Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens
Identifieur interne : 000013 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000012; suivant : 000014Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens
Auteurs : Camille Pasquet ; Pauline Le Monier ; Fabrice Monna ; Christophe Durlet ; Benjamin Brigaud ; Rémi Losno ; Carmela Chateau ; Christine Laporte-Magoni ; Peggy Gunkel-GrillonSource :
- SpringerPlus [ 2193-1801 ] ; 2016.
Abstract
The aim of this study is to explore the use of lichens as biomonitors of the impact of nickel mining and ore treatment on the atmosphere in the New Caledonian archipelago (South Pacific Ocean); both activities emitting also Co, Cr and possibly Fe. Metal contents were analysed in thirty-four epiphytic lichens, collected in the vicinity of the potential sources, and in places free from known historical mining. The highest Ni, Co, and Cr concentrations were, as expected, observed in lichens collected near ore deposits or treatment areas. The elemental composition in the lichens was explored by multivariate analysis, after appropriately transforming the variables (i.e. using compositional data analysis). The sample score of the first principal component (PC1) makes the largest (positive) multiplicative contribution to the log-ratios of metals originating from mining activities (Ni, Cr, Co) divided by Ti. The PC1 scores are used here as a surrogate of pollution levels related to mining and metallurgical activity. They can be viewed as synthetic indicators mapped to provide valuable information for the management and protection of ecosystems or, as a first step, to select locations where air filtration units could be installed, in the future, for air quality monitoring. However, as this approach drastically simplifies the problem, supplying a broadly efficient picture but little detail, recognizing the different sources of contamination may be difficult, more particularly when their chemical differences are subtle. It conveys only relative information: about ratios, not levels, and is therefore recommended as a preliminary step, in combination with close examination of raw concentration levels of lichens. Further validation using conventional air-monitoring by filter units should also prove beneficial.
Url:
DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-3681-4
PubMed: 27994999
PubMed Central: 5125352
Links to Exploration step
PMC:5125352Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens</title><author><name sortKey="Pasquet, Camille" sort="Pasquet, Camille" uniqKey="Pasquet C" first="Camille" last="Pasquet">Camille Pasquet</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Le Monier, Pauline" sort="Le Monier, Pauline" uniqKey="Le Monier P" first="Pauline" last="Le Monier">Pauline Le Monier</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">UMR 6298, ArTeHis, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Monna, Fabrice" sort="Monna, Fabrice" uniqKey="Monna F" first="Fabrice" last="Monna">Fabrice Monna</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">UMR 6298, ArTeHis, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Durlet, Christophe" sort="Durlet, Christophe" uniqKey="Durlet C" first="Christophe" last="Durlet">Christophe Durlet</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3">UMR 6282, Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Brigaud, Benjamin" sort="Brigaud, Benjamin" uniqKey="Brigaud B" first="Benjamin" last="Brigaud">Benjamin Brigaud</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff4">UMR-CNRS 8148, Géosciences Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Sud, Bât. 504, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Losno, Remi" sort="Losno, Remi" uniqKey="Losno R" first="Rémi" last="Losno">Rémi Losno</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff5">UMR CNRS 7154, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 rue Jussieu, 75013 Paris, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chateau, Carmela" sort="Chateau, Carmela" uniqKey="Chateau C" first="Carmela" last="Chateau">Carmela Chateau</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff6">UFR SVTE, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Laporte Magoni, Christine" sort="Laporte Magoni, Christine" uniqKey="Laporte Magoni C" first="Christine" last="Laporte-Magoni">Christine Laporte-Magoni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Gunkel Grillon, Peggy" sort="Gunkel Grillon, Peggy" uniqKey="Gunkel Grillon P" first="Peggy" last="Gunkel-Grillon">Peggy Gunkel-Grillon</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">27994999</idno><idno type="pmc">5125352</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5125352</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5125352</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s40064-016-3681-4</idno><date when="2016">2016</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000013</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000013</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens</title><author><name sortKey="Pasquet, Camille" sort="Pasquet, Camille" uniqKey="Pasquet C" first="Camille" last="Pasquet">Camille Pasquet</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Le Monier, Pauline" sort="Le Monier, Pauline" uniqKey="Le Monier P" first="Pauline" last="Le Monier">Pauline Le Monier</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">UMR 6298, ArTeHis, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Monna, Fabrice" sort="Monna, Fabrice" uniqKey="Monna F" first="Fabrice" last="Monna">Fabrice Monna</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">UMR 6298, ArTeHis, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Durlet, Christophe" sort="Durlet, Christophe" uniqKey="Durlet C" first="Christophe" last="Durlet">Christophe Durlet</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3">UMR 6282, Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Brigaud, Benjamin" sort="Brigaud, Benjamin" uniqKey="Brigaud B" first="Benjamin" last="Brigaud">Benjamin Brigaud</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff4">UMR-CNRS 8148, Géosciences Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Sud, Bât. 504, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Losno, Remi" sort="Losno, Remi" uniqKey="Losno R" first="Rémi" last="Losno">Rémi Losno</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff5">UMR CNRS 7154, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 rue Jussieu, 75013 Paris, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chateau, Carmela" sort="Chateau, Carmela" uniqKey="Chateau C" first="Carmela" last="Chateau">Carmela Chateau</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff6">UFR SVTE, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Laporte Magoni, Christine" sort="Laporte Magoni, Christine" uniqKey="Laporte Magoni C" first="Christine" last="Laporte-Magoni">Christine Laporte-Magoni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Gunkel Grillon, Peggy" sort="Gunkel Grillon, Peggy" uniqKey="Gunkel Grillon P" first="Peggy" last="Gunkel-Grillon">Peggy Gunkel-Grillon</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">SpringerPlus</title><idno type="eISSN">2193-1801</idno><imprint><date when="2016">2016</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The aim of this study is to explore the use of lichens as biomonitors of the impact of nickel mining and ore treatment on the atmosphere in the New Caledonian archipelago (South Pacific Ocean); both activities emitting also Co, Cr and possibly Fe. Metal contents were analysed in thirty-four epiphytic lichens, collected in the vicinity of the potential sources, and in places free from known historical mining. The highest Ni, Co, and Cr concentrations were, as expected, observed in lichens collected near ore deposits or treatment areas. The elemental composition in the lichens was explored by multivariate analysis, after appropriately transforming the variables (i.e. using compositional data analysis). The sample score of the first principal component (PC1) makes the largest (positive) multiplicative contribution to the log-ratios of metals originating from mining activities (Ni, Cr, Co) divided by Ti. The PC1 scores are used here as a surrogate of pollution levels related to mining and metallurgical activity. They can be viewed as synthetic indicators mapped to provide valuable information for the management and protection of ecosystems or, as a first step, to select locations where air filtration units could be installed, in the future, for air quality monitoring. However, as this approach drastically simplifies the problem, supplying a broadly efficient picture but little detail, recognizing the different sources of contamination may be difficult, more particularly when their chemical differences are subtle. It conveys only relative information: about ratios, not levels, and is therefore recommended as a preliminary step, in combination with close examination of raw concentration levels of lichens. Further validation using conventional air-monitoring by filter units should also prove beneficial.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Agnan, Y" uniqKey="Agnan Y">Y Agnan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sejalon Delmas, N" uniqKey="Sejalon Delmas N">N Sejalon-Delmas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Probst, A" uniqKey="Probst A">A Probst</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aitchison, J" uniqKey="Aitchison J">J Aitchison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aitchison, J" uniqKey="Aitchison J">J Aitchison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aitchison, J" uniqKey="Aitchison J">J Aitchison</name></author><author><name sortKey="Greenacre, M" uniqKey="Greenacre M">M Greenacre</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Andersen, A" uniqKey="Andersen A">A Andersen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Berge, Sr" uniqKey="Berge S">SR Berge</name></author><author><name sortKey="Engeland, A" uniqKey="Engeland A">A Engeland</name></author><author><name sortKey="Norseth, T" uniqKey="Norseth T">T Norseth</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ani I, M" uniqKey="Ani I M">M Aničić</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tasi, M" uniqKey="Tasi M">M Tasić</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frontasyeva, Mv" uniqKey="Frontasyeva M">MV Frontasyeva</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tomasevi, M" uniqKey="Tomasevi M">M Tomašević</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rajsi, S" uniqKey="Rajsi S">S Rajšić</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miji, Z" uniqKey="Miji Z">Z Mijić</name></author><author><name sortKey="Popovi, A" uniqKey="Popovi A">A Popović</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aslan, A" uniqKey="Aslan A">A Aslan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gurbuz, H" uniqKey="Gurbuz H">H Gurbuz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yazici, K" uniqKey="Yazici K">K Yazici</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cicek, A" uniqKey="Cicek A">A Cicek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Turan, M" uniqKey="Turan M">M Turan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ercisli, S" uniqKey="Ercisli S">S Ercisli</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Balabanova, B" uniqKey="Balabanova B">B Balabanova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stafilov, T" uniqKey="Stafilov T">T Stafilov</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sajn, R" uniqKey="Sajn R">R Sajn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ba Eva, K" uniqKey="Ba Eva K">K Bačeva</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Balabanova, B" uniqKey="Balabanova B">B Balabanova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stafilov, T" uniqKey="Stafilov T">T Stafilov</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sajn, R" uniqKey="Sajn R">R Šajn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ba Eva, K" uniqKey="Ba Eva K">K Bačeva</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bergamaschi, L" uniqKey="Bergamaschi L">L Bergamaschi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rizzio, E" uniqKey="Rizzio E">E Rizzio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Valcuvia, Mg" uniqKey="Valcuvia M">MG Valcuvia</name></author><author><name sortKey="Verza, G" uniqKey="Verza G">G Verza</name></author><author><name sortKey="Profumo, A" uniqKey="Profumo A">A Profumo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gallorini, M" uniqKey="Gallorini M">M Gallorini</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Boamponsem, Lk" uniqKey="Boamponsem L">LK Boamponsem</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adam, Ji" uniqKey="Adam J">JI Adam</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dampare, Sb" uniqKey="Dampare S">SB Dampare</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nyarko, Bjb" uniqKey="Nyarko B">BJB Nyarko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Essumang, Dk" uniqKey="Essumang D">DK Essumang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bramwell, D" uniqKey="Bramwell D">D Bramwell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Carignan, J" uniqKey="Carignan J">J Carignan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simonetti, A" uniqKey="Simonetti A">A Simonetti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gariepy, C" uniqKey="Gariepy C">C Gariépy</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chakraborty, M" uniqKey="Chakraborty M">M Chakraborty</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ahmad, M" uniqKey="Ahmad M">M Ahmad</name></author><author><name sortKey="Singh, R" uniqKey="Singh R">R Singh</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pal, D" uniqKey="Pal D">D Pal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bandopadhyay, C" uniqKey="Bandopadhyay C">C Bandopadhyay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chaulya, S" uniqKey="Chaulya S">S Chaulya</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chen, T B" uniqKey="Chen T">T-B Chen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zheng, Y M" uniqKey="Zheng Y">Y-M Zheng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lei, M" uniqKey="Lei M">M Lei</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huang, Z C" uniqKey="Huang Z">Z-C Huang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, H T" uniqKey="Wu H">H-T Wu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chen, H" uniqKey="Chen H">H Chen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fan, K K" uniqKey="Fan K">K-K Fan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yu, K" uniqKey="Yu K">K Yu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, X" uniqKey="Wu X">X Wu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tian, Q Z" uniqKey="Tian Q">Q-Z Tian</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chevillotte, V" uniqKey="Chevillotte V">V Chevillotte</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chardon, D" uniqKey="Chardon D">D Chardon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beauvais, A" uniqKey="Beauvais A">A Beauvais</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maurizot, P" uniqKey="Maurizot P">P Maurizot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Colin, F" uniqKey="Colin F">F Colin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cicchella, D" uniqKey="Cicchella D">D Cicchella</name></author><author><name sortKey="Giaccio, L" uniqKey="Giaccio L">L Giaccio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lima, A" uniqKey="Lima A">A Lima</name></author><author><name sortKey="Albanese, S" uniqKey="Albanese S">S Albanese</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cosenza, A" uniqKey="Cosenza A">A Cosenza</name></author><author><name sortKey="Civitillo, D" uniqKey="Civitillo D">D Civitillo</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Vivo, B" uniqKey="De Vivo B">B De Vivo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cloquet, C" uniqKey="Cloquet C">C Cloquet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carignan, J" uniqKey="Carignan J">J Carignan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Libourel, G" uniqKey="Libourel G">G Libourel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cloquet, C" uniqKey="Cloquet C">C Cloquet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Estrade, N" uniqKey="Estrade N">N Estrade</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carignan, J" uniqKey="Carignan J">J Carignan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Conti, Me" uniqKey="Conti M">ME Conti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cecchetti, G" uniqKey="Cecchetti G">G Cecchetti</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dongarra, G" uniqKey="Dongarra G">G Dongarrà</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ottomello, D" uniqKey="Ottomello D">D Ottomello</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sabatino, G" uniqKey="Sabatino G">G Sabatino</name></author><author><name sortKey="Triscari, M" uniqKey="Triscari M">M Triscari</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Doucet, F" uniqKey="Doucet F">F Doucet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carignan, J" uniqKey="Carignan J">J Carignan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Egozcue, Jj" uniqKey="Egozcue J">JJ Egozcue</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pawlowsky Glahn, V" uniqKey="Pawlowsky Glahn V">V Pawlowsky-Glahn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mateu Figueras, G" uniqKey="Mateu Figueras G">G Mateu-Figueras</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barcel Vidal, C" uniqKey="Barcel Vidal C">C Barceló-Vidal</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Faith, Mk" uniqKey="Faith M">MK Faith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Filzmoser, P" uniqKey="Filzmoser P">P Filzmoser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hron, K" uniqKey="Hron K">K Hron</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reimann, C" uniqKey="Reimann C">C Reimann</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Filzmoser, P" uniqKey="Filzmoser P">P Filzmoser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hron, K" uniqKey="Hron K">K Hron</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reimann, C" uniqKey="Reimann C">C Reimann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Garrett, Rg" uniqKey="Garrett R">RG Garrett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fliedner, A" uniqKey="Fliedner A">A Fliedner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rudel, H" uniqKey="Rudel H">H Rüdel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Knopf, B" uniqKey="Knopf B">B Knopf</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weinfurtner, K" uniqKey="Weinfurtner K">K Weinfurtner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Paulus, M" uniqKey="Paulus M">M Paulus</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ricking, M" uniqKey="Ricking M">M Ricking</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koschorreck, J" uniqKey="Koschorreck J">J Koschorreck</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gabriel, Kr" uniqKey="Gabriel K">KR Gabriel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Goix, S" uniqKey="Goix S">S Goix</name></author><author><name sortKey="Resongles, E" uniqKey="Resongles E">E Resongles</name></author><author><name sortKey="Point, D" uniqKey="Point D">D Point</name></author><author><name sortKey="Oliva, P" uniqKey="Oliva P">P Oliva</name></author><author><name sortKey="Duprey, Jl" uniqKey="Duprey J">JL Duprey</name></author><author><name sortKey="De La Galvez, E" uniqKey="De La Galvez E">E de la Galvez</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ugarte, L" uniqKey="Ugarte L">L Ugarte</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huayta, C" uniqKey="Huayta C">C Huayta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Prunier, J" uniqKey="Prunier J">J Prunier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zouiten, C" uniqKey="Zouiten C">C Zouiten</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gardon, J" uniqKey="Gardon J">J Gardon</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gunkel Grillon, P" uniqKey="Gunkel Grillon P">P Gunkel-Grillon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Laporte Magoni, C" uniqKey="Laporte Magoni C">C Laporte-Magoni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lemestre, M" uniqKey="Lemestre M">M Lemestre</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bazire, N" uniqKey="Bazire N">N Bazire</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Harrison, Rm" uniqKey="Harrison R">RM Harrison</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yin, J" uniqKey="Yin J">J Yin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hedouin, L" uniqKey="Hedouin L">L Hédouin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pringault, O" uniqKey="Pringault O">O Pringault</name></author><author><name sortKey="Metian, M" uniqKey="Metian M">M Metian</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bustamante, P" uniqKey="Bustamante P">P Bustamante</name></author><author><name sortKey="Warnau, M" uniqKey="Warnau M">M Warnau</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Holm, S" uniqKey="Holm S">S Holm</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Holy, M" uniqKey="Holy M">M Holy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Leblond, S" uniqKey="Leblond S">S Leblond</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pesch, R" uniqKey="Pesch R">R Pesch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schroder, W" uniqKey="Schroder W">W Schröder</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Huertas, Ji" uniqKey="Huertas J">JI Huertas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huertas, Me" uniqKey="Huertas M">ME Huertas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Izquierdo, S" uniqKey="Izquierdo S">S Izquierdo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gonzalez, Ed" uniqKey="Gonzalez E">ED González</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jaffre, T" uniqKey="Jaffre T">T Jaffré</name></author><author><name sortKey="Latham, M" uniqKey="Latham M">M Latham</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schmid, M" uniqKey="Schmid M">M Schmid</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kettle, Cj" uniqKey="Kettle C">CJ Kettle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hollingsworth, Pm" uniqKey="Hollingsworth P">PM Hollingsworth</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jaffre, T" uniqKey="Jaffre T">T Jaffré</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moran, B" uniqKey="Moran B">B Moran</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ennos, Ra" uniqKey="Ennos R">RA Ennos</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kim, J H" uniqKey="Kim J">J-H Kim</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kinalioglu, K" uniqKey="Kinalioglu K">K Kinalioglu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bayrak Ozbucak, T" uniqKey="Bayrak Ozbucak T">T Bayrak Ozbucak</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kutbay, Hg" uniqKey="Kutbay H">HG Kutbay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huseyinova, R" uniqKey="Huseyinova R">R Huseyinova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bilgin, A" uniqKey="Bilgin A">A Bilgin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Demirayak, A" uniqKey="Demirayak A">A Demirayak</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Le, S" uniqKey="Le S">S Lê</name></author><author><name sortKey="Josse, J" uniqKey="Josse J">J Josse</name></author><author><name sortKey="Husson, F" uniqKey="Husson F">F Husson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Losfeld, G" uniqKey="Losfeld G">G Losfeld</name></author><author><name sortKey="L Uillier, L" uniqKey="L Uillier L">L L’Huillier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fogliani, B" uniqKey="Fogliani B">B Fogliani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jaffre, T" uniqKey="Jaffre T">T Jaffré</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grison, C" uniqKey="Grison C">C Grison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Marvin, C" uniqKey="Marvin C">C Marvin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grapentine, L" uniqKey="Grapentine L">L Grapentine</name></author><author><name sortKey="Painter, S" uniqKey="Painter S">S Painter</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Menvielle, G" uniqKey="Menvielle G">G Menvielle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Luce, D" uniqKey="Luce D">D Luce</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fevotte, J" uniqKey="Fevotte J">J Févotte</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bugel, I" uniqKey="Bugel I">I Bugel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Salomon, C" uniqKey="Salomon C">C Salomon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Goldberg, P" uniqKey="Goldberg P">P Goldberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Billon Galland, M A" uniqKey="Billon Galland M">M-A Billon-Galland</name></author><author><name sortKey="Goldberg, M" uniqKey="Goldberg M">M Goldberg</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Meyer, C" uniqKey="Meyer C">C Meyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Diaz De Quijano, M" uniqKey="Diaz De Quijano M">M Diaz-de-Quijano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Monna, F" uniqKey="Monna F">F Monna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Franchi, M" uniqKey="Franchi M">M Franchi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Toussaint, M L" uniqKey="Toussaint M">M-L Toussaint</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gilbert, D" uniqKey="Gilbert D">D Gilbert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bernard, N" uniqKey="Bernard N">N Bernard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mihaljevi, M" uniqKey="Mihaljevi M">M Mihaljevič</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zuna, M" uniqKey="Zuna M">M Zuna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ettler, V" uniqKey="Ettler V">V Ettler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chrastn, V" uniqKey="Chrastn V">V Chrastný</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sebek, O" uniqKey="Sebek O">O Šebek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Strnad, L" uniqKey="Strnad L">L Strnad</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kyncl, T" uniqKey="Kyncl T">T Kyncl</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Monna, F" uniqKey="Monna F">F Monna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Poujol, M" uniqKey="Poujol M">M Poujol</name></author><author><name sortKey="Losno, R" uniqKey="Losno R">R Losno</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dominik, J" uniqKey="Dominik J">J Dominik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Annegarn, H" uniqKey="Annegarn H">H Annegarn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coetzee, H" uniqKey="Coetzee H">H Coetzee</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Monna, F" uniqKey="Monna F">F Monna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bouchaou, L" uniqKey="Bouchaou L">L Bouchaou</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rambeau, C" uniqKey="Rambeau C">C Rambeau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Losno, R" uniqKey="Losno R">R Losno</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nimis, Pl" uniqKey="Nimis P">PL Nimis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lazzarin, G" uniqKey="Lazzarin G">G Lazzarin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lazzarin, A" uniqKey="Lazzarin A">A Lazzarin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Skert, N" uniqKey="Skert N">N Skert</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nyarko, Bjb" uniqKey="Nyarko B">BJB Nyarko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adomako, D" uniqKey="Adomako D">D Adomako</name></author><author><name sortKey="Serfor Armah, Y" uniqKey="Serfor Armah Y">Y Serfor-Armah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dampare, Sb" uniqKey="Dampare S">SB Dampare</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adotey, D" uniqKey="Adotey D">D Adotey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Akaho, Ehk" uniqKey="Akaho E">EHK Akaho</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nylander, Mw" uniqKey="Nylander M">MW Nylander</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pearson, K" uniqKey="Pearson K">K Pearson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Reimann, C" uniqKey="Reimann C">C Reimann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Filzmoser, P" uniqKey="Filzmoser P">P Filzmoser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Garrett, Rg" uniqKey="Garrett R">RG Garrett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Richardson, Dhs" uniqKey="Richardson D">DHS Richardson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Richter, P" uniqKey="Richter P">P Richter</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gri O, P" uniqKey="Gri O P">P Griño</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ahumada, I" uniqKey="Ahumada I">I Ahumada</name></author><author><name sortKey="Giordano, A" uniqKey="Giordano A">A Giordano</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schroder, W" uniqKey="Schroder W">W Schröder</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pesch, R" uniqKey="Pesch R">R Pesch</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schroder, W" uniqKey="Schroder W">W Schröder</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pesch, R" uniqKey="Pesch R">R Pesch</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Senhou, A" uniqKey="Senhou A">A Senhou</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chouak, A" uniqKey="Chouak A">A Chouak</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cherkaoui, R" uniqKey="Cherkaoui R">R Cherkaoui</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moutia, Z" uniqKey="Moutia Z">Z Moutia</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lferde, M" uniqKey="Lferde M">M Lferde</name></author><author><name sortKey="Elyahyaoui, A" uniqKey="Elyahyaoui A">A Elyahyaoui</name></author><author><name sortKey="El Khoukhi, T" uniqKey="El Khoukhi T">T El Khoukhi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bounakhla, M" uniqKey="Bounakhla M">M Bounakhla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Embarche, K" uniqKey="Embarche K">K Embarche</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gaudry, A" uniqKey="Gaudry A">A Gaudry</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ayrault, S" uniqKey="Ayrault S">S Ayrault</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moskura, M" uniqKey="Moskura M">M Moskura</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="S Ndergaard, J" uniqKey="S Ndergaard J">J Søndergaard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Spiro, B" uniqKey="Spiro B">B Spiro</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiss, Dj" uniqKey="Weiss D">DJ Weiss</name></author><author><name sortKey="Purvis, Ow" uniqKey="Purvis O">OW Purvis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mikhailova, I" uniqKey="Mikhailova I">I Mikhailova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williamson, Bj" uniqKey="Williamson B">BJ Williamson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coles, B" uniqKey="Coles B">B Coles</name></author><author><name sortKey="Udachin, V" uniqKey="Udachin V">V Udachin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Szczepaniak, K" uniqKey="Szczepaniak K">K Szczepaniak</name></author><author><name sortKey="Biziuk, M" uniqKey="Biziuk M">M Biziuk</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Trescases, J J" uniqKey="Trescases J">J-J Trescases</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Den Boogaart, Kg" uniqKey="Van Den Boogaart K">KG Van den Boogaart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tolosana Delgado, R" uniqKey="Tolosana Delgado R">R Tolosana-Delgado</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Weijden, Ch" uniqKey="Van Der Weijden C">CH Van der Weijden</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Varol, M" uniqKey="Varol M">M Varol</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wedepohl, Kh" uniqKey="Wedepohl K">KH Wedepohl</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zhuang, W" uniqKey="Zhuang W">W Zhuang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gao, X" uniqKey="Gao X">X Gao</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zv Ina, O" uniqKey="Zv Ina O">O Zvěřina</name></author><author><name sortKey="Laska, K" uniqKey="Laska K">K Láska</name></author><author><name sortKey=" Ervenka, R" uniqKey=" Ervenka R">R Červenka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kuta, J" uniqKey="Kuta J">J Kuta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coufalik, P" uniqKey="Coufalik P">P Coufalík</name></author><author><name sortKey="Komarek, J" uniqKey="Komarek J">J Komárek</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Springerplus</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Springerplus</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>SpringerPlus</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2193-1801</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Springer International Publishing</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Cham</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">27994999</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5125352</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">3681</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s40064-016-3681-4</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9638-5405</contrib-id><name><surname>Pasquet</surname><given-names>Camille</given-names></name><address><phone>+ 687 290320</phone><email>camille.pasquet@univ-nc.nc</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Le Monier</surname><given-names>Pauline</given-names></name><address><email>pauline.lemonier@yahoo.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Monna</surname><given-names>Fabrice</given-names></name><address><email>fmonna@u-bourgogne.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Durlet</surname><given-names>Christophe</given-names></name><address><email>christophe.durlet@u-bourgogne.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Brigaud</surname><given-names>Benjamin</given-names></name><address><email>benjamin.brigaud@u-psud.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff4">4</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Losno</surname><given-names>Rémi</given-names></name><address><email>losno@ipgp.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff5">5</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chateau</surname><given-names>Carmela</given-names></name><address><email>Carmela.Chateau@u-bourgogne.fr</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff6">6</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Laporte-Magoni</surname><given-names>Christine</given-names></name><address><email>christine.laporte@univ-nc.nc</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Gunkel-Grillon</surname><given-names>Peggy</given-names></name><address><email>peggy.gunkel-grillon@univ-nc.nc</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1">1</xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label>1</label>Pôle Pluridisciplinaire de la Matière et de l’Environnement, Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP R4, Nouvelle-Calédonie, 98851 Nouméa Cedex, France</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label>2</label>UMR 6298, ArTeHis, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</aff><aff id="Aff3"><label>3</label>UMR 6282, Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</aff><aff id="Aff4"><label>4</label>UMR-CNRS 8148, Géosciences Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Sud, Bât. 504, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France</aff><aff id="Aff5"><label>5</label>UMR CNRS 7154, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, 1 rue Jussieu, 75013 Paris, France</aff><aff id="Aff6"><label>6</label>UFR SVTE, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, 6 bd Gabriel, Bat. Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day><month>11</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>28</day><month>11</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2016</year></pub-date><volume>5</volume><issue>1</issue><elocation-id>2022</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>15</day><month>6</month><year>2016</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>11</day><month>11</month><year>2016</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© The Author(s) 2016</copyright-statement><license license-type="OpenAccess"><license-p><bold>Open Access</bold>This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><p>The aim of this study is to explore the use of lichens as biomonitors of the impact of nickel mining and ore treatment on the atmosphere in the New Caledonian archipelago (South Pacific Ocean); both activities emitting also Co, Cr and possibly Fe. Metal contents were analysed in thirty-four epiphytic lichens, collected in the vicinity of the potential sources, and in places free from known historical mining. The highest Ni, Co, and Cr concentrations were, as expected, observed in lichens collected near ore deposits or treatment areas. The elemental composition in the lichens was explored by multivariate analysis, after appropriately transforming the variables (i.e. using compositional data analysis). The sample score of the first principal component (PC1) makes the largest (positive) multiplicative contribution to the log-ratios of metals originating from mining activities (Ni, Cr, Co) divided by Ti. The PC1 scores are used here as a surrogate of pollution levels related to mining and metallurgical activity. They can be viewed as synthetic indicators mapped to provide valuable information for the management and protection of ecosystems or, as a first step, to select locations where air filtration units could be installed, in the future, for air quality monitoring. However, as this approach drastically simplifies the problem, supplying a broadly efficient picture but little detail, recognizing the different sources of contamination may be difficult, more particularly when their chemical differences are subtle. It conveys only relative information: about ratios, not levels, and is therefore recommended as a preliminary step, in combination with close examination of raw concentration levels of lichens. Further validation using conventional air-monitoring by filter units should also prove beneficial.</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Trace metal</kwd><kwd>Biomonotor</kwd><kwd>Ultramafic rock</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group><funding-source><institution>French National Center for Technological Research</institution></funding-source><award-id>5PS2013-CNRT.UNIV.BORDEAUX/DMML15042015</award-id></award-group><award-group><funding-source><institution>French Ministry of Research </institution></funding-source></award-group></funding-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2016</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1"><title>Background</title><p>Nickel exploitation began in the archipelago of New Caledonia (South Pacific Ocean), soon after the discovery by Jules Garnier in 1864 of nickel silicates, called garnierite. Ever since, the economic life of the island has beaten to the rhythm of nickel demand. Nickel mining is now becoming the largest employer in New Caledonia (more than 7500 employees in 2015). When exploitation first began, high-grade veins of garnierite (6–7% Ni), identifiable by their green colour, were extracted. Miners were soon interested by other lateritic horizons that developed on ultramafic weathered rocks. These nickel-enriched soils are located near the surface, so opencast mining was preferred. For such an approach, vegetation and top soil are first removed, and ore is extracted and transported by trucks on unpaved roads or by belt conveyors to loading zones or to ore treatment plants. All these operations are expected to release into the atmosphere huge amounts of dust enriched in trace metals (Chakraborty et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">2002</xref>; Huertas et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">2012</xref>), known to affect human health: it can lead to respiratory dysfunction, cardiovascular disease and cancer (International Agency for Research on Cancer 1990; Andersen et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">1996</xref>; Harrison and Yin <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">2000</xref>; Menvielle et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">2003</xref>). Nickel mining and ore treatments are known to have deleterious effects on the quality of the New Caledonian environment by degrading natural ecosystems (Bramwell <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">2011</xref>; Kettle et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">2007</xref>; Losfeld et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">2015</xref>), forests (Jaffré et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">1977</xref>), and the lagoon (Gunkel-Grillon et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2014</xref>; Hédouin et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2007</xref>). Furthermore, the smallest dust particles can be spread over very long distances, far from emission sources. The impact of mining on the surroundings and the geographical dispersion of metals are often estimated using atmospheric filtration units covering the territory of interest. The filters are frequently changed because meteorological conditions (humidity, wind strength and direction variability, etc.) drastically affect the quality and quantity of dust material collected. This procedure is commonly used as a reference method, but remains costly and time consuming. Yet, at least for preliminary screening, some alternatives do exist. They are based on the biomonitoring capabilities of some organisms or organic material, such as tree rings, peat deposit, mosses or epiphytic lichens (Aslan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2012</xref>; Balabanova et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2013a</xref>; Boamponsem et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2010</xref>; Mihaljevič et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR48">2008</xref>; Monna et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2012</xref>; Richter et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2007</xref>; Spiro et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR62">2004</xref>). Epiphytic lichens are symbiotic organisms, composed of fungi and algae. They have the ability to absorb and accumulate metals, through wet and dry deposition, without symptoms, at least up to a certain level (see the seminal work from Nylander <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">1866</xref>, and for reviews of recent studies, Conti and Cecchetti <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">2001</xref>; Szczepaniak and Biziuk <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">2003</xref>). Their nutrient uptake therefore relies exclusively on air constituents, since they have neither roots nor cuticles. Concerning absorption of metals, three main mechanisms have been invoked: intercellular absorption by an exchange process, intercellular accumulation, and entrapment of metal-rich particles (Richardson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">1995</xref>; Szczepaniak and Biziuk <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">2003</xref>). The respective role of these processes is, however, not fully understood, all the more since metal contents in thalli seem to experience periods both of accumulation and release, related to several environmental factors. In any case, it has been demonstrated that lichens are good biomonitors of trace elements, as their thalli concentrations are correlated with those in their surrounding environment (Conti <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">2008</xref>). The sampling of these organisms is inexpensive and easy (when thalli are abundant), in any case free from heavy logistics. Furthermore, it can be problematic to compare concentrations from different individuals, even within the same species, because biomonitors may be affected by several internal factors, such as body morphology, age, and exposure (Carignan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">2002</xref>; Doucet and Carignan <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">2001</xref>; Kinalioglu et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">2010</xref>; Senhou et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR60">2002</xref>). That is why, instead of examining absolute concentration levels, some authors have proposed normalizing concentrations of potentially anthropogenic elements by a single chosen reference element, exclusively of crustal origin, such as titanium, aluminium or a lanthanide (i.e. all metal concentrations are divided, for instance, by those of Ti, the normalizing element used in the following, Goix et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2013</xref>; Monna et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2012</xref>). This can be viewed as the first step towards the so-called enrichment factor (EF) calculation, which aims at detecting, in combination with other tools, which elements are enriched in relation to local soils or earth crust (Agnan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">2013</xref>; Aničić et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">2009</xref>; Aslan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2012</xref>; Cloquet et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">2015</xref>). The only difference is that there is no final normalization by local reference values or, more simply, by those of the upper continental crust (e.g. Wedepohl <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR72">1995</xref>).</p><p>Although convenient, and most of the time efficient (Bergamaschi et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR10">2002</xref>; Nyarko et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">2006</xref>), the normalization of concentrations of potentially anthropogenic elements by a single chosen reference element (e.g. Metals/Ti or Metals/Al), or possibly by the sum of reference elements (e.g. Metals/(Ti + Al)), presents an unavoidable drawback: the use of new ratio-based variables with the same element(s) as denominator is mathematically inadequate for all statistics based on correlations (see Pearson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">1896</xref>; Kim <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">1999</xref>, for a complete discussion, and Monna et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">2006</xref> for a debatable use of multivariate statistics on such ratio data). The use of [metal/Ti] or [metal/(Ti + Al)] ratios are still mathematically correct when correlations are not computed (only sites are compared), but the geochemical signals carried by all other pairwise ratios (e.g. Ni/Cr, Co/Zn, etc.) are not really taken into account, although they may contain subtle information about the origin of the metals.</p><p> The compositional data are by nature closed because the sum of all components, including those not measured, is constrained (to 1, or to 100%). The covariance structure of such a dataset is necessarily biased (Filzmoser et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2009a</xref>, b), so that most multivariate techniques become doubtful without a proper transformation. Undeniable progress has, however, been made since the 1980s to open the dataset and to remove problems related to spurious inter-element correlations (Aitchison <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">1982</xref>; Van der Weijden <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR69">2002</xref>). The data are, with these new techniques, treated as a whole, allowing each inter-elemental ratio to be examined (Van den Boogaart and Tolosana-Delgado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR68">2013</xref>).</p><p>In the present study, elemental concentrations in Co, Cr, Ni, Fe, Cu, Zn and Ti were analysed in more than 30 epiphytic lichens collected in New Caledonia, at various distances from modern mining activities, and from an ore treatment plant in Noumea, from within the city, and from areas free from any known historical mining. Ti is supposedly of crustal origin and used as reference, Cu and Zn have potentially an industrial/domestic origin, while Ni, Co, Cr and, to a lesser extent, Fe are especially targeted, because they are expected to be emitted by mining and metallurgical activity. The objective of this study is therefore to evaluate the potential of lichens as biomonitors of air quality in the context of Ni mining and ore treatment. Compositional data analyses were used to compute a synthetic index summarising the local degree of contamination related to mining and metallurgy.</p></sec><sec id="Sec2"><title>Methods</title><sec id="Sec3"><title>Site area</title><p>New Caledonia is an archipelago located in the South Pacific Ocean, 1300 km east of Australia (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>a). The climate is semitropical, characterized by a warm rainy season and a cooler season. Annual mean rainfall on the main island, “Grande Terre”, is 1700 mm for a mean temperature of 25 °C, with considerable differences between the east and west coasts. The prevailing wind blows from the south-east all year long. Grande Terre is more than 400 km long and 50 km wide (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>b). Two-thirds of this area is composed of weathered ultramafic rocks, mainly peridotites, forming lateritic and saprolitic horizons (Chevillotte et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">2006</xref>). These horizons are enriched in transition metals, such as nickel, chromium, cobalt and manganese (Trescases <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR66">1973</xref>). These metals are extracted from about thirty large, active open-pit mines. New Caledonia accounted in 2011 for about 2% of the worldwide production of Co and 8% of Ni (Wacaster <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2012</xref>). Chromium was also mined from 1880 to 1962, producing during this period even more metal than Ni. After a decade of decline, the Cr production experienced a revival in 1976, with the reopening of Cr mines which targeted chromite. As key insights, the New Caledonian laterites represent massive reserves of iron. Some of them were mined between the 1930s and the late 1960s.<fig id="Fig1"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p><bold>a</bold> Location of New Caledonia in Pacific Ocean, <bold>b</bold> map of New Caledonia, <bold>c</bold> close up on the Poro mine region, situated in the East Coast, and <bold>d</bold> close up on Noumea. Sampling sites are provided with identification numbers</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><p>Two sites directly related to nickel mining and smelting were more particularly targeted in this study. The first is the Poro mine, situated on the east coast, one of the oldest still active extraction sites (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>c). The second is the metallurgical ore factory of Doniambo, located in Noumea (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>d). It was established in 1910 on an isolated, 7 ha site, far away from the town of Noumea in its past configuration. Today, this site covers 250 ha. It is surrounded by many industrial areas, the Noumea harbour and, more problematically, several residential zones set up following the considerable extension of the regional capital, Noumea, which now counts 100,000 inhabitants. About 3.5 million tons of ores per year, extracted from several mines all over Grande Terre, and transported by tankers, are treated in this pyrometallurgical plant. The proximity of the Doniambo plant to the capital generates environmental atmospheric issues for residents, in terms of (i) SO<sub>2</sub> levels, a pollutant emitted from the fuel power plant powering the energy-consuming pyrometallurgical operations, and (ii) nickel-enriched PM<sub>10</sub> (particulate matter with a diameter below 10 µm) released from the plant. The situation is such that atmospheric pollution levels are given with the TV weather forecast.</p></sec><sec id="Sec4"><title>Sampling</title><p>Thirty-four epiphytic lichen thalli belonging to the Parmeliaceae family were collected in New Caledonia in March 2012 from around the Poro mine (PORO, n = 8), and the Noumea peninsula (NOU, n = 15). Several additional lichens were also collected from the countryside between these two sites (COUN, n = 11), far from any known historical mining sites or potentially polluting human activities (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>b–d). Lichens were collected exclusively from tree trunks, always at least 1.5 m above ground level, by means of pre-cleaned plastic knives. Sometimes, lichens were moistened with Milli-Q water to facilitate their removal from the trunks. Any tree bark fragments collected with thalli were systematically eliminated. The samples were immediately stored in hermetically closed plastic bags.</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>Chemical procedure</title><p>In the laboratory, lichens were dried at 80 °C overnight, and crushed in a pre-cleaned agate mortar to obtain a fine, homogeneous powder. The sample preparation follows that of Monna et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2012</xref>). Briefly, about 100 mg of powdered lichen (precisely weighed) was placed in a PTFE beaker (Savilex) with 2 mL each of suprapure HCl, HNO<sub>3</sub> and HF heated at 105 °C, until complete digestion. Blanks and biological certified reference materials (CRMs): peach leaves (NIST-1547) and lichens (BCR-482) were processed with each batch of unknown samples. Solutions, adequately diluted with Milli-Q water, were analysed for Co, Cr, Ni, Fe, Cu, Zn and Ti, using an Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) ARCOS Spectro, installed in an ISO-5 clean room at the University of Paris Diderot. Limits of detection (LOD) were evaluated using three times the standard deviation of five analytical blanks. Measurements for most elements did not differ by more than 15% from certified values (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>).<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Quality control of the analyses</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"></th><th align="left">Co</th><th align="left">Cr</th><th align="left">Cu</th><th align="left">Fe</th><th align="left">Ni</th><th align="left">Zn</th><th align="left">Ti</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">LOD (µg g<sup>−1</sup>)</td><td align="left">0.2</td><td char="." align="char">0.2</td><td char="." align="char">0.2</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">0.2</td><td char="." align="left">0.1</td><td align="left">0.6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">BCR 482 (µg g<sup>−1</sup>)</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Measured</td><td align="left">0.5</td><td char="." align="char">3.3</td><td char="." align="char">6.2</td><td char="." align="char">701</td><td char="." align="char">2.3</td><td char="." align="left">87</td><td align="left">78</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Certified</td><td align="left">0.32<sup>a</sup></td><td char="." align="char">4.12</td><td char="." align="char">7.0</td><td char="." align="char">804<sup>a</sup></td><td char="." align="char">2.5</td><td char="." align="left">100</td><td align="left">–</td></tr><tr><td align="left">NIST 1547 (µg g<sup>−1</sup>)</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Measured</td><td align="left"></td> <td char="." align="char">1.0</td><td char="." align="char">2.6</td><td char="." align="char">185</td><td char="." align="char">0.8</td><td char="." align="left">17.4</td><td align="left">23</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Certified</td><td align="left">0.07<sup>a</sup></td><td char="." align="char">1.0<sup>a</sup></td><td char="." align="char">3.7</td><td char="." align="char">218</td><td char="." align="char">0.69</td><td char="." align="left">17.9</td><td align="left">23<sup>b</sup></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>LOD (limit of detection) is provided considering the dilution factor, so that LOD can be compared to the raw sample concentrations; BCR 482 is a lichen standard provided by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements; NIST 1547 is a peach leaves standard provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology</p><p>– No data available</p><p><sup>a</sup>Provided but not certified</p><p><sup>b</sup>Value from Monna et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2012</xref>)</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>The replicability of lichen measurements was tested with five samples processed twice, independently (Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>). Variations between replicates can be higher than the deviations observed for CRMs, probably because natural material, even finely crushed, remains more heterogeneous than CRMs. However, these deviations are unimportant in comparison with the concentration ranges observed at the scale of the entire study (Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>).<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Body metal concentrations in lichens (in µg g<sup>−1</sup>, except iron content in %w/w)</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Sample ID</th><th align="left">Groups</th><th align="left">Co</th><th align="left">Cu</th><th align="left">Cr</th><th align="left">Fe</th><th align="left">Ni</th><th align="left">Zn</th><th align="left">Ti</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1</td><td align="left" rowspan="13">COUN (countryside)</td><td align="left">2.1</td><td align="left">8.2</td><td align="left">26</td><td char="." align="char">0.19</td><td char="." align="char">43</td><td char="." align="char">75</td><td char="." align="char">128</td></tr><tr><td align="left">8</td><td align="left">2.0</td><td align="left">2.2</td><td align="left">18</td><td char="." align="char">0.24</td><td char="." align="char">26</td><td char="." align="char">59</td><td char="." align="char">181</td></tr><tr><td align="left">9</td><td align="left">2.0</td><td align="left">3.5</td><td align="left">19</td><td char="." align="char">0.17</td><td char="." align="char">83</td><td char="." align="char">30</td><td char="." align="char">100</td></tr><tr><td align="left">10</td><td align="left">21</td><td align="left">19</td><td align="left">120</td><td char="." align="char">2.12</td><td char="." align="char">443</td><td char="." align="char">92</td><td char="." align="char">2045</td></tr><tr><td align="left">11</td><td align="left">11</td><td align="left">21</td><td align="left">61</td><td char="." align="char">3.29</td><td char="." align="char">75</td><td char="." align="char">52</td><td char="." align="char">3974</td></tr><tr><td align="left">11bis</td><td align="left">10</td><td align="left">16</td><td align="left">58</td><td char="." align="char">3.23</td><td char="." align="char">65</td><td char="." align="char">45</td><td char="." align="char">3669</td></tr><tr><td align="left">22</td><td align="left">3.4</td><td align="left">0.82</td><td align="left">20</td><td char="." align="char">0.53</td><td char="." align="char">32</td><td char="." align="char">76</td><td char="." align="char">471</td></tr><tr><td align="left">23</td><td align="left">2.1</td><td align="left">2.9</td><td align="left">23</td><td char="." align="char">0.19</td><td char="." align="char">28</td><td char="." align="char">77</td><td char="." align="char">163</td></tr><tr><td align="left">23bis</td><td align="left">1.4</td><td align="left">8.5</td><td align="left">21</td><td char="." align="char">0.15</td><td char="." align="char">23</td><td char="." align="char">68</td><td char="." align="char">137</td></tr><tr><td align="left">24</td><td align="left">6.6</td><td align="left">21.4</td><td align="left">30</td><td char="." align="char">0.75</td><td char="." align="char">60</td><td char="." align="char">20</td><td char="." align="char">478</td></tr><tr><td align="left">25</td><td align="left">3.2</td><td align="left">0.63</td><td align="left">29</td><td char="." align="char">0.23</td><td char="." align="char">54</td><td char="." align="char">89</td><td char="." align="char">172</td></tr><tr><td align="left">26</td><td align="left">5.0</td><td align="left">6.4</td><td align="left">58</td><td char="." align="char">0.37</td><td char="." align="char">51</td><td char="." align="char">23</td><td char="." align="char">347</td></tr><tr><td align="left">27</td><td align="left">0.85</td><td align="left">0.63</td><td align="left">13</td><td char="." align="char">0.10</td><td char="." align="char">20</td><td char="." align="char">20</td><td char="." align="char">73</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Geom mean</td><td align="left" rowspan="18">NOU (Noumea)</td><td align="left">3.5</td><td align="left">3.9</td><td align="left">30</td><td char="." align="char">0.39</td><td char="." align="char">52</td><td char="." align="char">47</td><td char="." align="char">311</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2</td><td align="left">26</td><td align="left">38</td><td align="left">133</td><td char="." align="char">0.75</td><td char="." align="char">822</td><td char="." align="char">87</td><td char="." align="char">299</td></tr><tr><td align="left">3</td><td align="left">2.8</td><td align="left">5.6</td><td align="left">14</td><td char="." align="char">0.22</td><td char="." align="char">64</td><td char="." align="char">28</td><td char="." align="char">195</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4</td><td align="left">0.84</td><td align="left">0.63</td><td align="left">4.8</td><td char="." align="char">0.04</td><td char="." align="char">24</td><td char="." align="char">33</td><td char="." align="char">32</td></tr><tr><td align="left">5</td><td align="left">3.9</td><td align="left">3.8</td><td align="left">24</td><td char="." align="char">0.17</td><td char="." align="char">130</td><td char="." align="char">103</td><td char="." align="char">123</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6</td><td align="left">1.8</td><td align="left">4.8</td><td align="left">13</td><td char="." align="char">0.08</td><td char="." align="char">64</td><td char="." align="char">29</td><td char="." align="char">33</td></tr><tr><td align="left">7</td><td align="left">2.4</td><td align="left">0.63</td><td align="left">18</td><td char="." align="char">0.11</td><td char="." align="char">66</td><td char="." align="char">67</td><td char="." align="char">60</td></tr><tr><td align="left">12</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">21</td><td align="left">51</td><td char="." align="char">0.80</td><td char="." align="char">238</td><td char="." align="char">77</td><td char="." align="char">761</td></tr><tr><td align="left">13</td><td align="left">53</td><td align="left">9.2</td><td align="left">346</td><td char="." align="char">2.02</td><td char="." align="char">1981</td><td char="." align="char">934</td><td char="." align="char">939</td></tr><tr><td align="left">14</td><td align="left">12</td><td align="left">2.4</td><td align="left">60</td><td char="." align="char">0.45</td><td char="." align="char">429</td><td char="." align="char">69</td><td char="." align="char">188</td></tr><tr><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">100</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">319</td><td char="." align="char">2.15</td><td char="." align="char">4140</td><td char="." align="char">153</td><td char="." align="char">506</td></tr><tr><td align="left">16</td><td align="left">130</td><td align="left">37</td><td align="left">1046</td><td char="." align="char">4.67</td><td char="." align="char">4536</td><td char="." align="char">259</td><td char="." align="char">1138</td></tr><tr><td align="left">16bis</td><td align="left">124</td><td align="left">23</td><td align="left">966</td><td char="." align="char">4.35</td><td char="." align="char">4246</td><td char="." align="char">243</td><td char="." align="char">1033</td></tr><tr><td align="left">17</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">13</td><td align="left">86</td><td char="." align="char">0.92</td><td char="." align="char">427</td><td char="." align="char">110</td><td char="." align="char">711</td></tr><tr><td align="left">18</td><td align="left">12</td><td align="left">8.4</td><td align="left">76</td><td char="." align="char">0.49</td><td char="." align="char">432</td><td char="." align="char">63</td><td char="." align="char">226</td></tr><tr><td align="left">19</td><td align="left">50</td><td align="left">111</td><td align="left">400</td><td char="." align="char">2.16</td><td char="." align="char">1645</td><td char="." align="char">238</td><td char="." align="char">908</td></tr><tr><td align="left">19bis</td><td align="left">42</td><td align="left">91</td><td align="left">318</td><td char="." align="char">1.85</td><td char="." align="char">1462</td><td char="." align="char">230</td><td char="." align="char">696</td></tr><tr><td align="left">20</td><td align="left">33</td><td align="left">9.2</td><td align="left">157</td><td char="." align="char">0.94</td><td char="." align="char">1344</td><td char="." align="char">99</td><td char="." align="char">201</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Geom mean</td><td align="left" rowspan="11">PORO (Poro)</td><td align="left">13</td><td align="left">7.7</td><td align="left">72</td><td char="." align="char">0.52</td><td char="." align="char">400</td><td char="." align="char">95</td><td char="." align="char">247</td></tr><tr><td align="left">28</td><td align="left">176</td><td align="left">2.4</td><td align="left">1612</td><td char="." align="char">6.68</td><td char="." align="char">3536</td><td char="." align="char">147</td><td char="." align="char">64</td></tr><tr><td align="left">29</td><td align="left">14</td><td align="left">0.47</td><td align="left">111</td><td char="." align="char">0.53</td><td char="." align="char">204</td><td char="." align="char">33</td><td char="." align="char">10</td></tr><tr><td align="left">30</td><td align="left">24</td><td align="left">5</td><td align="left">254</td><td char="." align="char">1.37</td><td char="." align="char">391</td><td char="." align="char">36</td><td char="." align="char">164</td></tr><tr><td align="left">32</td><td align="left">323</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">1503</td><td char="." align="char">6.15</td><td char="." align="char">5216</td><td char="." align="char">76</td><td char="." align="char">69</td></tr><tr><td align="left">32bis</td><td align="left">294</td><td align="left">14</td><td align="left">1262</td><td char="." align="char">6.48</td><td char="." align="char">4725</td><td char="." align="char">67</td><td char="." align="char">61</td></tr><tr><td align="left">33</td><td align="left">11</td><td align="left">6</td><td align="left">666</td><td char="." align="char">1.84</td><td char="." align="char">325</td><td char="." align="char">30</td><td char="." align="char">43</td></tr><tr><td align="left">34</td><td align="left">0.31</td><td align="left">0.70</td><td align="left">12</td><td char="." align="char">0.04</td><td char="." align="char">12</td><td char="." align="char">3</td><td char="." align="char">3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">35</td><td align="left">11</td><td align="left">0.76</td><td align="left">118</td><td char="." align="char">0.48</td><td char="." align="char">191</td><td char="." align="char">49</td><td char="." align="char">28</td></tr><tr><td align="left">36</td><td align="left">64</td><td align="left">13</td><td align="left">565</td><td char="." align="char">2.02</td><td char="." align="char">949</td><td char="." align="char">44</td><td char="." align="char">28</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Geom mean</td><td align="left">21</td><td align="left">3.7</td><td align="left">272</td><td char="." align="char">1.12</td><td char="." align="char">418</td><td char="." align="char">35</td><td char="." align="char">30</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>The geometric mean is also calculated for each group (the nth root of the product of n values). bis: independent replicates</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec6"><title>Data treatments</title><p>Basically, the elemental composition of a sample is defined by a (raw) vector, composed of D parts, corresponding to the subset of the D concentrations measured <inline-formula id="IEq1"><alternatives><tex-math id="M1">\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$$: x = \left[ {x_{1} ,x_{2} , \ldots ,x_{D} } \right]$$\end{document}</tex-math><mml:math id="M2"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>:</mml:mo><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfenced close="]" open="[" separators=""><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow></mml:math><inline-graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Article_IEq1.gif"></inline-graphic></alternatives></inline-formula> (D = 7 in our case, for Ni, Cr, Co, Fe, Zn, Cu and Ti). A centred log-ratio transformation, <italic>clr</italic>(.), was applied to these raw concentrations to circumvent problems related to the closed nature of such data (Aitchison <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">1982</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">1986</xref>):<disp-formula id="Equa"><alternatives><tex-math id="M3">\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$$clr\left( \varvec{x} \right) = \left[ {\ln \frac{{x_{1} }}{{g_{m} \left( \varvec{x} \right)}},\ln \frac{{x_{2} }}{{g_{m} \left( \varvec{x} \right)}}, \ldots ,\ln \frac{{x_{D} }}{{g_{m} \left( \varvec{x} \right)}}} \right],$$\end{document}</tex-math><mml:math id="M4" display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfenced close="]" open="[" separators=""><mml:mrow><mml:mo>ln</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>g</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>ln</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>g</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>ln</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>g</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>,</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:math><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Article_Equa.gif" position="anchor"></graphic></alternatives></disp-formula>where g<sub>m</sub>(<bold>x</bold>) corresponds to the geometric mean of the parts of the compositional vector, <inline-formula id="IEq2"><alternatives><tex-math id="M5">\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$$g_{m} \left( \varvec{x} \right) = \left( {x_{1} .x_{2} \ldots x_{D} } \right)^{1/D}$$\end{document}</tex-math><mml:math id="M6"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>g</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mfenced close=")" open="(" separators=""><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>.</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mrow><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo stretchy="false">/</mml:mo><mml:mi>D</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:mrow></mml:math><inline-graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Article_IEq2.gif"></inline-graphic></alternatives></inline-formula>. Such a transformation is known to remove the closure constraint, making it usable in Principal Component Analysis (PCA), which is computed to summarise the structure of the data in a lower dimensional space. From this new set of coordinates, the biplot was built, first by singular value decomposition, and then by calculating the biplot coordinates. In this representation, both variables and samples are projected on the same 2D plot. Among the different constructions possible, that favouring the covariance structure of variables over the position of individuals was preferred (Fig. <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>, see Aitchison and Greenacre <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">2002</xref>; Daunis-i-Estadella et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">2011</xref> for more details). It should be noticed that the compositions are now recognized as providing information only on the relative magnitude of their components (Faith <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">2015</xref>). This means that interpretations made from the compositional biplot are, by nature, drawn from ratios between all components, and not from individual components taken separately, as with the classical biplot. Computing a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) on <italic>clr</italic>-transformed data is not possible, because the rows of this matrix sum up to 0, so that the covariance matrix is singular. An alternative consists in using isometric log-ratio transformed data as input matrix, as proposed by Egozcue et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2003</xref>): <fig id="Fig2"><label>Fig. 2</label><caption><p>Compositional biplot for lichens projected on the first two principal components</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Fig2_HTML" id="MO3"></graphic></fig><disp-formula id="Equb"><alternatives><tex-math id="M7">\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
\usepackage{upgreek}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}
\begin{document}$$ilr\left( x \right) = z = \left[ {z_{1} , \ldots ,z_{D - 1} } \right] \in {\mathbb{R}}^{D - 1} ;z_{i} = \sqrt {\frac{i}{i + 1}} \ln \sqrt[i]{{\frac{{\mathop \prod \nolimits_{j = 1}^{i} x_{j} }}{{x_{i + 1} }}}}\quad {\text{for}}\quad i = 1, \ldots , \, D - 1$$\end{document}</tex-math><mml:math id="M8" display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mfenced close=")" open="("><mml:mi>x</mml:mi></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>z</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfenced close="]" open="[" separators=""><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>z</mml:mi><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>z</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>∈</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msup><mml:mo>;</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>z</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:msqrt><mml:mfrac><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:msqrt><mml:mo>ln</mml:mo><mml:mroot><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:msubsup><mml:mo>∏</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi>j</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>j</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:mfrac><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:mroot><mml:mspace width="1em"></mml:mspace><mml:mtext>for</mml:mtext><mml:mspace width="1em"></mml:mspace><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="0.166667em"></mml:mspace><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:math><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Article_Equb.gif" position="anchor"></graphic></alternatives></disp-formula></p><p>Once it has been demonstrated that there is a difference between at least one pair of group population means, multiple comparisons can be performed using Hotelling T<sup>2</sup> tests, along with Bonferroni corrections, as usual.</p><p>Data preparation, transformations, statistical procedure and plot drawings used the free R software (R Core Team <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR64">2008</xref>), with the FactoMineR (Lê et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">2008</xref>), compositions (Van den Boogaart and Tolosana-Delgado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">2008</xref>), hotteling (Curran <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2013</xref>) and ggplot2 packages (Wickham <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR73">2009</xref>). Mapping used the Quantum GIS free software (QGIS Development Team <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">2010</xref>).</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec7"><title>Results and discussion</title><sec id="Sec8"><title>Elemental concentrations in lichens</title><p>Concentrations in lichens, together with the geometric means of the three groups (NOU, PORO and COUN), are reported in Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>. They vary widely, covering 2 or 3 orders of magnitude. Such huge variability is rather unusual in environmental studies dealing with lichens, where differences of one or two orders of magnitude are more common (Goix et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2013</xref>; Zvěřina et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR75">2014</xref>). As expected, the highest Co, Cr and Ni concentrations (above 100, 1000 and 3000 µg g<sup>−1</sup>, respectively) are observed in two of the Poro samples (PORO #28 and #32), and close to the Doniambo plant (NOU #16) (Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>). Maximum Zn and Cu contents are recorded at Noumea (NOU #13 and #19). For comparison, the Co, Cr, and Ni concentrations reported for lichens collected close to an open-pit olivine mine in Greenland (Søndergaard <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2013</xref>) were about one or two orders of magnitude lower than those observed at Poro, but comparable with our COUN samples. Although, at first sight, the overall picture drawn from absolute concentrations seems to be reliable, a non-negligible part of the variations observed in the Co, Cr and Ni concentrations might also be due to body morphology, age, and exposure of individuals, as suggested by the huge variations in Ti contents, an element assumed of crustal origin. Rather than normalizing all metals to a single crustal element (e.g. Ti), and hence comparing the sites, a compositional data analysis approach was preferred here.</p></sec><sec id="Sec9"><title>Compositional data analysis</title><p>The first two axes of the covariance biplot computed after a <italic>clr</italic>-transformation of the dataset explain 82.5% of the total variability (57.8 and 24.7% respectively), a value reasonably high for D = 7 parts (Fig. <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>). This representation must, however, be interpreted differently from the traditional biplot originally proposed by Gabriel (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">1971</xref>), because all the components are somehow intermixed during the <italic>clr</italic>-transformation. Its key reading is the link between two variable arrow heads, which approximates the standard deviation of their corresponding log-ratios (see Aitchison and Greenacre <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">2002</xref>; Van den Boogaart and Tolosana-Delgado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR68">2013</xref> for more details about compositional biplots). The mining elements (Ni, Co, Cr), and to a lesser extent Fe, plot relatively close to each other (i.e. their links are short). They therefore present relatively constant log-ratios, while the largest links observed between [Ni, Co, Cr] and Ti, on the one hand, and between Zn and Cu, on the other hand, indicate the most relative variations across the lichens. Interestingly, the orthogonality between these links underlines the absence of correlation between their corresponding log-ratios (e.g. Zn/Cu is not correlated with Ni/Ti).</p><p>The influence of the principal components (PCs) on each pairwise ratio can also be displayed by a barplot, where bars represent ratio loadings on PCs. Bar heights above (or below) the horizontal line y = 1 denote a positive (or negative) multiplicative influence on the PCs concerned (Fig. <xref rid="Fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>, see Daunis-i-Estadella et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">2011</xref> for mathematical construction). Thus, a loading equal to 1 in the <italic>clr</italic>-transformed space acts somewhat similarly to a zero loading for common PCA. In our case, PC1 makes the largest (positive) multiplicative contribution to Co/Ti, Cr/Ti, Ni/Ti, and to some extent Fe/Ti, while PC2 mostly acts on Zn/Cu.<fig id="Fig3"><label>Fig. 3</label><caption><p>Barplots of loadings of compositional principal component analysis</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Fig3_HTML" id="MO5"></graphic></fig></p><p>The three previously defined groups of lichens can be distinguished mainly by PC1 (Fig. <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>). The PORO samples plot on the right of the diagram (positive side of PC1), while COUN samples plot on the left (negative side of PC1). The NOU samples lie between the two other groups. Although this structure is clearly visible, it worth noting that multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) can also be applied in less trivial cases. The MANOVA indicates that at least one group appears to be significantly different from the others (<italic>p</italic> < 10<sup>−6</sup>). Multiple pairwise Hotelling T<sup>2</sup> tests indicate that each group is significantly different from the others (<italic>p</italic> < 10<sup>−4</sup>), even after Bonferroni correction (Holm <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">1979</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="Sec10"><title>Impact levels and geographical dispersion</title><p>Several multi-element indices have previously been constructed to evaluate the overall quality of a given environment with regard to metal contents (Chen et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">2005</xref>; Holy et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">2009</xref>; Marvin et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">2004</xref>; Nimis et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR51">2000</xref>). These methods often used threshold and probable effect levels (TELs and PELs), which represent the concentrations above which adverse biological effects are expected to occur, either rarely or frequently. Other methods use mean concentrations of accumulated elements in lichens (Boamponsem et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2010</xref>; Nimis et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR51">2000</xref>) or ranks based on percentiles (Fliedner et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">2014</xref>; Holy et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">2009</xref>; Schröder and Pesch <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR59">2010</xref>). They can be enriched with environmental information, leading to the establishment of specific ecoregions (Schröder and Pesch <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">2007</xref>). Factors like altitude, soil texture, precipitation, or global radiation make it more difficult to compare territories that are very different from in geography. Another common practice consists in treating chemical compositions as a whole. First, a Factor Analysis or a Principal Component Analysis is computed on normalised variables, then a varimax rotation can be operated, producing varifactors (Varol <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR70">2011</xref>; Zhuang and Gao <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR74">2014</xref>). This last step seeks to produce strong correlations between the new factor loadings and certain variables of interest, and low correlations with the others, thus leading to a clearer interpretation of the resulting factors (Reimann et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR55">2002</xref>). The final objective is, if possible, to isolate a factor coinciding with the main pollutants, so that the score of a sample on this axis can be used as an integrated index of the contamination level (Balabanova et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">2013b</xref>; Cicchella et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2014</xref>). The problem with such a procedure is that, except for some studies (e.g. Filzmoser et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">2009b</xref>), the multivariate analysis is almost never computed using appropriate transformations, specifically designed for compositional data. Meyer et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2015</xref>) recently proposed a method based on the scores of the compositional biplot, computed after a simple <italic>clr</italic>-transformation of the original variables. In our case, PC1 has a strong positive multiplicative contribution to the log-ratios of metals originating from mining activities (Ni, Cr, Co)/Ti. As a consequence, the varimax rotation is unnecessary. Examining PC1 is somewhat similar to the traditional approach, which consists in considering the metal/Ti ratios separately (rather than the raw concentrations) in order to reduce blurring effects due to lichen exposure, age or species (Dongarrà et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">1995</xref>; Monna et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">2006</xref>). The main difference is that, in our case, all metals of interest are processed together, and integrated into the PC1 sample scores. These values can then be directly used as a synthetic contamination index, at least for a group of elements: Cr, Ni and Co, in other words the elements of interest, emitted into the atmosphere by mining and metallurgical activity. Figure <xref rid="Fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>, which depicts the individual scores, exhibits a clear spatial structure. The atmosphere around the Poro mine and in the city of Noumea is unambiguously enriched in Ni, Cr, and Co compared to areas free or far from mines. This enrichment is greater at Poro than in Noumea. Although the sampling network was neither dense nor regular, it seems reasonable to estimate that a distance at least 5 km from pollution sources is necessary to return to ‘clean’ conditions. This estimate is similar to those reported in two studies based on lichens: Cloquet et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">2006</xref>) for Metz, a French city, and Søndergaard (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2013</xref>) for a mining context in Greenland. No clear influence of prevailing winds was noticed in our context, probably because of the sparse sampling scheme, in contrast with a study at Agadir, where strong, persistent sea winds scatter the pollutants up to about 25 km eastwards (Monna et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2012</xref>). At this stage, it should be noted that our synthetic indicator was designed to facilitate the understanding of a complex process, here the impact of Ni mining and metallurgy on the atmosphere. Although it succeeds in this task, making clearer the overall picture of the aerial dispersion around the main sources, it is not able to take into account the small differences in terms of chemical compositions that might exist between the principal sources.<fig id="Fig4"><label>Fig. 4</label><caption><p>Synthetic indicator of lichen pollution, <bold>a</bold> in Poro and <bold>b</bold> in Noumea</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="40064_2016_3681_Fig4_HTML" id="MO6"></graphic></fig></p><p>The PC2 sample scores, which mainly depict the log ratio of Zn/Cu, are not very informative here, because the three groups of samples (NOU, COUN and PORO) do not exhibit any significant difference concerning this variable, neither in terms of mean, nor in terms of variance (Fig. <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>).</p><p>Although the results are fully coherent in their present form, the addition (or suppression) of elements may drastically modify the outputs of the multivariate analysis. The environmental question must therefore always be kept in mind, so that only those elements supposed to be of interest are processed; the sought-after signals might otherwise be obscured. The transformations required to process the compositional data properly mean that the original concentration values are no longer directly present. This loss of contact can be a serious problem in certain studies, such as those undertaken for ecotoxicological evaluation, where the knowledge of pollutant levels is of paramount importance. The compositional biplot conveys only relative information because of the compositional structure of the data, so that loadings cannot be interpreted separately, but only as pairs or groups of variables. Such grouping may make the overall picture less easy to understand. It is therefore strongly recommended to use compositional data analyses as a complement to the traditional approach (which consists in closely examining raw concentration levels in lichens, possibly also using concentration normalization), when mapping a synthetic contamination index, or for in-depth studies of the associations between variables, or between individuals.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec11"><title>Conclusion</title><p>Our results demonstrate that epiphytic lichens, at least those belonging to the Parmeliaceae family, can be used as biomonitors for air quality assessment in a Ni mining context. As expected, raw Ni, Co, Cr concentrations in lichen bodies are high, even extremely high, close to the mine and to the ore treatment plant. Concentrations decrease as distance from these infrastructures increases. In our case, the sample scores for the first principal component, computed after appropriate transformation, can be used as an overall environmental indicator. The PC1 includes all the main elements emitted into the atmosphere during Ni extraction and treatment. This approach may provide valuable information for the management and protection of ecosystems, highlighting those areas most contaminated by mining activity, and identifying the best sites for the installation of costly filtration units, for continued air quality monitoring. However, as the synthetic index drawn from PC1 drastically simplifies the problem by providing a broad picture, it may also preclude the differentiation of sources, when their compositional differences are subtle. Applying compositional data analyses in combination with close examination of raw data from lichens is therefore recommended, because contact with their absolute values is lost during the statistical analysis. Although the results of this study indicate that lichens can be used beneficially for assessing atmospheric dispersion of Ni in the surroundings of mining and metallurgical activities, further study in an area where air quality or atmospheric deposition data are also available would be useful to evaluate more precisely the performances of the approach described here.</p></sec></body><back><ack><title>Authors’ contributions</title><p>CD, BB and FM collected the samples; PL, RL and FM performed the chemical analyses. CP wrote the first draft. All authors contributed equally to the scientific discussion and approved the final manuscript. We are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers whose judicious comments have greatly improved the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p><sec id="FPar1"><title>Competing interests</title><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></sec><sec id="FPar2"><title>Funding</title><p>This work was funded by the CNRT (French National Center for Technological Research) (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.cnrt.nc">www.cnrt.nc</ext-link>) “Nickel and its environment”, Noumea, New Caledonia (5PS2013-CNRT.UNIV.BORDEAUX/DMML15042015). The French Ministry of Research funded the Ph.D. fellowship of Camille Pasquet.</p></sec></ack><ref-list id="Bib1"><title>References</title><ref id="CR1"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Agnan</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Sejalon-Delmas</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Probst</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Comparing early twentieth century and present-day atmospheric pollution in SW France: a story of lichens</article-title><source>Environ Pollut</source><year>2013</year><volume>172</volume><fpage>139</fpage><lpage>148</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.envpol.2012.09.008</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23063614</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR2"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aitchison</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The statistical analysis of compositional data</article-title><source>J R Stat Soc Ser B (Statistical Methodol)</source><year>1982</year><volume>44</volume><fpage>139</fpage><lpage>177</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR3"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aitchison</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><source>The statistical analysis of compositional data, monographs on statistics and applied probability</source><year>1986</year><publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Chapman and Hall Ltd</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR4"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aitchison</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Greenacre</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biplots of compositional data</article-title><source>J R Stat Soc Ser C (Applied Stat)</source><year>2002</year><volume>51</volume><fpage>375</fpage><lpage>392</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/1467-9876.00275</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR5"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Andersen</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Berge</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name><name><surname>Engeland</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Norseth</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Exposure to nickel compounds and smoking in relation to incidence of lung and nasal cancer among nickel refinery workers</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>1996</year><volume>53</volume><fpage>708</fpage><lpage>713</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/oem.53.10.708</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8943837</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR6"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aničić</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Tasić</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Frontasyeva</surname><given-names>MV</given-names></name><name><surname>Tomašević</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Rajšić</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Mijić</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>Popović</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Active moss biomonitoring of trace elements with Sphagnum girgensohnii moss bags in relation to atmospheric bulk deposition in Belgrade, Serbia</article-title><source>Environ Pollut</source><year>2009</year><volume>157</volume><fpage>673</fpage><lpage>679</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.envpol.2008.08.003</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18814945</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR7"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aslan</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Gurbuz</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Yazici</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Cicek</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Turan</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ercisli</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Evaluation of lichens as bio-indicators of metal pollution</article-title><source>J Elemntol</source><year>2012</year></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR8"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Balabanova</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Stafilov</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Sajn</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Bačeva</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Spatial distribution and characterization of some toxic metals and lithogenic elements in topsoil and subsoil from copper mine environs</article-title><source>Int J Environ Prot</source><year>2013</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>9</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR9"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Balabanova</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Stafilov</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Šajn</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Bačeva</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Comparison of response of moss, lichens and attic dust to geology and atmospheric pollution from copper mine</article-title><source>Int J Environ Sci Technol</source><year>2013</year><volume>11</volume><fpage>517</fpage><lpage>528</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s13762-013-0262-8</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR10"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bergamaschi</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Rizzio</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Valcuvia</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name><name><surname>Verza</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Profumo</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Gallorini</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Determination of trace elements and evaluation of their enrichment factors in Himalayan lichens</article-title><source>Environ Pollut</source><year>2002</year><volume>120</volume><fpage>137</fpage><lpage>144</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00138-0</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12199460</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR11"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Boamponsem</surname><given-names>LK</given-names></name><name><surname>Adam</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name><name><surname>Dampare</surname><given-names>SB</given-names></name><name><surname>Nyarko</surname><given-names>BJB</given-names></name><name><surname>Essumang</surname><given-names>DK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Assessment of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in the Tarkwa gold mining area of Ghana using epiphytic lichens</article-title><source>Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res Sect B Beam Interact Mater Atoms</source><year>2010</year><volume>268</volume><fpage>1492</fpage><lpage>1501</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.nimb.2010.01.007</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR12"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bramwell</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name></person-group><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bramwell</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Caujapé-Castells</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biogeography and conservation of the flora of New Caledonia</article-title><source>The biology of Island florars</source><year>2011</year><publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name><fpage>226</fpage><lpage>238</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR13"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Carignan</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Simonetti</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Gariépy</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Dispersal of atmospheric lead in northeastern North America as recorded by epiphytic lichens</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2002</year><volume>36</volume><fpage>3759</fpage><lpage>3766</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00294-7</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR14"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chakraborty</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ahmad</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Singh</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Pal</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Bandopadhyay</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Chaulya</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Determination of the emission rate from various opencast mining operations</article-title><source>Environ Model Softw</source><year>2002</year><volume>17</volume><fpage>467</fpage><lpage>480</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S1364-8152(02)00010-5</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR15"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>T-B</given-names></name><name><surname>Zheng</surname><given-names>Y-M</given-names></name><name><surname>Lei</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Huang</surname><given-names>Z-C</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>H-T</given-names></name><name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Fan</surname><given-names>K-K</given-names></name><name><surname>Yu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name><name><surname>Tian</surname><given-names>Q-Z</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Assessment of heavy metal pollution in surface soils of urban parks in Beijing, China</article-title><source>Chemosphere</source><year>2005</year><volume>60</volume><fpage>542</fpage><lpage>551</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.12.072</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15950046</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR16"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chevillotte</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Chardon</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Beauvais</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Maurizot</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Colin</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Long-term tropical morphogenesis of New Caledonia (Southwest Pacific): importance of positive epeirogeny and climate change</article-title><source>Geomorphology</source><year>2006</year><volume>81</volume><fpage>361</fpage><lpage>375</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.04.020</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR17"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cicchella</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Giaccio</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Lima</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Albanese</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Cosenza</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Civitillo</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>De Vivo</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Assessment of the topsoil heavy metals pollution in the Sarno River basin, south Italy</article-title><source>Environ Earth Sci</source><year>2014</year><volume>71</volume><fpage>5129</fpage><lpage>5143</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR18"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cloquet</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Carignan</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Libourel</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Atmospheric pollutant dispersion around an urban area using trace metal concentrations and Pb isotopic compositions in epiphytic lichens</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2006</year><volume>40</volume><fpage>574</fpage><lpage>587</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.09.073</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR19"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cloquet</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Estrade</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Carignan</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Ten years of elemental atmospheric metal fallout and Pb isotopic composition monitoring using lichens in northeastern France</article-title><source>Comptes Rendus Geosci</source><year>2015</year><volume>347</volume><fpage>257</fpage><lpage>266</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.crte.2015.04.003</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR20"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Conti ME (2008) Biological monitoring: theory and applications. Sustainable World Series, (Book 17). WIT Press, New York</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR21"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Conti</surname><given-names>ME</given-names></name><name><surname>Cecchetti</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biological monitoring: lichens as biomonitors of air pollution assessment—a review</article-title><source>Environ Poll</source><year>2001</year><volume>114</volume><fpage>471</fpage><lpage>492</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00224-4</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR22"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Curran JM (2013) Hotelling’s T-squared test and variants. Package ‘Hotelling’. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/Hotelling/Hotelling.pdf">https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/Hotelling/Hotelling.pdf</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR23"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Daunis-i-Estadella J, Thio-Henestrosa S, Mateu-Figueras G (2011) Two more things about compositional biplots: quality of projection and inclusion of supplementary elements. In: Proceedings of the 4th international workshop on compositional data analysis, pp 1–14</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR24"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dongarrà</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Ottomello</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Sabatino</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Triscari</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Use of lichens in detecting environmental risk and in geochemical prospecting</article-title><source>Environ Geol</source><year>1995</year><volume>26</volume><fpage>139</fpage><lpage>146</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/BF00768735</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR25"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Doucet</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Carignan</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Atmospheric Pb isotopic composition and trace metal concentration as revealed by epiphytic lichens: an investigation related to two altitudinal sections in Eastern</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2001</year><volume>35</volume><fpage>3681</fpage><lpage>3690</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00510-0</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR26"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Egozcue</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Pawlowsky-Glahn</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Mateu-Figueras</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Barceló-Vidal</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Isometric logratio transformations for compositional data analysis</article-title><source>Math Geol</source><year>2003</year><volume>35</volume><fpage>279</fpage><lpage>300</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1023/A:1023818214614</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR27"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Faith</surname><given-names>MK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Centered log-ratio (clr) transformation and robust principal component analysis of long-term NDVI data reveal vegetation activity linked to climate processes</article-title><source>Climate</source><year>2015</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>135</fpage><lpage>149</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/cli3010135</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR28"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Filzmoser</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hron</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Reimann</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Principal component analysis for compositional data with outliers</article-title><source>Environmentrics</source><year>2009</year><volume>20</volume><issue>6</issue><fpage>621</fpage><lpage>632</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/env.966</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR29"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Filzmoser</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hron</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Reimann</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Garrett</surname><given-names>RG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Robust factor analysis for compositional data</article-title><source>Comput Geosci</source><year>2009</year><volume>35</volume><fpage>1854</fpage><lpage>1861</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cageo.2008.12.005</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR30"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fliedner</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Rüdel</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Knopf</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Weinfurtner</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Paulus</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ricking</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Koschorreck</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Spatial and temporal trends of metals and arsenic in German freshwater compartments</article-title><source>Environ Sci Pollut Res</source><year>2014</year><volume>21</volume><fpage>5521</fpage><lpage>5536</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11356-013-2487-y</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR31"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gabriel</surname><given-names>KR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The biplot graphic display of matrices with application to principal components analysis</article-title><source>Biometrika</source><year>1971</year><volume>58</volume><fpage>453</fpage><lpage>467</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/biomet/58.3.453</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR32"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Goix</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Resongles</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Point</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Oliva</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Duprey</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name><name><surname>de la Galvez</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Ugarte</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Huayta</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Prunier</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Zouiten</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Gardon</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Transplantation of epiphytic bioaccumulators (Tillandsia capillaris) for high spatial resolution biomonitoring of trace elements and point sources deconvolution in a complex mining/smelting urban context</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2013</year><volume>80</volume><fpage>330</fpage><lpage>341</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.08.011</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR33"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gunkel-Grillon</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Laporte-Magoni</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Lemestre</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Bazire</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Toxic chromium release from nickel mining sediments in surface waters, New Caledonia</article-title><source>Environ Chem Lett</source><year>2014</year></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR34"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harrison</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name><name><surname>Yin</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Particulate matter in the atmosphere: which particle properties are important for its effects on health?</article-title><source>Sci Total Environ</source><year>2000</year><volume>249</volume><fpage>85</fpage><lpage>101</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00513-6</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10813449</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR35"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hédouin</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Pringault</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Metian</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Bustamante</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Warnau</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Nickel bioaccumulation in bivalves from the New Caledonia lagoon: seawater and food exposure</article-title><source>Chemosphere</source><year>2007</year><volume>66</volume><fpage>1449</fpage><lpage>1457</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.09.015</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17095042</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR36"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Holm</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure</article-title><source>Scand J Stat</source><year>1979</year><volume>6</volume><fpage>65</fpage><lpage>70</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR37"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Holy</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Leblond</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Pesch</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Schröder</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Assessing spatial patterns of metal bioaccumulation in French mosses by means of an exposure index</article-title><source>Environ Sci Pollut Res</source><year>2009</year><volume>16</volume><fpage>499</fpage><lpage>507</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11356-009-0146-0</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR38"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Huertas</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name><name><surname>Huertas</surname><given-names>ME</given-names></name><name><surname>Izquierdo</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>González</surname><given-names>ED</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Air quality impact assessment of multiple open pit coal mines in northern Colombia</article-title><source>J Environ Manage</source><year>2012</year><volume>93</volume><fpage>121</fpage><lpage>129</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.08.007</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22054578</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR39"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Jaffré</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Latham</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Schmid</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Aspects de l’influence de l’extraction du minerai de nickel sur la végétation et les sols en Nouvelle-Calédonie</article-title><source>Cah ORSTOM Série Biol</source><year>1977</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>307</fpage><lpage>321</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR40"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kettle</surname><given-names>CJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Hollingsworth</surname><given-names>PM</given-names></name><name><surname>Jaffré</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Moran</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Ennos</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Identifying the early genetic consequences of habitat degradation in a highly threatened tropical conifer, Araucaria nemorosa Laubenfels</article-title><source>Mol Ecol</source><year>2007</year><volume>16</volume><fpage>3581</fpage><lpage>3591</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03419.x</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17845432</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR41"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kim</surname><given-names>J-H</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Spurious correlation between ratios with a common divisor</article-title><source>Stat Probab Lett</source><year>1999</year><volume>44</volume><fpage>383</fpage><lpage>386</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0167-7152(99)00030-9</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR42"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kinalioglu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Bayrak Ozbucak</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Kutbay</surname><given-names>HG</given-names></name><name><surname>Huseyinova</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Bilgin</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Demirayak</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biomonitoring of trace elements with lichens in Samsun City, Turkey</article-title><source>Ekoloji</source><year>2010</year><volume>19</volume><fpage>64</fpage><lpage>70</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5053/ekoloji.2010.759</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR43"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lê</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Josse</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Husson</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>FactoMineR: an R package for multivariate analysis</article-title><source>J Stat Softw</source><year>2008</year><volume>25</volume><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>18</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18637/jss.v025.i01</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR44"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Losfeld</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>L’Huillier</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Fogliani</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Jaffré</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Grison</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Mining in New Caledonia: environmental stakes and restoration opportunities</article-title><source>Environ Sci Pollut Res</source><year>2015</year><volume>22</volume><fpage>5592</fpage><lpage>5607</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11356-014-3358-x</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR45"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Marvin</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Grapentine</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Painter</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Application of a sediment quality index to the lower Laurentian Great Lakes</article-title><source>Environ Monit Assess</source><year>2004</year><volume>91</volume><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>16</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1023/B:EMAS.0000009227.39355.aa</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14969435</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR46"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Menvielle</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Luce</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Févotte</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Bugel</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Salomon</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Goldberg</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Billon-Galland</surname><given-names>M-A</given-names></name><name><surname>Goldberg</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Occupational exposures and lung Cancer in New Caledonia</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>2003</year><volume>60</volume><fpage>584</fpage><lpage>589</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/oem.60.8.584</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12883019</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR47"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Meyer</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Diaz-de-Quijano</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Monna</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Franchi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Toussaint</surname><given-names>M-L</given-names></name><name><surname>Gilbert</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Bernard</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Characterisation and distribution of deposited trace elements transported over long and intermediate distances in north-eastern France using Sphagnum peatlands as a sentinel ecosystem</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2015</year><volume>101</volume><fpage>286</fpage><lpage>293</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.11.041</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR48"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mihaljevič</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Zuna</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ettler</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Chrastný</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Šebek</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Strnad</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Kyncl</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>A comparison of tree rings and peat deposit geochemical archives in the vicinity of a lead smelter</article-title><source>Water Air Soil Pollut</source><year>2008</year><volume>188</volume><fpage>311</fpage><lpage>321</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11270-007-9546-2</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR49"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Monna</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Poujol</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Losno</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Dominik</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Annegarn</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Coetzee</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Origin of atmospheric lead in Johannesburg, South Africa</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2006</year><volume>40</volume><fpage>6554</fpage><lpage>6566</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.064</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR50"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Monna</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Bouchaou</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Rambeau</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Losno</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lichens used as monitors of atmospheric pollution around agadir (Southwestern Morocco)—a case study predating lead-free gasoline</article-title><source>Water Air Soil Pollut</source><year>2012</year><volume>223</volume><fpage>1263</fpage><lpage>1274</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11270-011-0942-2</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR51"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nimis</surname><given-names>PL</given-names></name><name><surname>Lazzarin</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Lazzarin</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Skert</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biomonitoring of trace elements with lichens in Veneto (NE Italy)</article-title><source>Sci Total Environ</source><year>2000</year><volume>255</volume><fpage>97</fpage><lpage>111</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00454-X</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10898398</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR52"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nyarko</surname><given-names>BJB</given-names></name><name><surname>Adomako</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Serfor-Armah</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Dampare</surname><given-names>SB</given-names></name><name><surname>Adotey</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Akaho</surname><given-names>EHK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Biomonitoring of atmospheric trace element deposition around an industrial town in Ghana</article-title><source>Radiat Phys Chem</source><year>2006</year><volume>75</volume><fpage>954</fpage><lpage>958</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.radphyschem.2005.08.021</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR53"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nylander</surname><given-names>MW</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Les Lichens du Jardin du Luxembourg</article-title><source>Bull la Société Bot Fr</source><year>1866</year><volume>13</volume><fpage>364</fpage><lpage>371</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/00378941.1866.10827433</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR54"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pearson</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution. On a form of spurious correlation which may arise when indices are used in the measurement of organs</article-title><source>Proc R Soc Lond</source><year>1896</year><volume>60</volume><fpage>489</fpage><lpage>498</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rspl.1896.0076</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR65"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">QGIS Development Team (2010) QGIS geographic information system</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR64"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">R Core Team (2008) R : a language and environment for statistical computing</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR55"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Reimann</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Filzmoser</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Garrett</surname><given-names>RG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Factor analysis applied to regional geochemical data: problems and possibilities</article-title><source>Appl Geochem</source><year>2002</year><volume>17</volume><fpage>185</fpage><lpage>206</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0883-2927(01)00066-X</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR56"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Richardson</surname><given-names>DHS</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Metal uptake in lichens</article-title><source>Symbiosis</source><year>1995</year><volume>18</volume><fpage>119</fpage><lpage>127</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR57"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Richter</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Griño</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Ahumada</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Giordano</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Total element concentration and chemical fractionation in airborne particulate matter from Santiago, Chile</article-title><source>Atmos Environ</source><year>2007</year><volume>41</volume><fpage>6729</fpage><lpage>6738</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.04.053</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR58"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schröder</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Pesch</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Synthesizing bioaccumulation data from the German metals in mosses surveys and relating them to ecoregions</article-title><source>Sci Total Environ</source><year>2007</year><volume>374</volume><fpage>311</fpage><lpage>327</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.015</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17270252</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR59"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schröder</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Pesch</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Long-term monitoring of the metal accumulation in forests measured by use of the moss technique</article-title><source>Eur J For Res</source><year>2010</year><volume>129</volume><fpage>475</fpage><lpage>488</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10342-009-0298-y</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR60"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Senhou</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Chouak</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Cherkaoui</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Moutia</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>Lferde</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Elyahyaoui</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>El Khoukhi</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Bounakhla</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Embarche</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Gaudry</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Ayrault</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Moskura</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Sensitivity of biomonitors and local variations of element concentrations in air pollution biomonitoring</article-title><source>J Radioanal Nucl Chem</source><year>2002</year><volume>254</volume><fpage>343</fpage><lpage>349</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1023/A:1021688203179</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR61"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Søndergaard</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Dispersion and bioaccumulation of elements from an open-pit olivine mine in Southwest Greenland assessed using lichens, seaweeds, mussels and fish</article-title><source>Environ Monit Assess</source><year>2013</year><volume>185</volume><fpage>7025</fpage><lpage>7035</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10661-013-3082-x</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23315154</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR62"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Spiro</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Weiss</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Purvis</surname><given-names>OW</given-names></name><name><surname>Mikhailova</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Williamson</surname><given-names>BJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Coles</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Udachin</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lead isotopes in lichen transplants around a Cu smelter in Russia determined by MC-ICP-MS reveal transient records of multiple sources</article-title><source>Environ Sci Technol</source><year>2004</year><volume>38</volume><fpage>6522</fpage><lpage>6528</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/es049277f</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15669308</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR63"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Szczepaniak</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Biziuk</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Aspects of the biomonitoring studies using mosses and lichens as indicators of metal pollution</article-title><source>Environ Res</source><year>2003</year><volume>93</volume><fpage>221</fpage><lpage>230</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0013-9351(03)00141-5</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14615231</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR66"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Trescases</surname><given-names>J-J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Weathering and geochemical behaviour of the elements of ultramafic rocks in New Caledonia</article-title><source>Bur Miner Resour Geol Geophys Canberra</source><year>1973</year><volume>141</volume><fpage>149</fpage><lpage>161</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR67"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Van den Boogaart</surname><given-names>KG</given-names></name><name><surname>Tolosana-Delgado</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>“Compositions”: a unified R package to analyze compositional data</article-title><source>Comput Geosci</source><year>2008</year><volume>34</volume><fpage>320</fpage><lpage>338</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cageo.2006.11.017</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR68"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Van den Boogaart KG, Tolosana-Delgado R (2013) Analyzing compositional data with R, Use R! ed. Springer, Berlin. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36809-7</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR69"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Van der Weijden</surname><given-names>CH</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Pitfalls of normalization of marine geochemical data using a common divisor</article-title><source>Mar Geol</source><year>2002</year><volume>184</volume><fpage>167</fpage><lpage>187</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0025-3227(01)00297-3</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR70"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Varol</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Assessment of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Tigris River (Turkey) using pollution indices and multivariate statistical techniques</article-title><source>J Hazard Mater</source><year>2011</year><volume>195</volume><fpage>355</fpage><lpage>364</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.08.051</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21890271</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR71"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Wacaster S (2012) The mineral industry of New Caledonia. In 2011 Mineral Yearbook, USGS. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2011/myb3-2011-nc.pdf">http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2011/myb3-2011-nc.pdf</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR72"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Wedepohl</surname><given-names>KH</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The composition of the continental crust</article-title><source>Geochim Cosmochim Acta</source><year>1995</year><volume>59</volume><fpage>1217</fpage><lpage>1232</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/0016-7037(95)00038-2</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR73"><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Wickham H (2009) ggplot2 : elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer, New York. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-98141-3</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR74"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zhuang</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Gao</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Integrated assessment of heavy metal pollution in the surface sediments of the Laizhou Bay and the coastal waters of the Zhangzi Island, China: comparison among typical marine sediment quality indices</article-title><source>PLoS ONE</source><year>2014</year><volume>9</volume><fpage>e94145</fpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0094145</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">24709993</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR75"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zvěřina</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Láska</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Červenka</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Kuta</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Coufalík</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Komárek</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Analysis of mercury and other heavy metals accumulated in lichen Usnea antarctica from James Ross Island, Antarctica</article-title><source>Environ Monit Assess</source><year>2014</year><volume>186</volume><fpage>9089</fpage><lpage>9100</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10661-014-4068-z</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25261983</pub-id></element-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/Terre/explor/NickelMaghrebV1/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 000013 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 000013 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/Terre
|area= NickelMaghrebV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:5125352
|texte= Impact of nickel mining in New Caledonia assessed by compositional data analysis of lichens
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:27994999" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a NickelMaghrebV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.27. |  |