-type="bibr">Silvestri 1915</xref>), Kenya (<xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay and Pujade-Villar 2013</xref>), Ghana, Uganda, Zimbabwe (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hyperparasitoids attacking wasps on psyllids (<xref rid="B249" ref-type="bibr">Vasileva-Sumnalieva 1976</xref>, <xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">Menke 1993</xref>). A specimen from Uganda in BMNH was reared from the psyllid <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pseudoeriopsylla</named-content><named-content content-type="species">laingi</named-content></named-content></italic> Hollis & Broomfield, 1989 on <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ficus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">natalensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Hochst. (label data).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trapezoidea</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1841) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xystus</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya; Palearctic species)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxista</named-content><named-content content-type="species">peraptera</named-content></named-content></italic> Silvestri, 1915. Synonymy implied in <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. (2013)</xref>, but apparently never published as an explicit new synonymy</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Common. Revised for the region by <xref rid="B195" ref-type="bibr">Paretas-Martinez et al. (2009)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Mostly tiny and dark brown charipines. Separated from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content></named-content></italic> by lacking lateral ridges on scutellum, having at most a small posterior ridge, and by usually having T2 discernable as a separate sclerite. May be confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic>, but has an oval-rounded metasoma covered in the major part by a syntergite (no posterior tergites visible) and has the two apical articles of the female antenna immovable conjoined. Furthermore, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic> are usually larger, paler, has more pubescence, and have a more smoothly convex mesoscutum; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic> have a characteristic anterior hump in lateral view.</p><fig id="F15" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 15.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Madagascar). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorso-lateral view <bold>C</bold> scutellum, posterio-dorsal view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41169.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g015"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Holarctic and Old World Tropics. Afrotropical records: Cameroon (<xref rid="B140" ref-type="bibr">Lebel and Modesta 2007</xref>), Democratic Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956e</xref>), Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Somalia, South Africa (<xref rid="B195" ref-type="bibr">Paretas-Martinez et al. 2009</xref>), Madagascar (<xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar and Ferrer-Suay 2012</xref>), Rwanda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">Ferrer-Suay et al. 2013</xref>), Central African Republic, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen (here).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hyperparasitoids attacking encyrtid wasps on psyllids (<xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">Menke and Evenhuis 1991</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">africana</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956e) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">australafricana</named-content></named-content></italic> Paretas-Martínez & Pujade-Villar, 2009 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">camerounensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Lebel & Modeste, 2007 (Cameroon)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ghanana</named-content></named-content></italic> Paretas-Martínez, Pujade-Villar & Melika, 2009 (Central African Republic, Ghana)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kenyana</named-content></named-content></italic> Paretas-Martínez & Pujade-Villar, 2009 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">paretasmartinezi</named-content></named-content></italic> Pujade-Villar & Ferrer-Suay, 2012 (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">somaliana</named-content></named-content></italic> Paretas-Martínez, Pujade-Villar & Evenhuis, 2009 (Botswana, Somalia, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">subclavata</named-content></named-content></italic> Förster, 1869 (Madagascar; a European species)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Not uncommon in South Africa.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic>, but usually with a habitus more resembling other figitids. Easily recognised among charipines through the possession of a mesopleural carina.</p><fig id="F16" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 16.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorso-lateral view <bold>C</bold> pronotum, dorso-anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41170.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g016"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide, but most abundant in Holarctic. Afrotropical records: South Africa (<xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">Gaston et al. 2003</xref>). Seemingly introduced.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hyperparasitoids attacking aphelinid and aphidiine wasps on aphids (<xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">Kierych 1979</xref>; <xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan and Evenhuis 1980</xref>; <xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">villosa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1841) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xystus</named-content></named-content></italic>) (South Africa; this species is widespread throughout the world (Pujade-Villar et al. 2007)</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Emargininae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by a single genus containing 12 described species. A number of undescribed species are present in world collections.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Unknown (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>), possibly associated with ants (<xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1960</xref>, <xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">Díaz 1978</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is represented in all biogeographical regions except the Antarctic, but with very few species in the Holarctic and the majority of species occurring in the Afrotropical region (present study).</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Girault, 1930</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonyms: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> Díaz, 1978, <bold>syn. n.</bold>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> Weld, 1960, <bold>syn. n.</bold>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Weldiola</named-content></named-content></italic> Kovalev, 1994, <bold>syn. n.</bold>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Quinlania</named-content></named-content></italic> Kovalev, 1994, <bold>syn. n.</bold>)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> (and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothriocynips</named-content></named-content></italic>) were described at different times in different groups that are now considered different figitid subfamilies, obviously with the authors being unaware of the other generic names (<xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">Díaz 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">Girault 1930</xref>, Quinlan 1960). The Neotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothriocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> was made a junior synonym of the Neotropical and Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> by <xref rid="B204" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar et al (2002)</xref>. However nothing has been suggested to distinguish <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> except distribution (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> Neotropical and Afrotropical, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> Australian), and there is no morphological evidence to support keeping them separate. <xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">Kovalev (1994)</xref>, within a consideration of broad evolutionary trends in the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, found that some of the characters separating some of the Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> species in Quinlan’s key (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1988</xref>) were important enough to merit separation on a higher taxonomic level and erected not just new genera but new tribes for two of Quinlan’s species from Madagascar (and a new family for the whole group). Ronquist (1995) changed the status of Kovalev’s <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Emarginidae</named-content></named-content> into a subfamily, and made Kovalev’s <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Weldiolini</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Quinlaniini</named-content></named-content> synonyms of it, but Kovalev’s genera have remained to this date, in spite of being raised in the absence of an actual morphological study as well as of consideration of the global variation. Here we consider that at the current level of knowledge they constitute mere recognisable species or species groups among others within a single genus.</p><p>Thus, here we synonymise all genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content>, and the senior name is <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> Girault. Most of the resulting new combinations are species hitherto classified as <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> Weld, including the Neotropical type species <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">eciton</named-content></named-content></italic> (Weld, 1960), <bold>comb. n.</bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothriocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> was already made a synonym of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic> but is a new synonym of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic>, and its Neotropical type species is now <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">recisa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Díaz, 1978), <bold>comb. n.</bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Quinlaniana</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Weldiola</named-content></named-content></italic> were both monotypical for taxa from Madagascar and cited in the new combinations <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pexa</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">capito</named-content></named-content></italic> respectively below.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Members of the subfamily <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content>, now coinciding with the genus <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic>, uniformly possess an emarginate apical margin of the forewing. The only other cynipoids to have such a character are species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>, but being eucoilines, the latter have a distinct scutellar plate with posterior midpit. Some emarginines have what appears to be a raised scutellar plate on the scutellum, but in these species, there is clearly an entire lack of a glandular pit. Emarginines also typically have: a very abrupt, compact marginal cell in the forewing; distinct notauli; dense ‘foamy’ setae on the propodeum and base of the metasoma; and large, setiferous pits on the flagellomeres of the male antenna.</p><p>Much species level work remains to be conducted on the Afrotropical emarginines. However, we have noted the following characteristics of currently unnamed species groups:</p><p>Species group A, which appears to be common in Madagascar, comprises species that possess notauli, and have a thin, complete, lamella along the posterior margin of the scutellum. The lamellae enclose a rather deep ‘trough’; further, the lamella is so thin that without significant magnification, it will not be visible. The presence of this resulting ‘trough’ may have led <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1988)</xref> to erroneously conclude <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> are actually <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>.</p><p>Species group B also possesses notauli, as well as having rather spectacular projections off the posterior margin of the scutellum. Two sub-groups can be recognized; one with a simply bifurcate scutellar margin; and a second group possessing a single projection off the posterior margin of the scutellum. Both subgroups contain the largest physical specimens of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic>, with some reaching nearly 1.5 mm; further, nearly all members of this group have dark, dusky wings. Quinlan’s <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pexa</named-content></named-content></italic>, considered by Kovalev to constitute the tribe <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Quinlanianini</named-content></named-content>, belongs in this species group. Species group B appears to be endemic to Madagascar.</p><p>Species group C possesses notauli, and is similar in overall appearance to species group A, however, species in group C lack the posterior lamella on the scutellum. Nevertheless, group C species do have a deep, marked depression on the posterior margin of the scutellum. Quinlan's <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">capito</named-content></named-content></italic>, considered by Kovalev to constitute the tribe <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Weldiolini</named-content></named-content>, belongs in this species group. Species group C is common in continental Africa (throughout the tropical belt), as well as Madagascar.</p><p>Species group D is the most widespread of the four genus groups, found equally common in Madagascar and continental Africa. The distinguishing feature of this group is the general lack of clear notauli. In some species, it is clear that the mesoscutum is perfectly smooth; in others, there are faint traces of notauli, but never as clearly indicated as in species groups A–C. The posterior margin of the scutellum in these species is rounded, lacking any remarkable morphology. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">laverna</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">micipsa</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">palloris</named-content></named-content></italic>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vacuna</named-content></named-content></italic> would be included in this group.</p><fig id="F17" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 17.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Madagascar). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41171.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g017"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Pantropical, apparently especially diverse in Madagascar. Presence in the Oriental region has not been published hitherto but is confirmed here. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1988</xref>), Central African Republic, Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts unknown. Appear to be associated with ants (<xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1960</xref>, <xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">Díaz 1978</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Species group A</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">numa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Zimbabwe)</p><p>Species group B</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pexa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Madagascar)</p><p>Species group C</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ascia</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Madagascar, Zambia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cantus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">capito</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">matius</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">peleus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">themis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Madagascar)</p><p>Species group D</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">laverna</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">micipsa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">palloris</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vacuna</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Emargo</named-content></named-content></italic>) (South Africa)</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Eucoilinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucolinae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by 30 genera containing 176 described species. Numerous undescribed species are present in world collections awaiting description.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Afrotropical eucoilines are koinobiont endoparasitoids of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="infraorder">Muscomorpha</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> larvae (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>). A large group of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> are parasitoids of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content>, mostly leafminers in the canopy, but the majority attack various families of flies typically in decomposing habitats (carrion, dung, fruit, leaf litter, sea wrack etc) but also in living plants, mushrooms and algae (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Phoridae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Sepsidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ephydridae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Muscidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Calliphoridae</named-content></named-content> etc). However, it must be noted that the biology of the majority of eucoiline species remains unknown (Forshage and Buffington pers. obs.).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is represented in all biogeographical regions (including subantarctic islands). The majority of described species are Palearctic, and indeed there is a striking diversity in some genera throughout the Holarctic, but species diversity in the tropical regions is far richer though mostly yet undescribed, and possibly the Neotropics has the largest diversity of all regions (Buffington and Forshage pers. obs.).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical eucoiline tribes and genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical eucoiline tribes and genera</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e5438" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41252.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i043"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasomal base with hairy ring (a) or elongate hair patches laterally (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41253.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i044"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metasomal base glabrous (A) or with scattered hairs only (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>24</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41254.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i045"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Forewing emarginated (a); reduced wing venation with open marginal cell (a); usually with partial reduction of wing pubescence. Scutellum longitudinally striate with a narrow scutellar plate (b). Posteroventral corner of metapleuron pointedly protruding (c). Head bulbous with relatively small eyes (c)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Kleidotomini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41255.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i046"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wings not distinctly emarginated (A); wing venation more complete, marginal cell open, partially closed, or completely closed (A). Scutellum variable, but very rarely with a striate scutellum and narrow scutellar disc (B). Metapleural corner not protruding (C). Head variable, but rarely bulbous with small eyes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41256.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i047"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesopleural line absent (a, b); mesopleuron entirely smooth (a, b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>4</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41257.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i048"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesopleural line present (A), or mesopleuron heavily striate (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>6</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41258.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i049"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Foamy setae absent on propodeum and metasomal base; normal straight setae present (a), or glabrous. Gena glabrous, or with a few scattered setae along posterior margin (a). Pronotal plate either vertical or protracted anteriorly, with anterior and posterior halves roughly the same width (b); fovea present, distinct (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>5</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41259.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i050"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">‘Foamy’, reticulate setae present on propodeum and anterior base of metasoma (A). Distinct setal comb present along posterior margin of gena (A). Pronotal plate protracted anteriorly, anterior half distinctly wider than posterior half (B), lateral fovea shallow, nearly indistinct (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> group, tribe uncertain)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41260.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i051"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fovea on pronotal plate closed, lateral bridge present (a). Forewing marginal cell usually longer and closed (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (in part) (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41261.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i052"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fovea on pronotal plate open, lateral bridge absent (A). Fore wing marginal cell short and wide open (B). Tiny wasps</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> group, tribe uncertain)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41262.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i053"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal plate with closed lateral foveae, lateral bridges present (a). Forewings narrow (b); marginal cell closed, distinctly narrow mesally (b). Species typically more or less laterally compressed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content> 7</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41263.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i054"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal plate with lateral foveae open (A), or fovea too shallow to see. Forewings narrow to broad; marginal cell open, partially open, or closed; shape of marginal cell more symmetrical, not narrowed mesally (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>12</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41264.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i055"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum strongly sloping, rarely overhanging propodeum (a); dorsal surface of scutellum distinctly longitudinally striate to smooth, occasionally foveate (a); posterior margin of scutellum rounded, not drawn out into a spine (a). Posterior margin of metapleuron occasionally with a distinct cavity. Hairy ring of metasoma ranging from entire to absent (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>8</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41265.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i056"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posterior part of scutellum protruding posteriorly, overhanging propodeum (A); dorsal surface of scutellum foveate (A), never striate or smooth; posterior margin of scutellum often drawn out to a distinct spine (A, B). Posterior margin of metapleuron always entire. Hairy ring at base of metasoma usually broadly interrupted dorsally (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>10</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41266.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i057"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Clypeus typically flat and smooth (a); rarely bifurcate with single small medial conical protuberance (b). Mandibles of normal cynipoid appearance, triangular, not enlarged. All sizes, usually small or medium sized. Very common</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>9</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41267.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i058"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Clypeus extended into a massive corniculum, with a fuscina on frons (A); mandibles elongate, paddle-shaped (B). Very rare</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41268.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i059"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Propodeum, in lateral view, nearly as tall as metapleuron (a), nearly parallel-sided, hardly tapering posteriorly; propodeal carinae broad, difficult to distinguish from nearby sculpture (b), gently divergent; rare</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (tribe uncertain)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41269.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i060"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Propodeum, in lateral view, much narrower than metapleuron (A), distinctly tapering posteriorly; propodeal carinae very distinct from nearby sculpture (B), nearly parallel; very common</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41270.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i061"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Face with trumpet-shaped anterior-ventral protrusion between toruli (a); short paired anterior protrusions present under antennal sockets (a). Clypeus ventrally outstretched (b); mandibles elongate, paddle-shaped (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41271.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i062"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Face flat, lacking protrusions (A, B); protrusions from ventral margin of toruli absent (B). Clypeus sub-quadrate, not outstretched (A, B); mandibles triangular (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>11</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41272.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i063"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Entire wasp laterally compressed, narrow, with a protruding head (a); head more than twice as long as wide, eyes hairy and scarcely protruding from outline of head capsule (a). Mesopleural line indistinct and very low on metapleuron (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41273.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i064"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Normally shaped, or rarely laterally compressed, head normally transversal. Head about as long as wide, occasionally slightly longer than wide (A). Eyes always protruding from outline of head capsule, head always wider than metasoma, eyes glabrous (A). Mesopleural line distinct (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41274.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i065"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Conical protuberances on clypeus and malar space (a, b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>13</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41275.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i066"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Protuberances on clypeus and malar space absent (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>14</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41276.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i067"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dorsal surface of the scutellum usually longitudinally striate (a). Scutellar plate gently convex, smooth (b). Commonly collected</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (in part) <bold>(<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41277.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i068"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dorsal surface of scutellum foveate to wrinkled, not striate (B). Scutellar plate flat with a pair of tubercles present just anterior to the glandular pit (A, B). Rare</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspidium</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41278.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i069"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posteroventral corner of metapleuron glabrous, obliquely angled, corner often raised and forming a more or less triangular surface facing posterolaterally (a). Antennal F2 modified in males, more or less asymmetric, more so than F1 (or rarely only as much as F1) (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>15 (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41279.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i070"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Posteroventral corner of metapleuron always pubescent, angle often rectilinear or pointed (rarely oblique), never raised or forming a particular surface (A). Antennal F1 modified in males, asymmetric and more or less strongly curved (B), while F2 is not modified</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>19 (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41280.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i071"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>15</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Compact wasps, usually small, typically less than 2 mm long. Petiolar rim broad, hairy ring of metasoma dorsally interrupted (a). Metapleural triangle and subalar pit moderately developed (b). Wing always pubescent, usually with a rather narrow triangular marginal cell and a long hair fringe (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41281.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i072"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Often large wasps, commonly over 2 mm in length. Petiolar rim indistinct, hairy ring of metasoma usually complete (A), occasionally briefly interrupted dorsally. Metapleural triangle and subalar pit well developed. Wing often with reduced pubescence (B), usually with a deep and long quadrangular marginal cell (B), and a short hair fringe (or no hair fringe) (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>16</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41282.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i073"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sides of mesosoma with strongly striate sculpture (a). Strongly reduced pubescence on wing membrane, usually more or less hairless (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>17</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41283.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i074"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sides of mesosoma without striate sculpture (A). Wing pubescence variable (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>18</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41284.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i075"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum striate (a). Scutellum with a posterior spine (b), scutellar plate notched. Pronotum and mesoscutum with strongly reduced pubescence, almost absent (a, b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41285.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i076"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesoscutum smooth (A, B). Scutellum without a posterior spine, scutellar plate weakly convex in lateral view (A, B). Pronotum and mesoscutum with scattered setae (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41286.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i077"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>18</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wing with erect setae on subcosta (a), and often with strongly reduced pubescence (a). Pronotum (and often mesoscutum) with thick truncate setae (b). Coxae often with reticulate-vermiculate sculpture. Scutellar plate convex or even notched, scutellar foveae usually very large</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41287.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i078"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No erect setae on subcosta (A). Wing usually normally pubescent (A), sometimes with reduced pubescence. Pronotum with at most a few thick truncate setae among a majority of normal, thin and pointed setae (B). Coxae always smooth. Scutellar plate straight or convex but never notched, scutellar foveae not very large</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41288.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i079"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>19</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Surface of scutellar plate concave, relatively narrow (a). Mesosoma short, only slightly longer than high (b); propodeum short, not protruding (b). Marginal cell typically distinctly half-closed (R1 vein along fore margin either ends or goes abruptly from pigmented to transparent at half length of marginal cell); occasionally indistinctly so (and sometimes entirely open in very small specimens). Lateral bars of scutellum typically striate (a). Head typically transverse (globular in very small specimens). Forewing shape apically rounded (b). Female antenna with F1–F4 extremely short, annelliform, resulting in a very striking clava (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>20</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41289.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i080"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Surface of scutellar plate convex or flat, often very large (A). Mesosoma elongate, clearly longer than high (B); propodeum protruding. Marginal cell variable, open or closed or indistinctly half-closed. Lateral bars of scutellum typically smooth (A). Head typically deep, often globular. Forewing shape typically with apex more triangular, truncate or faintly incised. Female antenna with F1–F4 of normal size (B), clava indistinct or distinct</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>21</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41290.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i081"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Marginal cell of fore wing semi-closed (a). Head transverse. Scutellar plate about as wide as long, not narrow (b). Apical hair fringe of fore wing variable, typically short (a). Size variable</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41291.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i082"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Marginal cell of fore wing open (A). Head globular, about as deep as tall. Scutellar plate narrow, distinctly longer than wide (B). Apical hair fringe on fore wing always distinctly long (A). Always tiny (less than 1 mm) (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41292.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i083"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>21</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum strongly convex, surface of scutellar plate convex and usually covering most of scutellum (a); scutellar foveae oriented obliquely relative to midline (a); dorsal surface of scutellum typically longitudinally striate (a). Marginal cell narrow, elongate-triangular (2r and RS straight and of equal length, with an open angle between them), typically closed (b). Wing elongate, relatively narrow, apically truncate (b). Metacoxae with a small tuft of hairs</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41293.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i084"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellum gently convex, surface of scutellar plate flat or convex, of variable size and width (A); scutellar foveae nearly perpendicular relative to midline; dorsal surface of scutellum variable, foveate or gently wrinkled, very rarely longitudinally striate (A). Marginal cell variable, usually deep with curved veins, open or closed (B). Wing shape wider, apex variable (B). Metacoxae usually with long hairline (occasionally short)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>22</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41294.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i085"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female metasoma extended, elongate (a). Short hair tufts on meso- and metacoxae. Marginal cell elongate, indistinctly half-open (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41295.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i086"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female metasoma normal, short (A). Usually hairlines on meso- and metacoxae (A), sometimes short hair tufts. Marginal cell variable, usually relatively short and often distinctly closed (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>23</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41296.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i087"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>23</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Large wasps (2–3 mm), strongly built, black or dark brown wasps with dark appendages. Pronotal plate more or less protruding over pronotal-mesoscutal suture (a). Posterior margin of metapleuron straight (b). Rarely collected</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41297.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i088"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Typically small, compact or elongate but not strongly built, brown wasps with usually yellow appendages (sometimes with bi- or tricolored antennae). Pronotal plate not distinctly protruding over pronotal-mesoscutal suture (A). Posterior margin of metapleuron usually with a circular or elongate incision (B), rarely straight. Common</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41298.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i089"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Elongate or slender wasps (a, b). Notauli absent (a). Protrusions from lower face absent. Lateral pronotal carina absent. Antennal F2 modified in male. Hair fringe on wings long (b). Scutellar plate typically small, thinly elongate or teardrop-shaped, covering less than half of the dorsal surface of the scutellum (a). Anterior part of pronotal plate protruding (a)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>25</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41299.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i090"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Compact wasps. Notauli present, often incomplete mesally, rarely reduced to mere anterior impressions of the mesoscutum (A). Clypeal and malar protrusions on face often present. Lateral pronotal carina present to absent. Antennal F1 modified in male. Hair fringe on wings short (B). Scutellar plate often large, elongate, covering over half of the dorsal surface of the scutellum (A). Anterior part of pronotal plate not protruding (A)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>27 (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41300.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i091"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">25</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lateral foveae of the pronotal plate closed, lateral bridges complete (a, b); pronotal plate projected anteriorly (a)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (in part) <bold>(<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41301.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i092"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lateral fovea of the pronotal plate open, lateral bridges absent (A, B); pronotal plate typically oriented vertically (A), not projected anteriorly</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>26</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41302.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i093"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Elongate wasps, “diggers”, with deep rounded heads, small eyes, strong legs, and short wings (a). Mesosoma remarkably elongate, much longer than high (a), with an almost flat mesoscutum (a); propodeum distinctly protruding posteriorly (b). Rare</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Kleidotomini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41303.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i094"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">More or less slender wasps, “flyers”, with more or less transverse heads, large eyes, long legs, and large wings. Mesosoma as high as long (A), mesoscutum obviously humped (B); propodeum weakly protruding posteriorly (B). Very common</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic></bold> (in part) <bold>(<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content>)</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41304.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i095"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>27</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli reduced; shortened, shallow and/or indistinct (a, b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>28</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41305.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i096"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli well-developed; deep, wide and often sculptured (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>29</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41306.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i097"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli shortened, only anteriormost part visible, indistinct over the rest of the mesoscutum (a). Face without protrusions (b). Scutellar plate small, with tooth just anterior to glandular pit (a); scutellum broadly rounded posteriorly, distinct posterior face absent (a)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41307.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i098"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli shallow and indistinct for their entire length, often not visible in middle of mesoscutum (A). Clypeus and malar spaces each with a single conical or pyramidal protrusion, sometimes reduced (B). Scutellar plate large, flat, often with several small paired protuberances along the perimeter; scutellum with distinct posterior face, ventral to gentle ledge along posterior margin of scutellum</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41308.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i099"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genal carina present (a). Scutellum with faint laterodorsal projections (b). Parascutal impression interrupted near origin of notauli (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41309.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i100"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genal carina absent, gena rounded (A). Scutellum without laterodorsal projections. Parascutal impression complete, not interrupted (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>30</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41310.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i101"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>30</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dorsal and ventral margins of mesopleural triangle smooth, rounded, indistinct (a). Female metasoma directed posteriorly, dorsal surface not strongly curved downward (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41311.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i102"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dorsal and ventral margins of mesopleural triangle cleft, distinctly delineated (A). Female metasoma directed ventrally, dorsal surface strongly curved downward (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="Diglyphosematini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content> is a characteristic and rather easily circumscribed tribe, which was overviewed and revised on the generic level by <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington (2011)</xref>. Species of this tribe can be locally abundant, especially <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>. According to all vetted records, species are parasitoids of leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content>) (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Benoit, 1956a</named-content><named-content content-type="taxon-status">stat. n.</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonym <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Amphiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956a, <bold>syn. n.</bold>)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Commonly collected genus of eucoilines throughout Africa, but particularly plentiful in equatorial Africa. The genus is common throughout the Old World Tropics as well as Mediterranean Africa. <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1986)</xref> made it a junior synonym of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> Förster, and <xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">Buffington (2002</xref>, <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">2011</xref>) followed this synonymy. The phylogenetic support for the inclusion of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit (the only representative of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> in <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>) in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> s.str. was very weak; in that same work, it was noted that there is a distinct lineage of African species. After examination of much more recently collected material, it is clear that the African species reliably cluster with <xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit’s (1956a)</xref> generic concept of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>. Examination of the type specimens of <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan’s (1986)</xref><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic> species, as well as <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Diglyphosema</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sensu</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, has allowed us to make the new combinations below. Furthermore, examination of the type specimen of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Amphiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">latesulcatum</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, allows us to synonymize <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Amphiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>. However, there are still species of Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> of which we have not yet been able to examine the types, which may be <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> or true <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>, and these species are still listed under <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> below.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Mesopleural triangle distinctly impressed, with both dorsal and ventral margins cleft, delimited by a sharp edge. Lateral pronotal carina present. Notauli present, well developed in nearly all species. Scutellar plate large, glandular pit in center. Hairy ring at base of syntergum absent; metasoma downturned towards ventral position. Most easily confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Diglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>; distinguished from these genera by the presence of a distinctly impressed mesopleural triangle, and downturned metasoma. In both <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Diglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>, the mesopleural triangle is present, but the dorsal and ventral margins are gently rounded, and the metasoma is directed more posteriorly. Distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> by the possession in the latter of a genal carina and postero-lateral projections on the scutellum.</p><p>Five species groups are recognized within the genus, all based on the morphology of the scutellum. This character system provides a wealth of taxonomic information, and from the hundreds of specimens examined for this paper, the characters appear to be stable through space and time. The most commonly encountered species group is the <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> group, characterized by having a distinctly concave dorsal surface of the scutellar plate. This is best seen in lateral view, and can be characterized as reminiscent of a gentle ‘wave’ or ‘ski jump’. From our examination of the type series of all of <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan’s (1986)</xref> species, several species in this group will be synonymized in a more thorough treatment of the genus. The <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dubia</named-content></named-content></italic> species group is characterized by having an extremely short, narrow scutellar plate, revealing much of the dorsal surface of the scutellum. Some specimens in this group approach an <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic> in appearance, but lack other characters of that genus. The <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bucca</named-content></named-content></italic> species group is second in diversity to the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> species group, and superficially looks similar. However, in the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bucca</named-content></named-content></italic> species group, the scutellar plate, in profile, is perfectly flat (wave or ski-jump shaped in the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> species group), with a large, deep glandular release pit. The last species group to be recognized here is the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fercula</named-content></named-content></italic> species group. On first glance, these species look similar to the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bucca</named-content></named-content></italic> species group, however, species in the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fercula</named-content></named-content></italic> group possess a very small, shallow, glandular release pit. The appearance of the scutellar plate is remarkable in that the rim of the plate appears enormous, when in fact, the rim is of normal width; it is the small glandular release pit contributing to this illusion.</p><fig id="F18" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 18.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Tanzania). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41172.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g018"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to Old World Tropics. Afrotropical records: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, (Benoit 1956), Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>), Botswana, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Niger, Republic of Congo, Somalia, Tanzania (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2002</xref>, <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">2011</xref>, <xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr">Greathead 1969</xref>).</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Afrostilba bucca species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bucca</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">advena</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bucca</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen, Zambia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fetura</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallida</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Yemen)</p></sec><sec sec-type="Afrostilba dubia species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dubia</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dubia</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p></sec><sec sec-type="Afrostilba furcula species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">furcula</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">furcula</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">urundiensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956a) <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Burundi, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p></sec><sec sec-type="Afrostilba nitida species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">compressa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">conversa</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lacerta</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lana</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">marcellus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Mauritius)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitida</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956, <bold>comb. reinst.</bold> (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">parma</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Nigeria)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">perangusta</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trulla</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tyrus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon)</p></sec><sec sec-type="Unplaced Afrostilba species"><title>Unplaced <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> species</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">latesulcatum</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956a), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Amphiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Rwanda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content><named-content content-type="species">utica</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Diglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Ivory Coast, Nigeria)</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Quinlan, 1986</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare, mostly in East Africa.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Protuberances absent on malar space. Dorsal margin of pronotal plate with a distinct emargination. Notauli reduced, only present anteriorly and sometimes posteriorly. Scutellar plate small, with a mound like protuberance anterior of glandular pit. Dorsal surface of scutellum broadly rounded both laterally and posteriorly, distinct posterior aspect of scutellum absent. Separated from all other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content> by the presence of a single, broad protuberance anterior of the glandular pit of the scutellum.</p><fig id="F19" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 19.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> scutellum, dorso-lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41173.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g019"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Found in the Oriental and Afrotropical regions. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Principé, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Botswana, Central African Republic, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Republic of Congo, Somalia, Tanzania (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Controversial, reviewed in <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington (2011)</xref>. Putatively reared from <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Tephritidae</named-content></named-content> (unlike the rest of the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content>, which attack leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content>), but there are no isolated rearings to confirm this.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content><named-content content-type="species">clava</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Mauritius, Principé, South Africa, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content><named-content content-type="species">marica</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content><named-content content-type="species">saba</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspidium</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Weld, 1955</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>A New World genus that is rare in South Africa. Included here based on two individuals taken in the Western Cape.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Malar space and ventral clypeal margin with distinct conical protuberances. Notauli absent. Parascutal impression incomplete. Setal band at base of <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>syntergum of metasoma complete. Superficially similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic>, but readily distinguished based on notauli being absent and the hairy ring of syntergum present; most similar to the New World genus <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Banacuniculus</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington, but separated by the presence of two distinct tubercles anterior of the scutellar glandular pit (surrounded by a series of tubercles in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Banacuniculus</named-content></named-content></italic>).</p><fig id="F20" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 20.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspidium</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma lateral view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior-lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41174.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g020"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>A New World genus: Western United States, southwestern Canada, and Northern Mexico (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>). Here reported from the Old World for the first time based on two specimens from South Africa. Species of this genus are restricted to arid to semi-arid environments (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Attacks leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content> in arid habitats (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>One undescribed species found in South Africa.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonym <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic> Ashmead, 1887)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rarely collected in Africa. Many African species previously listed in <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington (2011)</xref> are currently moved to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit. Holotypes for species listed below have not yet been examined, hence we prefer to leave them in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> for the time being.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Mesopleural triangle gently impressed, dorsal and ventral margins rounded. Lateral pronotal carina present. Notauli present, well developed in most species. Scutellar plate large, glandular pit in center. Hairy ring at base of syntergum absent; metasoma downturned towards ventral position. Most easily confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic>; distinguished from these genera by the absence of a distinctly impressed mesopleural triangle, and downturned metasoma. Further distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> by the possession in the latter of a genal carina and postero-lateral projections on the scutellum.</p><fig id="F21" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 21.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41175.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g021"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide but mainly Holarctic. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Madagascar, Seychelles, South Africa (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Kenya (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of leaf-mining and stem-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>(for all the proper species below, types have not been scrutinised, and it is uncertain whether they are true <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>.)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">extraria</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">leptis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mauri</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1986) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoilidea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">parvula</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910c (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seychellensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1911a (Seychelles)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> sp. (Madagascar, Kenya)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Quinlan, 1986</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Locally common in the Afrotropical region, particularly in arid regions.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Ventral margin of malar space and clypeus with distinct protuberances. Lateral pronotal carina present. Notauli faint, often only present anteriorly and posteriorly on mesoscutum. Ventral border of mesopleural triangle distinct, not rounded (at least posteriorly). Base of syntergum of metasoma glabrous. Most easily confused with <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tobiasiana</named-content></named-content></italic> Kovalev (not an Afrotropical taxon), but differing by the conical protuberance on the ventral clypeal margin (spatulate in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tobiasiana</named-content></named-content></italic>). Within the Afrotropical region, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic> most closely resembles <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic> by having reduced notauli and a smaller scutellar plate; can be distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic> by the presence of numerous tubercles along the rim of the scutellar plate (single central tooth in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic>), and typically more complete notauli.</p><fig id="F22" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 22.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorso-lateral view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior-lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41176.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g022"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Afrotropical, but extending to the Oriental region and the southern Palearctic. Afrotropical records: Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen (here). Particularly species-rich in South Africa.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">acis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Namibia, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallida</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Ghana, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">phaedrae</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington, 2010 (Yemen)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">plowa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe)</p><p>Several undescribed species from South Africa.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Lin, 1988</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Genal carina present. Lateral pronotal carina present (at least ventrally). Parascutal impression complete, with a distinct interruption anteriorly. Notauli present and well developed. Laterodorsal projections of scutellum present. Dorsal and ventral margins of mesopleural triangle distinct. This genus can be distinguished from all other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content> by the presence of laterodorsal projections on the scutellum and a complete genal carina. These characters are only shared with some <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Zaeucoilini</named-content></named-content> (found in New World tropics), but the latter group is not found in the Afrotropical or Oriental regions, nor do <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Zaeucoilini</named-content></named-content> possess notauli (Buffington 2009).</p><fig id="F23" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 23.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41177.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g023"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Oriental but also extending into equatorial Africa. Afrotropical records: Kenya, Somalia (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>), Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts not observed, but hypothesized to be leaf-mining <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Two undescribed species: one in Cameroon, Central African Republic and Uganda, one in Kenya and Somalia.</p></sec></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Eucoilini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content></title><p>Current evidence suggests that <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content> is possibly not monophyletic. The tribe may be paraphyletic <italic>visavis</italic> the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content> and the two tribes may eventually have to be merged. It includes a majority of the larger-sized representatives of the subfamily.</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Weld, 1961</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> was first characterised as superficially similar to the Neotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trissodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> Ashmead, 1903 (<xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1962</xref>) and then <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1986)</xref> noted it had affinities with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>. In fact <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> shares most of the systematically important character states with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>, and may possibly turn out to be an ingroup there (and accordingly a junior synonym); however, preliminary phylogenetic analyses (Baião and Forshage, unpublished) have not confirmed this, and we maintain it as a separate genus.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Large, black or reddish wasps with very little pubescence on body and wings; unmistakable in their heavy striation and scutellar spine, yet sharing most of the systematically informative characters with <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>. Like <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> with striate vertex, and like some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> with vermiculate coxae and notched scutellum, but <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> always has many setae and no striation on the mesosoma. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic> are similar but smaller, without a scutellar spine, and with many setae on the mesosoma. The scutellar spine is thinner and more pointed than in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>. General appearance may also approach members of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> with striate sides and reduced wing pubescence, but these lack the characteristic eucoiline scutellum.</p><fig id="F24" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 24.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">striatissima</named-content></named-content></italic> (Uganda). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41178.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g024"></graphic></fig><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to the Afrotopical region: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956a</xref>), Kenya, Uganda (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gambia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown, but like its close relatives, and like other species with glabrous wing membranes and striated body, it can be expected to attack dung-dwelling flies.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lanata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">striatissima</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956a) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coneucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Burkina Faso, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Cameron, 1904</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonyms <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ditrupaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Salpictes</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1913b, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stirencoela</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron, 1910)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Not uncommon. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> has been a small and easily recognisable genus since its original description. Quinlan’s Afrotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic> species have been known for some time to not fit into <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, but nothing has been published about them since their original description. Here we note that they share all the important characteristics of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> except the very peculiar notched scutellum, and include them here. Most of the characteristics of the genus in the wider sense are also found in the genera <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, but preliminary phylogenetic analyses (Baião and Forshage, unpubl.) have not supported their merging into one genus.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Most of the large and dark (black or distinctly bicolored) eucoilines in the Afrotropical region belong to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>. They can be distinguished from the few others (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> and perhaps some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>) by having plenty of large truncate setae on pronotum and mesoscutum, and stout setae on the subcosta of the wing. Like other genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content>, they have subalar pits and glabrous oblique metapleural corners. They have a striate vertex, often have vermiculate-reticulate sculpture on the coxae and large scutellar foveae, usually strong reduction of wing pubescence, and sometimes a notched scutellum.</p><p>The core group are the “<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="species">erythropoda</named-content></named-content></italic> species group”, coinciding with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> sensu Quinlan, the species possessing a notched scutellar plate. These are large, typically bicolored, have hairless wings, smooth coxae, and large scutellar foveae.</p><p>Appearing like a less modified stem group there is the “<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="species">veleda</named-content></named-content></italic> species group”, consisting of species described by Quinlan in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, typically of smaller size, with an evenly arched scutellar plate and smaller scutellar foveae, often with some pubescence on wings. Specimens belonging to this group are sometimes quite similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>, rare in the region, common elsewhere, but easily separated by the characters listed above.</p><fig id="F25" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 25.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">marina</named-content></named-content></italic> (Uganda). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41179.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g025"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Afrotropical but also occuring in the Oriental and Oceanic regions (hitherto unpublished). Afrotropical records: Kenya (<xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">Kieffer 1913b</xref>), Rwanda <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>(<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956a</xref>), Ethiopia (<xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Belizin 1973</xref>), Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1988</xref>), Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Namibia, Somalia, Tanzania, Zambia (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>One species is recorded as attacking <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Muscidae</named-content></named-content> in dung (<xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">Bridwell 1919</xref>), and due to phylogenetic inference as well as inference based on parallell occurrence of morphological particularities (elsewhere in the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> as well as in the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>) it seems reasonable to assume that most of them have similar habits.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">erythropoda</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">erythropoda</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron, 1904 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ditrupaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">semirufa</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">stercoraria</named-content></named-content></italic> Bridwell, 1919</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stirencoela</named-content><named-content content-type="species">striaticollis</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron, 1910</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rufiventris</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1913b) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Salpictes</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">septenaria</named-content></named-content></italic> Belizin, 1973 (Ethiopia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">serratepilosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956a (Rwanda)</p><p><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">veleda</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bantia</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">erinna</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">marina</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">veleda</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Botswana, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Very common throughout Africa.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Usually medium-sized and rather stout eucoilines, with a more or less reduced hairy ring. Often superficially similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>. Easily separated from the former in males, since <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> males have antennal F1 hardly modified and F2 moderately modified, while <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> have F1 distinctly modified and F2 not at all; but for females (or males with antennae not visible) it is important to examine the metapleural corner: in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> it is oblique and hairless, in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> rectangular and hairy. Many <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> which have a narrow marginal cell may be confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, which have the male F2 more strongly modified and only rarely have a reduced hairy ring, and which are easy to separate by having lateral bridges on the pronotum (open in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic>, closed in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>).</p><p>Species groups have been suggested by <xref rid="B185" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander (1980)</xref> and <xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">Allemand et al. (2002)</xref>, but these have little consequence for the identification of the genus as such.</p><fig id="F26" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 26.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorso-lateral view <bold>C</bold> pronotal plate.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41180.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g026"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Nigeria, Seychelles, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), St Helena (<xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">Notton 2008</xref>), Benin, Comoros, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mauritius, Republic of Congo, Reunion, Sao Tomé (<xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">Allemand et al. <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>2002</xref>), Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Well-known for attacking <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content> in various habitats (<xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">van Alphen et al. 1991</xref>, <xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2007</xref>; <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>, <xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">Lee et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B192" ref-type="bibr">Novkovic et al. 2011</xref>), including in Africa (<xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">Allemand et al. 2002</xref>, <xref rid="B185" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1980</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">africana</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1911b), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (replacement name for <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content><named-content content-type="species">afra</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d nec Kieffer, 1904) Type ZMBH seen by MF (Rwanda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">apella</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">atraticeps</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1911b) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ectolyta</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Nigeria, Seychelles)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">boulardi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Barbotin, Carton & Kelner-Pillault, 1979) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Republic of Congo, Seychelles, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe; worldwide distributed species)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Charips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mahensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1911c, a secondary homonym in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cavernicola</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1913b), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type not found, apparently missing in MNHN, placement tentative based on original description (Tanzania)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">drosophilae</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1913c), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type not located (possibly in coll Silvestri), placement based on original description (Guinea)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dulcis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fannius</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">faunus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fenerivae</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1910c), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Psilosema</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in ZMUH seen in 1980s by Göran Nordlander and generic placement assessed by him (pers. comm.), but not found upon more recent enquiry (Ralph Peters pers. comm.) (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fimbriata</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1901a) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoela</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Palearctic species, also recorded from Afrotropical region)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">freyae</named-content></named-content></italic> Allemand & Nordlander, 2002 (Benin, Gambia, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">guineaensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Allemand & Nordlander, 2002 (Benin, Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Reunion, South Africa, Sao Tomé)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">heterotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> (Thomson, 1862) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, St Helena; worldwide distributed species)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pseudeucoila</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bochei</named-content></named-content></italic> Weld, 1944</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">itys</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mahensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1911c) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Erisphagia</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Seychelles)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">misensus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">orientalis</named-content></named-content></italic> Allemand & Nordlander, 2002 (Comoros, Madagascar, Reunion)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pisonis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">syphax</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">thetus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vesta</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">victoriae</named-content></named-content></italic> Nordlander, 1980 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa, Uganda)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Lin, 1988</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in the Afrotropical region. <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic> was first described with a number of species from Taiwan (<xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">Lin 1988</xref>), and considered close to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>, mainly differing by their aciculate, vermiculate or striate body sculpture. The name has only been used later when the genus was included in the tribe <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content> (Forshage et al. 2007). Type specimens have not been available for loan, but specimens from Taiwan corresponding to the original description of the genus (mostly undescribed species) have been studied, and it has been considered that this is a taxon present throughout the Oriental region and also present in Africa. However, it has been difficult to decide how to circumscribe the genus or to separate it from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> except by the body sculpture, and it may well turn out to be one or several lineages within <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>. Despite conforming to the hitherto known diagnostic characters of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, African specimens have some differences from the Oriental species, and may eventually have to form a genus of their own.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Large and dark (bicolored) eucoilines, most similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>, but lacking the characteristic subcostal setae and pentiful truncate mesosomal setae of that genus, and having striation on sides of mesosoma. Striation of vertex is reticulate or lateral, not radiate as in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>. Very similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> except for the sculpture of the integument. With subalar pits, an oblique and glabrous metapleural corner, more or less reduced wing pubescence, large scutellar foveae, and vermiculate sculpture on coxae.</p><fig id="F27" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 27.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41181.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g027"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Oriental, but also occuring in the Afrotropical region (hitherto unpublished). Afrotropical records: South Africa, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown, but many close relatives, and many figitids with striate sides and reduced wing pubescence are parasitoids of dung-breeding flies.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Undescribed species only.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in the Afrotropical region. Only one species encountered so far, but more are to be expected.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Characteristically large eucoilines, dark and mostly strongly built, separated from several other genera with which confusion is otherwise possible by the possession of distinct subalar pit, as well as a metapleural corner which is hairless, oblique, and more or less upturned (forming a small, more or less triangular glabrous posterolateral surface called the metapleural triangle). <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> which is often superficially similar always has a distinct tuft of hairs on the metapleural corner. Furthermore, in males, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> just like other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content> have the antennal F1 modified, while <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> have F2 modified. In Africa, the major confusion risk is in fact those specimens of the closely related <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic> that have less reduced wing pubescence. Unlike <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>, they typically have stout setae on the subcosta, truncate setae on the pronotum and mesoscutum, large scutellar foveae, and vermiculate sculpture on the coxae. The single <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> species encountered so far in the Afrotropical region though, is very easy to recognise by the fuscate marginal cell.</p><fig id="F28" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 28.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">australiensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Madagascar). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41182.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g028"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide, but by far most diverse in the Holarctic. Afrotropical region: Madagascar (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Attack <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Anthomyiidae</named-content></named-content> and occasionally other calyptrate flies in dung, fungi, debris, etc (<xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">Belizin 1963</xref>, <xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">Block et al. 1987</xref>, <xref rid="B86" ref-type="bibr">Griffiths 1993</xref>, <xref rid="B93" ref-type="bibr">Harukawa and Kikamashiro 1939</xref>, <xref rid="B96" ref-type="bibr">Hemachandra et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">Hennig 1976</xref>, <xref rid="B99" ref-type="bibr">Hummel et al. 2010</xref>, <xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">Jones and Hassell 2008</xref>, <xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">Kerrich and Quinlan 1960</xref>, <xref rid="B132" ref-type="bibr">Kieffer 1913a</xref>, <xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">Makarenko 1968</xref>, <xref rid="B172" ref-type="bibr">Neveu et al. 1996</xref>, <xref rid="B173" ref-type="bibr">2000</xref>, <xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">Nilsson et al. 2011</xref>, <xref rid="B182" ref-type="bibr">2012</xref>, <xref rid="B186" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1981</xref>, <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">Tamer 1994</xref>, <xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">Wilkes and Wishart 1953</xref>, <xref rid="B263" ref-type="bibr">Wishart and Monteith 1954</xref>, and plenty of others, plus lots of additional label data). The host of the African species is not known.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">australiensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Ashmead, 1900 (Madagascar)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Ganaspini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content></title><p>This is the largest and most difficult tribe of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>. The generic limits between the major genera are not clear and a small selection of autapomorphic forms currently have generic status which could just as well be moved into the major genera. We have considered a major generic-level revision of this group beyond the scope of this work, and probably impossible without a thorough phylogenetic analysis.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Lin, 1987</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> has been widely confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>; superficially strikingly similar morphologically, but not closely related (<xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">Fontal-Cazalla et al. 2002</xref>, <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2007</xref>). On the other hand, it remains uncertain how to delineate <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Large, strongly built, black or darkly brown eucoilines. The genus was originally erected (<xref rid="B145" ref-type="bibr">Lin 1987</xref>) for Oriental species with a very large scutellar plate <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>reaching the posterior end of the scutellum, and a high pronotal plate with an emarginate (bilobed) dorsal rim protruding well over the pronotal-mesoscutal suture. But the exploration of apparently closely related forms, especially in South America, has made the genus far more difficult to circumscribe in terms of unambiguous diagnostic characters, and indeed, blurred the boundaries towards the heterogenous <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>. Most <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, however, are large and resemble <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> in general habitus, but are easy to distinguish from the latter based on the distinct hairtuft on the metapleural corner, the small and shallow subalar pit, and the modified antennal F1 in males. The posterior metapleural margin is uninterrupted (but sometimes depressed in the middle) and usually somewhat oblique in the ventral part; the metacoxae usually have semi-long hairlines (but sometimes only small tufts); the sctutellar plate is usually very large and the scutellar foveae usually large (but sometimes far more normal sized).</p><fig id="F29" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 29.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41183.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g029"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Widespread, but primarily East Asian and Neotropical. Afrotropical records: Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Reunion, South Africa, Tanzania (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Attacks <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Tephritidae</named-content></named-content> and other fruit-infesting flies (<xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">Wharton et al. 1998</xref>, <xref rid="B87" ref-type="bibr">Guimarães et al. 2003</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">daci</named-content></named-content></italic> (Weld, 1951) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>) (widely distributed species, synanthropically spread with an assumed origin in the Oriental region).</p><p>Several undescribed species in the region.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Riley, 1879</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Among the most common genera of eucoilines in the Afrotropical region (yet not recorded by Quinlan). Not always certainly distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> are usually recognisable through the combination of a concave scutellar plate and the characteristically half-open marginal cell. Furthermore, unlike in typical representatives of the closely related <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, the head is transverse (not deep), the mesosoma is short (propodeum not extended), the coxae bear small hair tufts (not elongate hairlines), the scutellar plate is relatively small, the lateral bars of the scutellum are striate, and the posterior margin of the metapleuron is straight (not with a circular or elongate incision). However, the diverse <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> may vary in all these traits. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> females usually have very unusual antennae, where the flagellomeres are strongly differentiated into very short annelli and very long club articles. Very small specimens of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> approach the character states of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic>, and the boundary between the two genera is uncertain.</p><fig id="F30" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 30.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> propodeal plate anterior dorsal view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41184.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g030"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Attacks <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Phoridae</named-content></named-content> and other flies in concealed habitats (<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Beardsley 1989</xref>, <xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">Riley 1879</xref>, label data); no host records are from Africa.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content><named-content content-type="species">naivashae</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1913b), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in MNHN studied by MF (Kenya, Rwanda)</p><p>Numerous African species remain to be described.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Yoshimoto, 1963</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Tiny eucoilines with round heads, short antennae and characteristically modified wings: narrow triangular wings with very long hair fringe, and a short wide open marginal cell. A similar habitus and similar wings may occur in other “dwarfified” eucoilines of extremely small size – the rare <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic> and some species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>. The combination of a pronotal plate with laterally open foveae and presence of a mesopleural line separates <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>. In <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic>, the scutellar plate is narrow, there is often a reduction in wing pubescence, and there is often a remarkable reduction of the number of antennomeres (the latter not yet observed in African specimens). The antennae of female <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> are similar to those of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic>, with a strong differentiation of the flagellomeres into proximal very short articles (more or less annelli) and distal elongate club articles with distinct white rhinaria.</p><fig id="F31" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 31.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41185.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g031"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly in the Oriental and Oceanic regions, but also occuring in the eastern Palearctic and in the Afrotropical region. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen, Zimbabwe (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Host unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Several species that are probably undescribed are present in Africa.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Common in Africa as elsewhere, yet only recorded in the key to genera in <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1986)</xref>. The genus is very difficult to circumscribe, not always certainly distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic>. At the same time, many smaller genera of the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content> may actually be ingroups in the genus as currently conceived. Thus, a thorough analysis of the boundaries of this genus will most likely highlight the need to either synonymise a number of apomorphic small genera back into <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, or to recognise species groups of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> as separate genera. However, the difficulty to circumscribe the latter and to delineate them from the other major genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content> suggests that this cannot be done without a thorough phylogenetic analysis. Of the several genera that <xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">Lin (1988)</xref> described in his revision of Taiwanese eucoilines, we have recognised <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></italic> (easily recognisable at least in females), but we have not been able to establish whether the plentiful African <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> with very wide scutellar plates could be assigned to his <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Epochresta</named-content></named-content></italic>, and thus we have not treated the latter as an African genus.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> is a vast and rather morphologically heterogenous genus, and can be regarded as currently comprising all of the typical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content> that are not “different” enough to warrant a genus of their own. Typical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> are small, somewhat pale, compactly built eucoilines. Other characteristics include: a deep, more or less globular, head; a rather elongate mesosoma; more or less long hairlines on meso- and metacoxae; scutellum with a foveolate dorsal surface; a large, flat or convex scutellar plate; smooth lateral bars; a posterior metapleural margin with a circular or elongate excision; a narrow but distinct petiolar rim; broad wings with a rather truncate or faintly excised apex; and a deep fore wing marginal cell with curved sides – but most or all of these characters may vary within the genus. The typical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> are very often superficially similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> (also common parasitoids of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content>), but usually rather easily separated from them by having a modifed F1 in male antennae, and a distinct hair tuft on the metapleural corner. In order to facilitate recognition and sorting of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> in the Afrotropical region, we recognise the following morphological types of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> as characteristic within the Afrotropical fauna.</p><p>The apparently most common appearance of <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> is one rather close to the European type, with long coxal hairlines, a circular or elongate excision of posterior pronotal margin, a wide scutellar plate not reaching the posterior end of scutellum, rather pale colour (middle brown body and yellow or pale brown legs). In some species, including most of the African taxa there are distinct patches of dense white pubescence on the pronotum and axillulae; marginal cells of wings are relatively homogenous with stong dominance for a short deep closed type with curved sides; some forms have a striking tooth on the metapleural edge, distinctly bi- or tricolored antennae, or large scutellar foveae.</p><p>A similar morphological type can also be seen in forms with an even larger scutellar plate, that is distinctly convex, but with a posterior depression and often an elongate-oval glandular release pit. These species are often relatively large in size. They may coincide with <xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">Lin’s (1988)</xref> genus <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Epochresta</named-content></named-content></italic> (but types in TARI have not been available for loan).</p><p>Occasional specimens, usually of small size, lack the coxal hairlines and have only short hair tufts.</p><p>Many undescribed species, especially from Madagascar, are rather large and remarkably slender-elongate in build and pale in color, somewhat approaching the habitus of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Chrestosema</named-content></named-content></italic> and related genera. Occasionally these may have very unusual features such as an elongated petiolar rim. Some of these are similar in appearance to the characteristic Neotropical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> “<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="species">neotropica</named-content></named-content></italic>-group”.</p><p>Other morphological types conform to the most common type in most respects, but differ, for example, in scutellar morphology. Some tiny specimens resemble <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic>, others <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic>, many <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><fig id="F32" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 32.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41186.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g032"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Seychelles, Tanzania (Kieffer 1911, 1913), Rwanda (<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956a</xref>), Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Usually attacking <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content> in various habitats, but sometimes also fruit-infesting <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Tephritidae</named-content></named-content> or other flies (<xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander and Grijpma 1991</xref>, <xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">Melk and Govind 1999</xref>, <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">Vass and Nappi 2000</xref>). None of the host records are from Africa.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kilimandjaroi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1913b), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type MNHN studied by MF (Tanzania)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mahensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1911c (Seychelles)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ruandana</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956a) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pseudeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Rwanda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">xanthopoda</named-content></named-content></italic> (Ashmead, 1896) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic>) (worldwide distributed species)</p><p>Several species remain to be described in Africa.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Lin, 1988</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. Possibly congeneric with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Small <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>-type eucoilines most easily characterised by the elongate female metasoma. These specimens also show the following characteristics: short coxal hair tuft; a rather large, flat scutellar plate and relatively large scutellar foveae; metapleural margin with an elongate excision; wing with a very slightly emarginate apex and an elongate marginal cell. Associated males are very difficult to discern within the range of variation present in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><fig id="F33" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 33.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41187.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g033"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Described from Taiwan, but here reported also from Africa. Afrotropical records: Central African Republic, Kenya (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Undescribed species in the region.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonym <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Daruna</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956a, <bold>syn. n.</bold>)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Common throughout the Afrotropical region. Not always easily distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Daruna</named-content></named-content></italic> was erected by <xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit (1956a)</xref> for a specimen from Ruanda (the generic name being an anagram thereof), which, according to the original description, had dual glandular release pits of the scutellar plate, both the common posterior pit, and the central pit characteristic of most <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Diglyphosematini</named-content></named-content>. Inspection of the holotype (in RMCA) by MB and MF revealed only the normal posterior glandular pit though, and nothing separates <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Daruna</named-content></named-content></italic> from a normal <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic>. Linguistic gender of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> is, according to etymology in the original description, neuter, but many species names have been given in the feminine previously.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> are usually very characteristic habitus-wise, being rather elongate eucolines with a characteristically globular head; a characteristic wing which is rather narrow with a narrow, closed, mostly triangular marginal cell; a very characteristic scutellum which is convex in its entirety; a very wide, convex, scutellar plate covering most of the surface; mostly striate sculpture on the narrow surrounding dorsal surfaces of the scutellum; and narrow, oblique scutellar foveae. Certain forms, however appear intermediate between the typical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dicyctium</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>. Occasionally the general bodyshape as well as scutellar striae of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> may cause confusion with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>, though the wings and metapleura are very different, or with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, which can always be recognised by the pronotal plate with closed lateral bridges (and modified F2 in males).</p><fig id="F34" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 34.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> species (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41188.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g034"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Rwanda (<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956a</xref>), Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), St Helena (<xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">Notton 2008</xref>), Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Reported from many fly hosts and habitats worldwide, commonly <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chloropidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ephydridae</named-content></named-content> in agricultural or wet habitats (Allen and Pienkowski 1973, <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Beardsley 1989</xref>, <xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">Bhattacharyya 1957</xref>, Diamond et al. 2001, Díaz and Gallardo 2010, <xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">Gaddi et al. 2010</xref>, <xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">Kerrich and Quinlan 1960</xref>, <xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">Moore 1983</xref>, <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander and Grijpma 1991</xref>, <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B235" ref-type="bibr">Simmonds 1952</xref>, Streams and Greenberg 1969, and others). African taxa so far only reared from <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chloropidae</named-content></named-content> (label data).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">absensa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">amantia</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Nigeria, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">atropos</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bifarium</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">camerounensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Risbec, 1956), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon) Type specimen expected to be in the MNHN, but not yet located. Original description does not state any very informative characters, but based on the illustration, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> seems like a probable option until type material surfaces.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">compactum</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fringa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hexatoma</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1841) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Uganda; widely distributed species)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">muhavara</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956a), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Daruna</named-content></named-content></italic>) (cf comments above) (Rwanda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">octoclavum</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallidum</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">quinqueclavatum</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Madagascar, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">quisnama</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (South Africa, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">septemium</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zama</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Kleidotomini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Kleidotomini</named-content></named-content></title><p>This tribe, formerly treated as the ‘Kleidotoma group’, was determined to be monophyletic in <xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">Fontal-Cazalla et al. (2002)</xref>. <xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">Forshage and Nordlander (2008)</xref> reinstated this tribe following Hellén (1960). Members of this group typically possess a ham-hock shaped forewing (Buffington and Sandler 2012), an abbreviated marginal cell in the forewing, the overall body is slender and elongate, and species for which biology is known, are typically ‘diggers’ who search for hosts in substrates such as old dung, algae, and fungus.</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Hartig, 1840</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Small elongate eucoilines without a hairy ring, with narrow wings with narrow triangular marginal cells. May be confused with certain <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> with strongly reduced hairy ring, but <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> are far more elongate in shape, have globular heads, and a pointed metapleural corner, whereas <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> are stout, have more transverse heads and an oblique metapleural corner. Easily separated from their closest relatives in the region, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic>, by the reduced hairy ring, wing apex truncate (not incised), and male F2 modified (not F1).</p><fig id="F35" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 35.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Uganda). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41189.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g035"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Palearctic, but also present in Nearctic and Afrotropical regions, and with a widespread species present throughout the Old World tropics. Afrotropical records: South Africa (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Uganda, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Sepsidae</named-content></named-content> in dung (<xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1976</xref>, <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">Pont and Meier 2002</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ealis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (South Africa)</p><p>Additional species, unidentified or undescribed.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Westwood, 1833</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Common throughout the Afrotropical region.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Usually elongate eucoilines of varying size, in most cases unmistakable through their incised wing apex alone (shared only with <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></named-content></italic> of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content>), but in forms with indistinctly incised wings (or where the wing shape is not readily visible) there are several other diagnostic characters: patchily reduced wing pubescence and the reduced wing venation with a small triangular marginal cell; fore wing veins of uneven width; distinctly pointed metapleural corner; narrow scutellar plate; and longitudinally striate dorsal surface of the scutellum. May be confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic>, who share the striate scutellum, the globular head, the often strongly modified male F1 and the sometimes narrow triangular marginal cell, but <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> typically have a very large and convex scutellar plate and narrow oblique scutellar foveae – and always a rectangular metapleural corner and a non-incised wing apex.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> is a taxon that is difficult to overview, and globally there are very few recognisable species-groups that are not obviously artificial. There is a general spectrum from tiny, often brown, species with little reduction of wing pubescence, and large, often black, species with very strong reduction of wing pubescence. And there are the aberrant brachypterous taxa (often ripicolous species occuring in algae or wrack, sometimes on isolated islands; but at least in the Holarctic also in ground-dwelling species in grasslands). The wingless or brachypterous forms among <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> are the only cynipoids with this state found in the Afrotropical region so far (though in other regions, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></named-content></italic> occasionally show brachyptery too, and such specimens may be found in the Afrotropical region). However, beyond what is already said here, we are not at the level of knowledge to start discussing species groups in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> in a meaningful way.</p><fig id="F36" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 36.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41190.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g036"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), St Helena (Dessart 1976), Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Gabon, Gambia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of various flies in concealed and mostly decomposing habitats; debris, dung, carrion, fruit, fungi, grass, seawrack, aquatic plants etc. Broad host range, common hosts in other parts of the world include <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Sepsidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ephydridae</named-content></named-content> and others (<xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">Baker 1979</xref>, <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">Beardsley 1990</xref>, <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">1993</xref>, <xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">Belizin 1963</xref>, <xref rid="B47" ref-type="bibr">Burghele 1959</xref>, <xref rid="B53" ref-type="bibr">Carton et al. 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B67" ref-type="bibr">Díaz and Gallardo 1996</xref>, <xref rid="B69" ref-type="bibr">Driessen et al. 1990</xref>, <xref rid="B115" ref-type="bibr">Jonsell et al. 1999</xref>, <xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">Pont and Meier 2002</xref>, <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1952</xref>, and others; plus additional label data).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">arbitra</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bifurcata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">conica</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">distenda</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">eala</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">elongula</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">erebus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">favus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fimbriata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">miroscutellaris</named-content></named-content></italic> (Dessart, 1976) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Polbourdouxia</named-content></named-content></italic>) (St Helena)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">montana</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910d (Rwanda)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">africana</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956a nec Kieffer, 1910d (lapsus)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">morsum</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigrans</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nitidiuscula</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">norma</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">strigosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ventosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa)</p><p>Also undescribed species.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Trichoplastini"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content> is a tribe that is easily recognisable by the striking morphological synapomorphy of having a pronotal plate with lateral bridges closing the lateral cavities. The tribe may ultimately be synonymised with <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content>; the two tribes currently constitute a monophyletic clade. Throughout Africa, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> is by far the most commonly encountered <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>, and in fact, may be the most commonly encountered figitid group.</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Quinlan, 1988</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. This genus may be an apomorphic ingroup of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>, but for the time being we recognize this taxon as a valid genus.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Very characteristic through their spectacular degree of lateral compression. Otherwise in all respects similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> (pronotal plate with lateral bridges, narrow scutellar plate, extended posterior lobe of scutellum), and some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> do indeed approach the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic> habitus (indicating the possibility of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic> being just an apomorphic ingroup), but the true <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic> are always recognisable by their head: compound eyes are placed at mid-height of head, are pubescent, and their outline does not project from the general outline of the head capsule.</p><fig id="F37" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 37.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head and mesosoma lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41191.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g037"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to the Afrotropical region: Democratic republic of Congo, Kenya (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1988</xref>), Cameroon, Central African Republic, Guinea, Republic of Congo, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Host unknown, but expected to attack a dipterous host in a narrow space such as under tree bark.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">apsus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">persa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">prodicus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content><named-content content-type="species">triton</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Buffington, 2012</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. Possibly an apomorphic ingroup of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Species of this genus possess a three-pronged protrusion (fuscina) atop a dorsally elongate clypeus. Superficially, this taxon is similar to <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>, since both genera have species with extensive projections from the head region. However, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic> has a corniculum protruding from the face, and lacks a modified clypeus. The rest of the body is similar to that of the smallest <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>. Some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> also have protrusions from the clypeal region, but they are merely points or small conical projections.</p><fig id="F38" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 38.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lovecrafti</named-content></named-content></italic> (Holotype, South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41192.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g038"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to the Afrotropical region: South Africa (<xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2012</xref>), Mozambique (L. Masner pers. comm.).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Host unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lovecrafti</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington, 2012 (South Africa)</p><p>An additional undescribed species is known from Mozambique.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Förster, 1869</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Ubiquitous; the most common genus of eucoilines in Africa. This taxon keys out three times in the generic key above, which reflects the morphological plasticity and complexity of the genus. Though many Afrotropical species have been described, there are undoubtedly many more undescribed species awaiting description. Further, <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan’s (1986)</xref> reliance on antennal characters to separate species within <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> will have to be revisited too, since antennal characters themselves without other characters are frequently unreliable in figitid taxonomy.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Mostly small and elongate eucoilines, with narrow wings and a narrow triangular marginal cell. Males usually have a strongly modified antennal F2. <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> are easily recognised by the combination of a pronotal plate with lateral bridges, a scutellum lacking a protruding posterior lobe, and the dorsal surface of the scutellum distinctly striate, especially anteriorly. These characters separate the genus from the morphologically similar <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>. However, intermediate forms between these two genera have been examined, creating difficulties in separating the two genera; in these cases, focusing on the striate dorsal surface of the scutellum will reliably run these species in the key. If the pronotal plate is not obvious, the diversity of morphotypes of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> in this region may create confusion with several other genera.</p><p>The most common Afrotropical specimens are small, brown and elongate; have narrow elongate wings with a narrow triangular marginal cell; and have a circular incision near metapleural corner. Some, often larger, have a more elongate incised (or depressed) area along metapleural posterior margin. These may possibly be mistaken for several other eucoiline genera of a similar general build; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> is separated from all of these by the pronotal plate, from all but <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> by the male antennae, and from most of these genera by differences in the metapleuron and scutellar plate.</p><p>Larger taxa are in general stouter, less elongate, have darker colour, broader wings, a deeper marginal cell and a shorter hair fringe on the wings; and approach <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> or some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> in appearance.</p><p>A distinct species group is represented by tiny specimens with an indistinct or absent mesopleural line, a very long hair fringe on the wing, and often a shorter marginal cell; these are superficially very similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic>, but easily recognised by their pronotal plate.</p><p>Another distinct species group have a pointed posterior lobe of the scutellum and are very easily confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>; separated only by the general build of the scutellum, which has a convex scutellar plate and at least partly smooth or lineate sculpture of the dorsal surface. Of these we have seen a small, stout black taxon from South Africa, a large dark brown taxon from Uganda, and some less characteristic small brown forms from elsewhere.</p><p>One or several species groups have protuberances on the face, small often pointed tubercles on the clypeus and/or malar spaces and sometimes modified mandibles; they are small or tiny, and more stoutly built than typical <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>; their appearance approaches <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic> or <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>, both of which have more spectacular facial protuberances. Most of these specimens are from South Africa, but we have also seen singletons from East African countries.</p><fig id="F39" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 39.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Uganda). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41193.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g039"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Worldwide. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Madagascar, Nigeria, Reunion, South Africa, Uganda (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Comoros, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Malawi, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>As far as known they attack <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Chloropidae</named-content></named-content> on grasses and fungi (numerous sources including <xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">Bhattacharyya 1957</xref>, <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B184" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1978</xref>, <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander and Grijpma 1991</xref>), but no certain records are from within the Afrotropical region.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">abba</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">afer</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">agis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">attis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bicolor</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bupalus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Reunion, Uganda, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cepheus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">connata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">crito</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cubitalis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">diversa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">enna</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">equalis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hebe</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">heptoma</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hartig, 1840) (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa; Palearctic species)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">navius</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">naxos</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">oeta</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pagasa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pallida</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">persius</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">punctata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rufula</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rutshuris</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rwanki</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sinis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">temesa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">thales</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">velia</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zetes</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zeus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Quinlan, 1984</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. Possibly an apomorphic group in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Unmistakable head morphology, with distinct trumpet-shaped protrution (corniculum) present between toruli. Superficially similar to <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic>, since both have extensive projections from the head region. However, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic> has a corniculum protruding from the frons, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic> has a three-pronged extension (fuscina) atop a protruding clypeus. The rest of the body is similar to a <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>, thus with a posterior protrusion on the scutellum, which is another character that separates them from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic>. Some species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> have protrusions from the malar space and clypeus, but they also lack the corniculum of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><fig id="F40" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 40.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tubicen</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kenya). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41194.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g040"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to the Afrotropical region and mainly occurring in East Africa. Afrotropical records: Kenya (<xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1984</xref>), Botswana, Madagascar, Nigeria, Rwanda, Somalia, South Africa, Uganda (<xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">Nielsen and Buffington 2011</xref>), Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts unknown.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">abbotti</named-content></named-content></italic> Nielsen & Buffington, 2011 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">heimdalli</named-content></named-content></italic> Nielsen & Buffington, 2011 (Kenya, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Somalia, South Africa, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tubicen</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1984 (Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vuvuzela</named-content></named-content></italic> Nielsen & Buffington, 2011 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">weedlei</named-content></named-content></italic> Nielsen & Buffington, 2011 (Botswana, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zuparkoi</named-content></named-content></italic> Nielsen & Buffington, 2011 (Madagascar, South Africa)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Benoit, 1956a</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Common.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Often easily recognisable by the combination of a pronotal plate with lateral bridges, a posteriorly protruding scutellum, and the dorsal surface of the scutellum distinctly foveate. Species with a moderately protruding scutellum can be difficult to distinguish from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, but focusing on the foveate sculpture of the dorsal surface of the scutellum will run an unknown species through the key effectively.</p><fig id="F41" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 41.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tanganyikensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41195.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g041"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Holarctic region and Old World Tropics. Appears to have its largest diversity in the Afrotropical region. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Malawi, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Yemen (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Specimen label data suggests tropical species appear to attack fruit-infesting <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Lonchaeidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Muscidae</named-content></named-content> (label data), but in the Holarctic they are mostly wood-associated, attacking <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Lonchaeidae</named-content></named-content> under tree bark (label data), and these habits are probably present in some Afrotropical taxa too.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">afrobicolor</named-content></named-content></italic><bold>nom. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bicolor</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 secondary junior homonym of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bicolor</named-content></named-content></italic> (Ionescu, 1969) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hypolethria</named-content></named-content></italic>), which was transferred to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> by <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander (1982)</xref> so Quinlan’s name was a homonym already at the time of its original description) (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">brevispina</named-content></named-content></italic> (Masner, 1960) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Odonteucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">conica</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">contrasta</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">equalis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">extensus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">filiformis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">gracilicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1910c) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coneucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">longispina</named-content></named-content></italic> (Masner, 1960) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Odonteucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">medlia</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">narrata</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">novema</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">octonarius</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">quinclava</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rufa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tanganyikensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Weld, 1944) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Coneucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">testacea</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Nigeria)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">unicolora</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zeus</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1986 (Cameroon)</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Tribal placement uncertain"><title>Tribal placement uncertain</title><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Buffington & Forshage, 2014</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Very rare, in Africa only known from a single specimen in the Republic of Congo. The tribal placement of this taxon is uncertain. Key characters make it run to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>, but both habitus and a number of other characters are more similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, and in the original description it is tentatively placed in <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Kleidotomini</named-content></named-content>. It may, along with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Triplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, represent a basal lineage in that tribe, but in the absence of a proper phylogenetic analysis, this remains little more than just a guess.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>The thick basal part of the pronotal plate and the very robust petiole are unique characters in the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>. The overall body shape is similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, and the wings are similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> and a number of other genera (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic>, and many <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic>), but <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content></named-content></italic> can be separated based on the morphology of the pronotal plate and the uniquely robust propodeal-petiolar complex.</p><fig id="F42" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 42.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">afrotropica</named-content></named-content></italic> (Republic of Congo). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head and mesosoma lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41196.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g042"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Oriental and Afrotropical regions. Afrotropical records: Republic of Congo.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Host unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">afrotropica</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & Forshage, 2014 (Republic of Congo)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Leptolamina group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> group</title><p>This is a distinct group of eucoiline genera that is currently not assignable to a tribe. Included genera were previously associated with the informal “<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Chrestosema</named-content></named-content></italic> group” (<xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander 1982</xref>), most representatives of which are now included in the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content>. <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2007)</xref> recovered <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> as a sister-group clade to what is now <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Eucoilini</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>. With the synonymisation of these two genera, this group currently only contains <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic>; additional sampling in the Old World tropics may yield more genera that would be assignable to this group.</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Yoshimoto, 1962</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonym <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1988, <bold>syn. n.</bold>)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
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<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> was originally described from the Pacific region (<xref rid="B266" ref-type="bibr">Yoshimoto 1962</xref>). <xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan (1988)</xref>, in his treatment of the Afrotropical fauna, cites <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander (1982)</xref> recognising <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> as a member of the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Chrestosema</named-content></named-content></italic> group of genera, but does not consider the taxon with regards to the African fauna. The <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Glauraspidia</named-content></named-content></italic> described by Quinlan in the same work (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>) are in fact <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> (new combinations below). Also in the same work (<xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">1988</xref>), he described the genus <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> to accommodate species of eucoilines that lacked a mesopleural line, but whose surface sculpture was matte, and otherwise conformed to his concept of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Glauraspidia</named-content></named-content></italic>. After examining many specimens collected throughout the Afrotropical region, we have determined that <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> is at best one end of a morphological spectrum, which also includes <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic>. On the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> end, forms are typically larger, slightly more matte, heads slightly more elongate, and lateral depressions of the mesoscutum slightly more developed. Altogether, we have found many intermediate forms, without any distinct morphological features to suggest monophyly of each genus; we hypothesize that the features mentioned above are the result of allometry related to overall body size. Hence, we hereby make <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> a junior synonym of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> (see below). This decision finds further motivation in the phylogenetic analysis of <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2007)</xref> which found that <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic> rendered <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> paraphyletic.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Entire wasp lightly to heavily matte over entire body, but particularly on head and mesoscutum. Mesopleural line entirely absent. Pronotal plate distinctly directed anteriorly, anterior half (just behind head) wider than posterior half. Pronotal fovea indistinct in most cases; when visible, closed laterally (lateral bridge present). Hind coxae often entirely without hairpatch. Setae on wings ranging from normal to a particular form with dark, broad sockets; setae along anterior aspect of marginal cell very stout in larger forms. Face elongate to round, mandibles ranging from blocky, subquadrate to smaller and triangular; malar space with very slight striations running from the ventral margin of the compound eye to the mandibular base. Scutellar plate typically narrow, elongate; occasionally wider, tear-drop shaped. Longitudinal lateral depressions of mesoscutum present in larger specimens, absent in smaller ones. Shares several of its characteristics (matte finish, longidutinal lateral depressions of mesoscutum, very elongate coxae etc) with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Chrestosema</named-content></named-content></italic>, but the latter taxon always has a mesopleural line and an elongate hairline along metacoxae. Very small specimens of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> will approach the appearance of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic>, but the latter is far less “foamy”.</p><fig id="F43" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 43.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head and mesosoma dorsolateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41197.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g043"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Old World tropics, but also in eastern Palaearctic. Afrotropical records: Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Seychelles, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">Quinlan 1986</xref>), Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Gabon, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Republic of Congo, South Africa, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Reared from <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content> in Japan (label data).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">casca</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Glauraspidia</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Seychelles)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">floccus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">orbilus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied</p><p>by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scyphus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Glauraspidia</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Zambia, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seychellensis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Kieffer, 1911a) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Eucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Seychelles)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">silenus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sinis</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) type in BMNH studied by MF (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">spio</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">steropes</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in BMNH studied by MF (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">syrinx</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content><named-content content-type="species">syrtes</named-content></named-content></italic> (Quinlan, 1988), <bold>comb. n.</bold> (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirenes</named-content></named-content></italic>) Type in RMCA studied by MB (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Yoshimoto, 1962</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in Afrotropical region. Previously known only from the Pacific, but actually distributed worldwide.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Tiny wasps with a well-developed set of “dwarfication” characters: a globular head, short antennae, sometimes a reduction in antennomere number, a narrow scutellum, very narrow wings with very long hair fringe, wing venation of uneven <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>width, and fore wing marginal cell short and wide open. Similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> and to some <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> in some or all of these characters, but separated from the latter by the combination of having a pronotum with open lateral foveae, and lacking a mesopleural line.</p><fig id="F44" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 44.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic> species (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41198.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g044"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Previously only known from the Pacific region, but are in fact widespread in the Old World tropics and recently a specimen was found in North America. Afrotropical records: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Madagascar, Nigeria, Reunion, Sierra Leone, Uganda (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts unknown, assumed to be <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p>Undescribed species.</p></sec></sec></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Figitinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by four genera containing 7 described species. A number of undescribed species are present in world collections. <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> contains a heterogenous assemblage of genera and is probably not monophyletic (<xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1999</xref>, <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2007</xref>). However, the genera native to the Afrotropical region all belong to a very distinct lineage (big black wasps, with strongly reduced wing pubescence, hairy compound eyes, no hair patches at metasomal base, often with lateral striation of the mesosoma, often with scutellar spines, attacking calyptrate <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> in dung and carrion), which is safely monophyletic, and in fact, present a very interesting morphological and life history convergence with some genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (in the Afrotropical region, namely <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>). Though in addition to the native genera, there is the genus <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content></named-content></italic>, of which we have so far encountered only one Afrotropical specimen of a species present in Europe, which may be an accidental introduction or possibly an established population of synanthropic origin. This genus is very different from the major faunal component of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>, and represents a separate lineage that renders the subfamily paraphyletic in phylogenetic analyses. It is easily recognisable by its confluent scutellar foveae.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> Host records are lacking for Afrotropical species of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content>, however, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref> cite all confirmed host records for the group, and these all relate to calyptrate flies in dung and carrion.</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is represented in all biogeographical regions (except the Antarctic) with the majority of described species occurring in the Holarctic and Neotropical regions. The paucity of Afrotropical and Oceanic species, as well as the almost total absence of Oriental records, may very well only reflect a poor state of taxonomic knowledge.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical figitine genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical figitine genera</title><p>(after <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2014</xref>)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e12675" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41312.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i103"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellar foveae confluent (a). Small, rather slender species (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41313.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i104"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scutellar foveae distinctly separated by a median carina (A, B). Larger, strongly built species</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41314.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i105"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No distinct scutellar spine (a), outline of scutellum in dorsal view rounded (however there is often a more or less pronounced tooth at the posterior most point of the circumscutellar carina, which may look like a small “spine” in lateral view) (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41315.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i106"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Distinct scutellar spine present, obviously protruding from scutellar outline in dorsal view (A, B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41316.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i107"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli sculptured with small transverse ridges (a). Interfoveal carina depressed, much lower than the level of the foveal edge (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41317.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i108"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli smooth (A). Interfoveal carina as high as the foveal edge (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Latreille, 1802</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>This is a rare genus in the region. The Afrotropical representatives of the genus were recently revised and four of Benoit’s species described in 1956 were sunk into synonymy with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">aciculatus</named-content></named-content></italic> (<xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2014</xref>). On a global scale, it is a poorly circumscribed genus versus several smaller genera, and many of its nominal species are of doubtful identity.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Large figitines with reduced pubescence on wings (often completely hairless) and more or less striate mesosomal sides. Easily separated from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> by the rounded scutellum (no indication of a spine in outline in dorsal view). Stiff, stout hairs present across most of body, distally bifurcate.</p><fig id="F45" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 45.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">aciculatus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Holotype, Democratic Republic of Congo). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41199.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g045"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Probably worldwide, but to date no records from the Oriental and Oceanic regions have been published. Afrotropical records: Democratic Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956d</xref>), Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen (<xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2014</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of calyptrate <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae in decomposing substrates (<xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">Hennig 1976</xref>, <xref rid="B103" ref-type="bibr">James 1928</xref>, <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">Thomas and Morgan 1972</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">aciculatus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956d) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Yemen)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">effossus</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956d (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">favonius</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956d (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">furvus</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956d (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fraudator</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956d (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Thomson, 1862</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>The only Afrotropical specimen seen so far is from South Africa and may be an accidental introduction. It corresponds to a form present in Europe, which is currently considered as belonging to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">clavicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> Thomson, but which differs from the type specimen in some minor respects. Further studies may possibly show that this is a separate, currently unnamed, species.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Small, rather slender, and more or less strongly pubescent figitines, easily recognised by the confluent scutellar foveae. Pubescence is dense in patches on the sides of the large metasomal tergite, as a collar on the pronotum, on the propodeum, and rather dense also on metapleura and metacoxae. The marginal cell of the forewing is characteristically short, and the antennae in females end with an enlarged apical flagellomere.</p><fig id="F46" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 46.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">clavicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head anterior lateral view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41200.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g046"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mostly an Holarctic genus, here reported for the first time from the Afrotropical region. Afrotropical records: South Africa (here).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>No host records exist. Hosts are expected to be saprophagous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">clavicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> Thomson, 1862 (South Africa)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Cameron, 1883</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare in the Afrotropical region. The genus is extremely species-rich in the Neotropical region and has recently been revised in a series of papers by <xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">Jiménez et al. (2004</xref>, <xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">2005a</xref>, <xref rid="B106" ref-type="bibr">2005b</xref>, <xref rid="B107" ref-type="bibr">2005c</xref>, <xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">2006</xref>, <xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">2007</xref>, <xref rid="B110" ref-type="bibr">2008a</xref>, <xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">2008b</xref>); <xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">Jiménez and Pujade-Villar (2009)</xref>; <xref rid="B200" ref-type="bibr">Petersen-Silva and Pujade-Villar (2010)</xref>; <xref rid="B201" ref-type="bibr">Petersen-Silva et al. (2010)</xref> and <xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">Pujade-Villar et al. (2006)</xref>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> is also common throughout the Nearctic Region, but species limits have not been thoroughly established (Buffington pers. obs.).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> are the only known figitines in the Afrotropical region with a scutellar spine. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> can be distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> by whether or not the notauli are horizontally striate: smooth in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic>, striate in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> (Jimenez et al. 2008). Also, most <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> have a longer, more robust scutellar spine than <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic>, but in specimens we have examined, this character varies with overall size of the specimen. This genus also resembles some members of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>, most notably <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>, which also possess a distinct scutellar spine, but can be separated from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> by the lack of a facial impression on the head (present in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic>), and lack of a ligulate metasoma T2.</p><fig id="F47" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 47.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">haddocki</named-content></named-content></italic> (Holotype, Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> mesosoma dorsolateral view <bold>C</bold> head anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41201.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g047"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Mainly Neotropical, but with single species in the Nearctic and the Afrotropical regions. Purported records from the Oriental region and the east Palearctic are unconfirmed. Afrotropical records: Central African Republic, South Africa (<xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2014</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of calyptrate <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae in decomposing substrates (<xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">Díaz et al. 2000</xref>, <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">Thomas and Morgan 1972</xref>, <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">haddocki</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort, Buffington & Forshage, 2014 (Central African Republic, South Africa)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Kieffer, 1901</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Rare. Recently revised by Jimenez et al. (2008) and <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. (2014)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> shares the presence of a scutellar spine with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic>, absent in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content></named-content></italic>. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> can be separated from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic> by the presence of transversely striate notauli (smooth in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic>), and an often slightly smaller scutellar spine; this second character, however, is often linked to adult body size and should be used with caution. As in the case of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></named-content></italic>, species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></named-content></italic> can be superficially similar to <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content>), but can be separated from that taxon by the lack of a facial impression on the head, as well as the lack of a ligulate metasomal T2. All three African species have the occipital carinae directed towards the ocellar area and separated in the middle by a smooth surface as well as a smooth interocellar area.</p><fig id="F48" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 48.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tedjoansi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Mali). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41202.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g048"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Probably worldwide, but no records from the Oriental region are published. Afrotropical records: Burkina Faso (<xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">Jiménez et al. 2008c</xref>); Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Namibia, South Africa (<xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2014</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of calyptrate <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="suborder">Brachycera</named-content></named-content> larvae in decomposing substrates (<xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">Ionescu 1969</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tedjoansi</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort, Buffington & Forshage, 2014 (Mali)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content><named-content content-type="species">provancheri</named-content></named-content></italic> Jiménez & Pujade-Villar, 2008 (Burkina Faso)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tintini</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort, Buffington & Forshage, 2014 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, South Africa)</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Pycnostigminae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by two genera containing eight described species. Revised by <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2007)</xref>. A number of undescribed species have since been collected (SAMC).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><bold>Biology.</bold> Unknown. Available phylogenetic evidence suggests that pycnostigmines may be parasitoids of gall-inducing <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The subfamily is restricted to the Afrotropical and Palearctic regions (<xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical pycnostigmine genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical pycnostigmine genera</title><p>(after <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>)</p><table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e13426" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41318.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i109"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli complete from anterior margin of mesoscutum (at junction with pronotum) to posterior margin (at junction with scutellum) (a); parascutal impression present (a); female with more than 10 flagellomeres (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41319.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i110"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Notauli incomplete, not reaching the pronotum, but present midway across mesoscutum and continuing to junction with scutellum (A); parascutal impression absent (A); female with 10 flagellomeres (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Cameron, 1905</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Revised by <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2007)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Within the Afrotropical region, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic> can be confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic>. However, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic> species lack notauli on the mesoscutum, an easily observable and reliable character. Outside the Afrotropical region, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic> is more readily confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trjapitziniola</named-content></named-content></italic>; presently, this latter taxon is only known from the Palearctic region (Armenia, UAE), but it may be present in the Afrotropical region.</p><fig id="F49" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 49.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rostratus</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41203.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g049"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Endemic to South Africa (<xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Hosts unknown. The phylogeny of <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref> suggest the host might be a gall-inducing hymenopteran.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fossilensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">hoerikwaggoensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">incognito</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mastersonae</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rostratus</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Kieffer, 1905</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>Revised by <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2007)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Within the Afrotropical region, <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic> can be confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic>. However, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></named-content></italic> lack notauli on the mesoscutum, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic> have complete notauli; this is very easy to observe and the character is reliable. Outside the Afrotropical region, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic> could be confused with the Palearctic <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trjapitziniola</named-content></named-content></italic>, but this latter taxon lacks notauli, and has not been recorded from Africa (but see above). <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigerrimum</named-content></named-content></italic> was taken in Algeria, indicating this taxon is present in Mediterranean Africa.</p><fig id="F50" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 50.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dayae</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41204.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g050"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Occurs in South Africa as well as in southwestern Palearctic (north Africa). Afrotropical records: South Africa (<xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown. The phylogeny of <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref> suggest the host might be a gall-inducing hymenopteran.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dayae</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ronquisti</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2007 (South Africa)</p></sec></sec></sec></sec><sec><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content> is represented in the Afrotropical region by a single introduced species.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> See below under <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The family is represented in nearly all biogeographical regions with the majority of species occurring in the northern hemisphere (<xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander et al. 1996</xref>). Introduced for biological control into Australia and South America (<xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">Nordlander et al. 1996</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Latreille, 1802</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>In the Afrotropical region, the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ibaliidae</named-content></named-content> are represented by an introduced Holarctic species. It was introduced to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa (1995–2007) to control <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirex</named-content><named-content content-type="species">noctilio</named-content></named-content></italic> Fabricius, 1793, a pest in pine plantations (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pinus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">radiata</named-content></named-content></italic> D. Don.) (<xref rid="B247" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Picker 2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Readily distinguished from all other Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> by the sheer size of this wasp. Adults easily reach 1.5 cm; the closest, by size, to this group of wasps are some species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></italic>, especially <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lenticularis</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cyclopia</named-content></named-content></italic>. An additional character that readily seperates <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content></named-content></italic> from other cynipoids (and most other <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>, for that matter), is the extremely laterally flattened mesosoma. In dorsal view, the metasoma of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content></named-content></italic> is blade-like, housing a long, coiled ovipositor. The large liopterids, mentioned above, all have a distinctly ovate metasoma, never laterally flattened. As in the case of the liopterids, ibaliids have a distinctly horizontally strigate mesoscutum, which is hypothesized to be critical in emerging from their wood-boring hosts (<xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1999</xref>).</p><fig id="F51" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 51.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">leucospoides</named-content></named-content></italic> (South Africa). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41205.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g051"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Holarctic and transgressing into the northeast Oriental region, introduced elsewhere. Afrotropical records: South Africa (<xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">Hurley et al. 2007</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Parasitoids of woodwasps: <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Sirex</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Urocerus</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xeris</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Siricidae</named-content></named-content>) living in conifers. Males mate with females while they are laying eggs. The female inserts her ovipositor down the tunnel bored in pine trees by the host woodwasp larva, to lay an egg either into the egg of the host or into the young host larva. On hatching the ibaliid wasp larva emerges from the body of the host and feeds externally (<xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">Hurley et al. 2007</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">leucospoides</named-content></named-content></italic> (Hochenwarth, 1785) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ichneumon</named-content></named-content></italic>) ssp. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subspecies">leucospoides</named-content></named-content></italic> Hochenwarth, 1785 (South Africa; extralimital distribution throughout the Holarctic region and introduced elsewhere)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec></sec><sec><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content></title><p>The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> are represented in the Afrotropical region by two of the three world subfamilies: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mayrellinae</named-content></named-content>, with the former having been recently revised by <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref> and the latter by <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref> and <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref>. A key to Afrotropical liopterid genera was published in <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref>.</p><p><bold>Biology.</bold> The biology of the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> is unknown, though a few published observations suggest hosts could be <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Coleoptera</named-content></named-content> in rotting wood: two species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kiefferiella</named-content></named-content></italic> Ashmead emerged from logs infested with buprestids (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acmaeodera</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pulchella</named-content></named-content></italic> (Herbst)) (<xref rid="B257" ref-type="bibr">Weld 1956</xref>); a <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kieferiella</named-content></named-content></italic> species and a <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> Cameron species were reared from trees in the family <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Fabaceae</named-content></named-content>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Prosopis</named-content><named-content content-type="species">glandulosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Torr. and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dalberghia</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fusca</named-content></named-content></italic> Pierre, respectively (<xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>). These associations are all for representatives of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mayrellinae</named-content></named-content> with no records available for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content>. No verified host records exist for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>, <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>).</p><p><bold>Distribution.</bold> The family is represented in all biogeographical regions except for the Western Palaearctic with the majority of species occurring in tropical or subtropical regions (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>). The subfamily <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Liopterinae</named-content></named-content> is restricted to the New World and is centered in the Neotropical region with a few species extending north into the Nearctic region (<xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="Key to Afrotropical liopterid subfamilies and genera"><title>Key to Afrotropical liopterid subfamilies and genera</title><p>(after <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<table-wrap content-type="key" orientation="portrait" id="d36e14094" position="anchor"><table frame="hsides" rules="all"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41320.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i111"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tarsal claws simple (a). Scutellum with auricula (laterally with semilunar, slightly impressed area set off by distinct carina) (b). Metasomal tergite 6 of females longer dorsally than ventrally in lateral view, posteroventral margin sinuate, strongly curving forward in lateral view, and not covering ventral portion of T7 (b). Posterolateral pronotal margin not incised (c), mesopleural triangle not deeply impressed anteriorly (c) (<bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mayrellinae</named-content></named-content></bold>)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41321.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i112"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pro- and mesotarsal claws with basal, lamellate lobe (A). Scutellum laterally without auricula impressed (C). Metasomal tergite 6 of females as long ventrally as dorsally in lateral view (B); posterior margin straight to gently curved in lateral view (B); T6 covering ventral portion of T7 (B). Posterolateral pronotal margin distinctly incised in front of mesopleural triangle, the latter deeply impressed anteriorly (C) (<bold><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content></bold>)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41322.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i113"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesopleural surface not concave (a); mesopleural impression present; lower pleuron at least partly horizontally strigate. Anterior metatibial spur short and stout (b). Metasomal terga 3–5 fused (c), inter-tergal sutures at least partly invisible</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41323.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i114"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mesopleural surface distinctly concave, the concavity forming oblique, shallow femoral groove (A); mesopleural impression absent; lower pleuron without horizontal, linear sculpture. Metatibial spurs subequal in length, elongate (B). Metasomal terga 3–5 not fused, inter-tergal sutures distinct (C)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41324.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i115"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal crest produced into conspicuous toothlike process (a). Ventral margin of mesopleural impression visible as well-defined ventral margin of obliquely costate area of mesopleuron (a). Metanotal trough absent. Metafemoral spine triangular, broad-based, oblique (b)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><graphic id="oo_41325.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-i116"></graphic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>–</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pronotal crest not produced into conspicuous toothlike process (A), but occasionally produced into small, triangular process. Ventral margin of mesopleural impression not marked (A). Metanotal trough clearly indicated. Metafemoral spine elongate, narrow-based, erect (B)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></italic></bold></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="Mayrellinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mayrellinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>Globally this subfamily is represented by two genera, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Kiefferiella</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic>, with the latter genus occurring in the Afrotropical region (<xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>, <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2012</xref>).</p><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Cameron, 1908</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> (synonyms: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paraegilips</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910a, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Allocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1914, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Holocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1916, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Diholocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> Rohwer & Fagan, 1917, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Mayrella</named-content></named-content></italic> Hedicke, 1922, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paribalia</named-content></named-content></italic> Weld, 1922, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stylobrachys</named-content></named-content></italic> Belizin, 1951, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Baviana</named-content></named-content></italic> Barbotin, 1954, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Decellea</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956b)</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Remarks"><title>Remarks.</title><p>The genus was recently revised by <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref> and <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref>. The latter paper described a further 9 species, including a new species group from Madagascar. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> species are rare in collections.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Medium sized to very small cynipoids. Very small species look superfically like cynipids, but careful attention to the relative size of the metasomal terga will help seperate <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> from cynipids. Some superficially resemble figitids, especially <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Thrasorinae</named-content></named-content> (not found in Africa), but can be separated from the latter by having a deeply foveate pronotum and mesoscutum, as well as diagnostically liopterid metasomal terga. Within Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> can be distinguished by lacking any scutellar armament, by the lack of any sort of lobe at the base of the tarsal claws, and the presence of an auricula on the side of the scutellum.</p><fig id="F52" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 52.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">parinari</named-content></named-content></italic> (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41206.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g052"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>The genus is represented in all biogeographical regions except for the Western Palaearctic and Australia (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>). Three species groups are present in, and endemic to the Afrotropical region: the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trisetosus</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicolus</named-content></named-content></italic> species groups (two of the seven species groups recognized by <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref>) and the <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seyrigi</named-content></named-content></italic> species group erected by <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>The type female of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicola</named-content></named-content></italic> was captured on a <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Drypetes</named-content><named-content content-type="species">gossweileri</named-content></named-content></italic> S. Moore (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Euphorbiaceae</named-content></named-content>) log in Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) (<xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">Benoit 1956b</xref>). Two females of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicola</named-content></named-content></italic> from Uganda are labelled “ex <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Coleoptera</named-content></named-content>”; two other females from Uganda are labeled “ex <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Lepidoptera</named-content></named-content>” (Ronquist 1995). Inferred association with <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Lepidoptera</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Coleoptera</named-content></named-content> and rearing of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicolous</named-content></named-content></italic> from a rotten log, suggest that <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> species are parasitoids of beetle larva (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>). The extensive backward pointing ridges on the pronotum and mesoscutum in a number of species suggest an adaption for exiting from (or burrowing in to find) concealed hosts in a confined substrate such as dense leaf litter or rotten logs (<xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2013</xref>). Ronquist (1995) proposed that these structures help with host tunnel negotiation. These effective backward pointing teeth would facilitate the negotiation of such substrates, preventing slippage and promoting forward movement down the tunnels or through the substrate.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Paramblynotus seyrigi species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seyrigi</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p>Erected by <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref> to accommodate a single species that is likely to be a Madagascan endemic.</p><p><bold>Diagnosis.</bold><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seyrigi</named-content></named-content></italic> has closest affinities with the two Oriental species groups <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ruficollis</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">punctulatus</named-content></named-content></italic> of <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref>. The <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seyrigi</named-content></named-content></italic> species group shares the sculptural arrangement of the vertex (large ocelli with three distinct carina extending to or between the toruli) with the two aforementioned Oriental species groups, but the lack of an occipital carina in combination with an absence of a pronotal crest or tooth (uniquely the posterior pronotal margin is represented by a swollen rim), reduced sculpture on the mesoscutum and a unique scutellar foveal character state separate it from these two groups. It is distinct from the two African species groups <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicolus</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trisetosus</named-content></named-content></italic> in a number of characters including a glabrous mesopleuron without sculpture, F1 equal in length to F2, and the presence of an angled latero-ventral pronotal margin.</p><p><bold>Species richness.</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">seyrigi</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Madagascar)</p></sec><sec sec-type="Paramblynotus trisetosus species group"><title><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trisetosus</named-content></named-content></italic> species group</title><p>This is the most species rich group within the Afrotropical region with 28 described species (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>, <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2013</xref>). The species group is only known from the African mainland.</p><p><bold>Diagnosis.</bold> Species in this group are typically smaller than those in other species groups, and are the easiest to confuse with <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>. They are characterized by having a flat pronotal crest (or, pronotal crest absent); the mesoscutum is foveate-reticulate or with continuous transverse carina with fovea set in rows looking like saw teeth in lateral view; in most species, the speculum is perfectly smooth (gently striate in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vannoorti</named-content></named-content></italic>); and the median propodeal area is distinctly delimited by lateral propodeal carinae, and posteriorly is not foveoate-reticulate. Careful attention to the metasomal sclerites will prevent confusing <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="species">trisetosus</named-content></named-content></italic>-group <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> with <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>.</p><p><bold>Species richness.</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">alexandriensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2013 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">angolensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Angola)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">antistatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">bayangensis</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Central African Republic)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cameroonensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Cameroon)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">carinatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">claripennis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">coxatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">diminutus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">dzangasangha</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Central African Republic)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">femoratus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">fuscicapiculus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">immaculatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Namibia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">jacksoni</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Cameroon)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kekenboschi</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">maculipennis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">matele</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">minutus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigricornis</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956b (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">parinari</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2013 (Kenya, Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">prinslooi</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ruvubuensis</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Burundi)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rwandensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Rwanda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">samiatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">scalptus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">townesorum</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">trisetosus</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1956b (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">vannoorti</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zairensis</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p></sec><sec sec-type=""><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicolus</named-content></named-content> species group</title><p>Previously only known from the African mainland with three described species (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>); <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref> described two species from Madagascar.</p><p><bold>Diagnosis.</bold> This species group is characterized in females by excavations (spiracular peritremata) on the terminal portion of T8 associated with the spiracle. A distinct pronotal crest is present, medially forming a conspicuous, slightly backward pointing, ridge-like tooth. The mesoscutum has rough discontinuous transverse costae produced into irregularly raised and slightly backward pointing teeth. The speculum is longitudinally costate, and the median propodeal area is not delimited by lateral propodeal carinae.</p><p><bold>Species richness.</bold></p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">alveolatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Cameroon)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">behara</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Madagascar)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mixtus</named-content></named-content></italic> Liu, Ronquist & Nordlander, 2007 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">yangambicolus</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1956b) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Decellea</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">zohy</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort & Buffington, 2013 (Madagascar)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Oberthuerellinae"><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content></title><p>This subfamily is represented by three genera, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></named-content></italic>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> all of which are endemic to the Afrotropical region (<xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">Ronquist 1995a</xref>, <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2012</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Saussure, 1890</named-content></p><list list-type="simple" list-content="nomenclature-citation-list"><list-item><p content-type="nomenclature-citation"><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content><named-content content-type="comment"> Saussure, 1890: plate 20, fig. 20. Type species: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lenticularis</named-content></named-content></italic> Saussure, by monotypy.</named-content></p></list-item></list><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></italic> can be readily distinguished from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> by having distinct metasomal terga (tergites 3–5) with the inter-tergal sutures not fused. The mesopleuron is also distinctly concave, the concavity forming an oblique, shallow femoral groove; the mesopleural impression is absent and the ventral part of the mesopleuron is without horizontal, linear sculpture; the metatibial spurs are subequal in length, elongate. The lack of a pronotal crest produced into a conspicuous toothlike process easily distinguishes <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></named-content></italic> from <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></named-content></italic>.</p><fig id="F53" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 53.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sharkeyi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Republic of Congo). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41207.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g053"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Identification"><title>Identification.</title><p>Dichotomous and online interactive keys to species are available in <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref> and <xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">van Noort (2004–2015)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Republic of Congo, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe (<xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">abscinda</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia).</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">aureopilosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">breviscutellaris</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">crassicornis</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi).</p><p>syn <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">compressa</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">cyclopia</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington and van Noort, 2012 (Democratic Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">eschara</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington and van Noort, 2012 (Liberia)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kibalensis</named-content></named-content></italic> van Noort and Buffington, 2012 (Uganda)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">lenticularis</named-content></named-content></italic> Saussure, 1890 (Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Malawi, South Africa)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">longicaudata</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">longispinosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of Congo; Gabon; Ivory Coast; Malawi)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigra</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910b (Equatorial Guinea)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigrescens</named-content></named-content></italic> Benoit, 1955 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">pardolatus</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington and van Noort, 2012 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">sharkeyi</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington and van Noort, 2012 (Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">simba</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington and van Noort, 2012 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">tibialis</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1904 (Cameroon, South Africa; Zimbabwe)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">transiens</named-content></named-content></italic> (Benoit, 1955) (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmanella</named-content></named-content></italic>) (Democratic Republic of the Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">triformis</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Tanzania)</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Hedicke, 1912</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Female antenna 13–segmented, subclavate; male 14–segmented. Face with reticulate to rugose sculpture and scattered pubescence. Pronotum coarsely rugose with median tooth or spine viewed laterally. Mesonotum with coarse variable sculp<pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>ture, propodeum without pronounced side margins. Segment 1 of metasoma (petiole) three times as long as broad, segments 2–4 short viewed laterally and dorsally, segment 5 the largest. Metafemora with a rounded lobe between medial area and apex, tooth on metafemur angled, hind tibia with a distinct lobe apically, opposite the tibial spines. Scutellum with three foveae.</p><p><bold>Identification.</bold> Dichotomous and online interactive keys to species are available in <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref> and <xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">van Noort (2004–2015)</xref>.</p><fig id="F54" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 54.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kiplingi</named-content></named-content></italic> (Republic of Congo). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41208.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g054"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Kenya, Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">copelandi</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2012 (Kenya)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">expansa</named-content></named-content></italic> Quinlan, 1979 (Gabon)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">kiplingi</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2012 (Republic of Congo)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">nigra</named-content></named-content></italic> Hedicke, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">roberti</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2012 (Central African Rebublic)</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content><named-content content-type="species">spinosa</named-content></named-content></italic> Hedicke, 1912 (Equatorial Guinea)</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec></sec><sec sec-type="taxon-treatment"><sec-meta><kwd-group><label>Taxon classification</label><kwd><named-content content-type="kingdom">Animalia</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></kwd><kwd><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></kwd></kwd-group></sec-meta><title><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></title><p><named-content content-type="taxon-authority">Kieffer, 1910a</named-content></p><sec sec-type="treatment-Diagnosis"><title>Diagnosis.</title><p>Metasomal terga 3–5 fused, with intertergal sutures partially visible; lower mesopleuron horizontally striate. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></named-content></italic> is most easily confused with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic>; the fusion of terga in <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> is a very reliable and clearly visible character. Additionally, most species of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></named-content></italic> possess a dorsoventrally striate lateral aspect of the scutellum, posterior to the auricula; this is useful for specimens in which the metasoma is missing.</p><fig id="F55" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 55.</label><caption><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rhothion</named-content></named-content></italic> (Central African Republic). <bold>A</bold> habitus lateral view <bold>B</bold> head and mesosoma dorsal view <bold>C</bold> head, anterior view.</p></caption><graphic id="oo_41209.jpg" xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-g055"></graphic></fig></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Identification"><title>Identification.</title><p>Dichotomous and online interactive keys to species are available in <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort (2012)</xref> and <xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">van Noort (2004–2015)</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Distribution"><title>Distribution.</title><p>Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo (<xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Biology"><title>Biology.</title><p>Unknown.</p></sec><sec sec-type="treatment-Species richness"><title>Species richness.</title><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">rhothion</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2012 (Central African Republic; Republic of Congo).</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">ronquisti</named-content></named-content></italic> Buffington & van Noort, 2012 (Democratic Republic of Congo).</p><p><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content><named-content content-type="species">subsquamata</named-content></named-content></italic> Kieffer, 1910a (Cameroon)</p></sec></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="Discussion"><title>Discussion</title><p>Hyper-diverse insect groups provide a challenge for identification, particularly from regions where they are poorly studied and where knowledge of generic and species diversity is wanting. Years of frustrated scrabbling through scattered historical literature to find poorly illustrated and out of date keys to identify Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> led to the formulation of the Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> Initiative (AHI) to address this hiatus (van Noort et al. 2010). This project will provide a sorely needed synthesised resource to enable the identification of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> to generic level, with a summary of described species and biology and introduction to the relevant literature. Richly illustrated user-friendly web-available keys will provide a tool for coping with the phenomenal biological diversity of the region, the production of which will require major international collaboration between specialists across the included taxa. The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> were taken on as the first phase of the project since the superfamily is reasonably diverse at generic level and currently actively worked on for the region. Hence ouput was attainable within a reasonable time period to set the approach for the remaining superfamilies. Groups such as the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Chalcidoidea</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Ichneumonoidea</named-content></named-content> will provide a far greater challenge.</p><p>With the completion of this phase of the Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> Initiative project, the taxonomic knowledge base of cynipoids in the Afrotropical region joins a similar knowledge base for the Western Palearctic and Australian regions, with modern keys to genera available for most cynipoid groups (<xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">Fergusson 1986</xref>, <xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">Forshage and Nordlander 2008</xref>, <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">Melika 2006</xref>, <xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey 2001</xref>, Paretas-Martinez et al. 2011, <xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">2013</xref>).</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p>It may be premature to promise the treatment of another major region sometime soon. Since we have observed, and indeed are concluding here, that for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> there is a substantial overlap, with mostly shared genera, between the Afrotropical and Oriental regions, the Oriental region might be the logical next step to address. Nevertheless, major collecting efforts still reveal new genera in <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>, and for the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>, the rich fauna of the region is only now being discovered (e.g. <xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">Tang et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">2011a</xref>, <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">2011b</xref>, <xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">Melika et al. 2011a</xref>, <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">2011b</xref>). When the Oriental fauna is better understood, combining this knowledge with that of the Western Palearctic might possibly make the treatment of the Eastern Palearctic a relatively easy task, but collection efforts from this region are still very scattered and often difficult to access. Additionally, the Oceanic fauna outside of Australia (the Pacific islands) presents a special problem as there are endemic radiations of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> that are poorly understood from taxonomic and phylogenetic perspectives. This fauna has only fairly recently been subjected to preliminary assessment (<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">Beardsley 1988</xref>, <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">1989</xref>, <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">1990</xref>, <xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">1992a</xref>, <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">1992b</xref>) and contrary to early assumptions has been shown, at least partly, to be a part of the shared Paleotropical fauna (Forshage and Buffington pers. obs.) Additionally, circumscription of the Oceanic fauna is further confounded by what appears to be repeated introductions of eucoilines from the west coast of North America (Buffington, pers. obsv.).</p><p>The cynipid and figitid diversity are both relatively high in North America, and while <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> systematics of the region has become more stable in recent years, including an updated catalogue of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">Forshage et al. 2013</xref>), many taxonomic changes are still underway within <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content>, making the generation of an updated key to North American genera still some time off (Melika pers. comm.). However, once North America has been treated, the last major region to require extensive assessment is that of the Neotropics. Efforts in the Neotropical region, however, are hampered by a general lack of comprehensive collections, as well as a truly infantile knowledge of diversity with respect to other regions. In a recent trip to Brazil, for instance, MB sorted undetermined <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> from a major biodiversity survery in Espirito Santo, recovering an estimated 400 morphospecies and, at the very least, 4 undescribed genera. However, we must note the recent important advances which are being published on cynipoid faunas of Chile (<xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and Nieves-Aldrey 2011</xref>); Costa Rica (<xref rid="B206" ref-type="bibr">Pujade et al. 2012</xref>); and Panama (<xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">Nieves-Aldrey and Medianero 2011</xref>, 2013, <xref rid="B157" ref-type="bibr">Medianero and Nieves-Aldrey 2011a</xref>, <xref rid="B158" ref-type="bibr">2011b</xref>). While Buffington et al. (2006) provided a key to genera of the Neotropical region, this key itself is out of date, and likely covers only a portion of the actual generic-level diversity (and no species level diversity). Lastly, a major challenge to understanding the Neotropical cynipoid fauna, as in other tropical regions, rests squarely upon habitat destruction and disturbance, inhibiting our gaining knowledge of many species before they become locally rare and/or extinct.</p><p>For the Afrotropical region, patterns of cynipoid diversity have become clearer through this project. The most notable is an over-arching distribution pattern of high taxon affinity between the Afrotropical and Oriental regions. This parallels, and is probably influenced by, host specificity across the various trophic levels, driven by the underlying high degree of floral similarity between the two regions. Both regions <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>have their share of endemic genera and species, but they also possess a significant overlap. Two groups stand out immediately: <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content>) and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>). <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> is particularly diverse in both the Afrotropical (<xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2013</xref>) and Oriental regions (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>), with what appears to be very little species overlap (this study); elsewhere in the world, the genus is either rare (Buffington and Gates 2013) or not nearly as speciose (<xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. 2007</xref>). The eucoiline <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> can often be a dominant taxon in bulk sampling efforts, with many stable morphospecies shared between the Afrotropical (many countries sampled; this study) and the Oriental regions (Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, India; Buffington pers. obsv.). However, until a revision of <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> has been completed, the scope and accuracy of taxonomic comparisons across these regions is limited. Several other genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> have been shown to have a distribution extending across the Afrotropical and Oriental regions, recently or in this paper. Originally described from Taiwan, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, occur both in the Afrotropical and the Oriental regions. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic> were described from the Afrotropical region, but are now known to occur in both. Even genera such as <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic>, originally described from the Pacific, have been shown to occur both in Asia and in Africa, suggesting that a substantial portion of the fauna is generally Paleotropical. For several of the mentioned genera (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></named-content></italic>), the geographical records allowing these observations are first published here, for others (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic>) they are dependent on nomenclatural acts made here.</p><p>A few figitid lineages show unique diversification within the Afrotropical region. The <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> are one of the most enigmatic cynipoid lineages sub-endemic to the region with 80% of the species restricted to sub-Saharan Africa (two genera <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trjapitziniola</named-content></named-content></italic> are represented by single species in the Mediterranean region). The only known metallic-colored cynipoid, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content><named-content content-type="species">mastersonae</named-content></named-content></italic>, falls within this unusual group. Worldwide, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> tend to be a rather rarely encountered and collected taxon (Buffington and Forshage pers. obsv.); however, within the Afrotropical region, and particularly Madagascar, the group can often dominate a bulk sample of cynipoids. The species-level diversity within Madagascar is spectacular (as noted above), and this group will make for an exciting species-level revision in the future. The aspicerine <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>, and the anacharitine <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content></named-content></italic>, are both genera unique to the Afrotropical region. Within <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>, a number of notable endemic or particularly species-rich groups have been recorded over the past three decades and are treated in this paper. Specialised morphological adaptations are uniquely exhibited by a number of Afrotropical taxa. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></named-content></italic> is bizarrely flattened, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic> are both characterized by arguably grotesque, unique protrusions from their frons and clypeal regions; the function of which is unknown. Hyperdiverse groups include <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></named-content></italic>, all of which are common outside the Afrotropical region, but were previously not known to include the species-level diversity observed here. Finally, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></named-content></italic> appear to have a larger diversity in the region than elsewhere.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
<p>Since assessment of generic diversity, species richness and distribution of Afrotropical cynipoids is in its infancy, with major gaps in sampling effort and habitat coverage, we can only forward hypothetical conjecture regarding biogeographical patterns based on limited data. Nevertheless, these hypotheses are a starting point and will be tested and revised as we proceed with the documentation of the region’s hymenopteran fauna. <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">Van Noort and Buffington (2013)</xref> hypothesized, based on data in <xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">Liu et al. (2007)</xref> and <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref>, that African <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic> diverged from the remaining Palaearctic members of the genus between the late Oligocene to early Miocene periods (26–23 mya). Expanding this schema to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> is certainly within reason, since <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref> recovered the majority of tribe- to genus-level diversification events within most subfamilies to have occurred at roughly the same time, especially within <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>. This would result in a few recently diverged, uniquely African groups that potentially evolved and diversified as a result of the aridification of the continent and formation of the savanna biome during the Oligocene-early Miocene c. 33–20 mya (<xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">Couvreur et al. 2008</xref>, <xref rid="B233" ref-type="bibr">Sepulchre et al. 2006</xref>) (e.g. the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Oberthuerellinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content>, the aspicerine <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></named-content></italic>, and the eucoiline genera, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic>), as well as a few lineages present in other regions, but with unique species present only in Africa (e.g. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic>). <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref>, however, did provide weak evidence of a Gondwanian element to the Afrotropical fauna. In that analysis, the thrasorines (southern South America), the mikeiines (Australian) and pycnostigmines (southern Africa) clustered in a clade. However, the posterior probability was very low (69; figure 1), and the stem-group divergence estimates for the group were centered around 75 mya, somewhat young for a Gondwanian explanation of distribution. Another question worth expanding is that of the origin of cynipoids, other than <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></named-content></italic>, present on Madagascar. Since there is evidence of Madagascar separating from mainland Africa 160–120 mya (Ali et al. 2008), for groups with large numbers of endemic species, such as the Malagasy <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content>, some form of dispersal event would be expected to have taken place from the great continent. This observation is reinforced by the fact that <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. (2012)</xref> recovered the emarginines to have a crown group age of 40 mya, making a hypothesis of vicariance from the African mainland unlikely for this group of cynipoids. However, Madagascar’s cynipoid species richness and endemism is likely a combination of numerous historical evolutionary processes, including persistence of paleoendemic lineages and more recent rapid speciation of younger lineages, as holds for many other groups of animals and plants on this island (<xref rid="B251" ref-type="bibr">Vences et al. 2009</xref>, <xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">Burkei et al. 2013</xref>).</p><p>Studies on endemic Afrotropical cynipoids (liopterids: <xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>, <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">van Noort and Buffington 2013</xref>; aspicerines: Buffington and van Noort 2008; eucoilines: <xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">Nielsen and Buffington 2011</xref>, <xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">Buffington 2012</xref>; pycnostigmines: <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2007</xref>) recover a similar set of patterns with respect to distribution: A) a general ‘hydrophilic belt’ of diversity along equatorial Africa, with a ‘southern swath’ southward along the central eastern seaboard, ultimately ending in the more Mediterranean-esque portion of South Africa (aspicerines, some liopterids, many eucoilines and specifically <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>); B) a ‘hydro-phobic’ patchy distribution within South Africa, often focused on the Western Cape (but theoretically this should extend into Namibia and Botswana) with linkages to the arid north-eastern areas of Africa and the middle east (pycnostigmines, some liopterids, some eucoilines). However, it should be pointed out that few new samples are being generated from, or are presently in world collections for the majority of the African countries, and hence any assessment of finer scale biogeographical patterns based on current data is premature.</p><p>In terms of species richness hot spots the arid Sahel belt paralleling the southern edge of the Sahara desert and extending south down the eastern side of Africa through Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya to Tanzania and the south-western aridness of Africa may potentially contain a reasonably diverse assemblage of cynipoids (as does the arid southwest of the United States and north Mexico, and arid Central Asia). With continued collecting in South Africa, this region may perhaps prove to be a hot spot of species richness in Africa. The uniqueness of the Cape Floral Kingdom, containing a diverse range of vegetation types (<xref rid="B170" ref-type="bibr">Mucina and Rutherford 2006</xref>), coupled with geographic characteristics typified by rugged, highly stratified mountain ridges (Cape Fold Mountain belt) likely played a role in promoting speciation within the group. Likewise the East African Rift valley extending from Ethiopia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south, encompassing the rugged topography of eastern DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, which started formation with upliftment in the Eocene-Oligocene period (<xref rid="B233" ref-type="bibr">Sepulchre et al. 2006</xref>), together with the belt of eastern arc mountains in Tanzania, each with isolated Afromontane forest refugia (<xref rid="B46" ref-type="bibr">Burgess et al. 2007</xref>) will likely prove to be another rich area of species diversity and endemism, as holds for plants and vertebrates (<xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">Myers et al. 2000</xref>, <xref rid="B149" ref-type="bibr">Lovett 2005</xref>). These eastern arc forests have strong connections with the Guineo-Congolian lowland rainforest and may have been isolated for 30 Myr from the start of the breakup of the pan African forest swath as a result of aridification in east Africa during the Oligocene-early Miocene (c. 33-20 Myr) (<xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">Couvreur et al. 2008</xref>). The vast expanse of the relatively homogenous Congo basin lowland rainforest [Congolian Region of <xref rid="B147" ref-type="bibr">Linder et al. (2012)</xref> equating to the Guineo-Congolian biome of <xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">White (1983)</xref>] may prove to harbour fairly widespread species, and hence exhibit low degrees of endemism. The forest has, however, undergone numerous contractions, fragmentations and re-expansion from the mid-Tertiary onwards (c. 33–2 Myr) (<xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">Couvreur et al. 2008</xref>, <xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">Marks 2010</xref>) promoting speciation and endemism, and coupled with this high energy tropical ecosystem, cynipoid species richness could arguably be expected to be elevated in the Congo basin.</p><p>The majority of cynipoid species, world-wide, have unknown biological roles; the exception being <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> where much of the taxonomy of the group is based on rearing records. Afrotropical cynipids are highly depauperate compared to the diverse northern hemisphere richness for the family, but their biology is relatively better known than their parasitoid counterparts in Africa. South Africa harbours a couple of enigmatic cynipids including an endemic, specialist lethal inquiline (<xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">van Noort et al. 2007</xref>) and gall formers of both herbs and trees (<xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">Liljeblad et al. 2011</xref>, <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">Melika and Prinsloo 2007</xref>). <pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment><italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></named-content></italic> is poorly studied and indications, based on undescribed species at hand, are that the genus may be richer in the Cape Floral Kingdom than currently perceived. As mentioned previously, the hosts of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> remain uncertain, though some association with wood-boring beetles has been discussed extensively in the literature (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>). Figitids fall into three major categories of host preference: those associated with gall forming <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Euceroptrinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Thrasorinae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Plectocynipinae</named-content></named-content>, and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Mikeiinae</named-content></named-content>), those associated with aphid predators and parasitoids (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content> as hyperparasitoids, usually with braconid parasitic wasps as immediate hosts; <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content> on <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Neuroptera</named-content></named-content>; <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> on <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content>), and those associated with cyclorrhaphous <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>, which compose the majority of Afrotropical cynipoid diversity). Hosts are completely unknown for <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Emargininae</named-content></named-content> and <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content>; the former has been associated with driver ant refuse piles (<xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">Buffington et al. 2012</xref>), while the latter, based on phylogeny, has been speculated to attacking gall-forming <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> (<xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">Buffington and van Noort 2012</xref>).</p><p>Eucoilines can be further divided into two major divisions of host use: those which utilize leaf-miners (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Agromyzidae</named-content></named-content>) hosts up in the canopy; and those which attack <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Diptera</named-content></named-content> in habitats like decomposing organic matter (debris, dung, carrion, wood etc), or algae and mushrooms (e.g. <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Ephydridae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Drosophilidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Muscidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Calliphoridae</named-content></named-content>) on the ground. <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic> are the dominant leaf-miner parasitoids, with <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></named-content></italic> common along equatorial Africa as well as down the ‘southern swath’; <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></named-content></italic> dominates in much more Mediterranean habitats, and these species are common in the Western Cape and along the southern coast of South Africa. Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, the drosophilid-parasitic genera <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></named-content></italic> are extremely common, some of which may be tramp species that are cosmopolitan (Buffington and Forshage pers. obsv.). However, throughout sub-Saharan Africa, it is the chloropid, drosophilid, and ephydrid parasitic <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> respectively that are frequently the most abundant in bulk samples. Furthermore, there are members of both of these genera, as well as the unusual <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>, that all possess some form of protrusions of the frons and/or clypeal region. The frequency of this condition in the Afrotropical region is unparalleled in other biogeographic regions (Buffington and Forshage pers. obs.). While some of these genera are related (<italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></named-content></italic>, <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></named-content></italic>, and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></named-content></italic>, all belonging to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Trichoplastini</named-content></named-content>), <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></named-content></italic> belongs to <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="tribe">Ganaspini</named-content></named-content>, and the facial protrusions are therefore an example of convergence with these other genera. While we do not yet know the hosts for these species, we do know the facial traits are not sexually dimorphic; ergo, we speculate these structures are used in escaping from the host puparium, the surroundings of the puparium (e.g. soil), or both.</p><p>The authors hope this initial chapter on the <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> of the Afrotropical region marks a turning point in the larger understanding and appreciation of this incredibly diverse and important order of insects. The final AHI production will provide an essential resource for identification of Afrotropical <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content> by a diverse array of end-users, from specialists, ecologists, and conservationists, to the applied forestry and agricultural sectors, enabling effective long-term conservation of an economically important and ecologically significant component of African and Madagascan ecosystems. Elucidating wasp systematics is a fundamental requirement for the future preservation of ecosystems that play an essential life support function for continued human survival.</p><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment1" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Phanacis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment1.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment2" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Rhoophilus</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment2.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment3" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Qwaqwaia</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment3.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment4" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Acanthaegilopsis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment4.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment5" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Aegilips</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment5.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment6" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Anacharis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment6.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment7" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Xyalaspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment7.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment8" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Anacharoides</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment8.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment9" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Aspicera</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment9.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment10" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Melanips</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment10.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment11" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Prosaspicera</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment11.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment12" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Alloxysta</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment12.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment13" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Apocharips</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment13.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment14" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Dilyta</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment14.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment15" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Phaenoglyphis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment15.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment16" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Thoreauella</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment16.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment17" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Afrostilba</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment17.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment18" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Ealata</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment18.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment19" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspidium</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment19.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment20" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Gronotoma</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment20.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment21" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Nordlanderia</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment21.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment22" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Paradiglyphosema</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment22.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment23" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Afrodontaspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment23.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment24" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Bothrochacis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment24.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment25" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Leptopilina</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment25.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment26" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Linoeucoila</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment26.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment27" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Trybliographa</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment27.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment28" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Aganaspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment28.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment29" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Didyctium</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment29.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment30" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Endecameris</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment30.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment31" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Ganaspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment31.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment32" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Gastraspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment32.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment33" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Hexacola</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment33.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment34" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Cothonaspis</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment34.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment35" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Kleidotoma</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment35.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment36" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Angustacorpa</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment36.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment37" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Nanocthulhu</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment37.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment38" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Rhoptromeris</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment38.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment39" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Stentorceps</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment39.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment40" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Trichoplasta</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment40.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment41" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Garudella</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment41.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment42" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment42.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment43" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Micreriodes</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment43.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment44" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Figites</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment44.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment45" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Lonchidia</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment45.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment46" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Neralsia</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment46.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment47" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Xyalophora</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment47.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment48" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Pycnostigmus</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment48.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment49" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Tylosema</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment49.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment50" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Ibalia</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment50.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment51" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Paramblynotus</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment51.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment52" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Oberthuerella</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment52.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment53" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Tessmannella</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment53.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material id="zookeys.493.6353-treatment54" content-type="local-data"><caption><title>XML Treatment for
<named-content content-type="genus">Xenocynips</named-content></title></caption><media xlink:href="zookeys.493.6353-treatment54.xml" mimetype="text" mime-subtype="xml"></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>Various conservation bodies granted permits to collect specimens including: Cape Nature, Eastern Cape Department of Environmental Affairs; Northern Cape Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, and SANparks (South Africa); Directeur de la Faune et de la Chasse, Libreville (Gabon); Ugandan Wildlife Authority and UNCST (Uganda); Directorate of Research, Kenya Wildlife Service (Kenya). The expedition to the Central African Republic was supported by funds from the World Wildlife Fund (US). SvN was funded by South African National Research Foundation grants: GUN 2068865; GUN 61497; GUN 79004; GUN 79211; GUN 81139. Part of the South African field work conducted by SvN and associated sample processing was funded by the National Science Foundation under PlatyPBI grant No. DEB–0614764 to N.F. Johnson and A.D. Austin. MLB was funded by the Systematic Entomology Lab, USDA/ARS. We also acknowledge MorphBank (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.morphbank.net">http://www.morphbank.net</ext-link>), Florida State University, School of Computational Science, Tallahassee, FL 32306–4026 USA. The massive collections in SAMC have been made available through considerable curatorial efforts by Dawn Larsen and Aisha Mayekiso. Other vast collections have been available for study channelled by Bob Zuparko (CASC) and Bob Copeland (ICIPE). David Notton hosted MF repeatedly and MB and SVN on several occasions in London, where also John Noyes, Gavin Broad and Andy Polaszek have been helpful. Other curators or assistants which have hosted shorter visits and/or handled loan requests are Claire Villemant and Agnièle Touret-Alby (MNHN), Frank Koch (ZMBH), Eliane de Coninck (RMCA), Bob Zuparko (CASC), Andreas Taeger and Stephan Blank (DEI), Sandor Czösz (HNHM), Fritz Gusenleitner and Martin Schwarz (OLML), Ottilie Neser and Ros Urban (SANC), Christer Hansson, Christoffer Fägerström and Roy Danielsson (MZLU). Others, like William Foster (CUMZ) and Ralph Peters and Kai Schütte (ZMUH) responded helpfully to enquiries. Gary Gibson carried specimens from CNCI. Others who have contributed specimens include Lucian Fusu, Mathias Jaschof, George Melika, etc. Unpublished data and insightful ideas were provided by Göran Nordlander. 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A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa (3 separate map sheets at 1:5 000 000, dated 1981, and legend).</source><publisher-name>UNESCO</publisher-name>, <publisher-loc>Paris</publisher-loc>, <size units="page">356 pp</size>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B265"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group><name><surname>Yasumatsu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group> (<year>1951</year>) <article-title>A new <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Dryocosmus</named-content></named-content></italic> injurious to chestnut trees in Japan.</article-title><source>Mushi</source><volume>22</volume>: <fpage>89</fpage>–<lpage>93</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B266"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group><name><surname>Yoshimoto</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name></person-group> (<year>1962</year>) <article-title>Insects of Micronesia, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>).</article-title><source>Insects of Micronesia</source><volume>19</volume>: <fpage>89</fpage>–<lpage>107</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B267"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group><name><surname>Yoshimoto</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name></person-group> (<year>1963</year>) <article-title>The genera <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Leptolamina</named-content></named-content></italic> and <italic><named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="genus">Maacynips</named-content></named-content></italic>, n. gen. from the Papuan subregion (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>: <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content>).</article-title><source>Pacific Insects</source><volume>5</volume>: <fpage>513</fpage>–<lpage>517</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><pmc-comment>PageBreak</pmc-comment>
</ref-list><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary materials</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S1"><label>Supplementary material 1</label><caption><p>Supplementary material 1: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical families of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical families of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format.</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s001.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41326.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S2"><label>Supplementary material 2</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Cynipidae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format.</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s002.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41327.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S3"><label>Supplementary material 3</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical subfamilies of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s003.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41328.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S4"><label>Supplementary material 4</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Anacharitinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format.</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s004.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41329.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S5"><label>Supplementary material 5</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Aspicerinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format.</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s005.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41330.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S6"><label>Supplementary material 6</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Charipinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format.</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s006.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41331.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S7"><label>Supplementary material 7</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Eucoilinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s007.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41332.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S8"><label>Supplementary material 8</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Figitinae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s008.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41333.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S9"><label>Supplementary material 9</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="subfamily">Pycnostigminae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Figitidae</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s009.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41334.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="S10"><label>Supplementary material 10</label><caption><p>Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p></caption><p>Data type: multi-entry, matrix-based key in SDD format</p><p>Explanation note: Multi-entry, matrix-based identification key to the Afrotropical genera of <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="family">Liopteridae</named-content></named-content> (<named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="superfamily">Cynipoidea</named-content></named-content>, <named-content content-type="taxon-name"><named-content content-type="order">Hymenoptera</named-content></named-content>) as exported from Lucid Builder 3.5 in XML SDD format</p><media xlink:href="zookeys-493-001-s010.sdd" mimetype="sdd" mime-subtype="sdd file" orientation="portrait" xlink:type="simple" id="oo_41335.sdd" position="anchor"></media><permissions><license><license-p>This dataset is made available under the Open Database License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/">http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/</ext-link>). The Open Database License (ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the original source and author(s) are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><attrib specific-use="authors">Simon van Noort, Matthew L. Buffington, Mattias Forshage</attrib></supplementary-material></sec></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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