Assessment of Concentrations of Heavy Metals and Phthalates in Two Urban Rivers of the Northeast of Puerto Rico
Identifieur interne : 000478 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000477; suivant : 000479Assessment of Concentrations of Heavy Metals and Phthalates in Two Urban Rivers of the Northeast of Puerto Rico
Auteurs : Ana I. Ortiz-Col N [États-Unis] ; Luis E. Pi Ero-Santiago [États-Unis] ; Nilsa M. Rivera [États-Unis] ; María A. Sosa [États-Unis]Source :
- Journal of environmental & analytical toxicology [ 2161-0525 ] ; 2016.
Abstract
Urbanization adjacent to rivers has increased in recent years and is considered a source of environmental contamination. The resulting increase in number of urban rivers in highly populated areas, such as the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, has led to the appearance of synthetic as well as naturally occurring chemicals not previously observed nor regularly monitored in freshwater habitats. Some of these chemicals, such as heavy metals and plasticizers, have been shown to affect endocrine, respiratory, and nervous system function in animals and humans, even at relatively low concentrations. The purpose of this study was to measure concentrations of such emergent contaminants on rivers of urbanized areas on the northeast of Puerto Rico, as one element in the assessment of the impact of urbanism on water quality in these communities. To accomplish this, we used Inductively Coupled Plasma and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry to measure amounts of heavy metals and phthalates, respectively, in superficial water of three rivers of Puerto Rico: Mameyes (non-urban), Río Piedras (urban river without a dam), and La Plata (urban river with a dam). The urban rivers had significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals arsenic, barium, cadmium, manganese, and antimony, when compared with the reference non-urban river. Manganese was the only metal found in concentrations higher than limits established by the EPA for drinking water. Of eight phthalates amenable to measurement with the chosen protocol and instrumentation, only dibutyl phthalate was detected, only in the La Plata river, and at concentrations ranging from 3 to 8 parts-per-billion. These findings suggest that urbanism close to rivers of Puerto Rico is likely having an impact on water quality and thus further study to identify the potential sources, as well as the inclusion of these emergent contaminants on the list of chemicals regularly monitored by government agencies is justified.
Url:
DOI: 10.4172/2161-0525.1000353
PubMed: 27148470
PubMed Central: 4852550
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p id="P1">Urbanization adjacent to rivers has increased in recent years and is considered a source of environmental contamination. The resulting increase in number of urban rivers in highly populated areas, such as the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, has led to the appearance of synthetic as well as naturally occurring chemicals not previously observed nor regularly monitored in freshwater habitats. Some of these chemicals, such as heavy metals and plasticizers, have been shown to affect endocrine, respiratory, and nervous system function in animals and humans, even at relatively low concentrations. The purpose of this study was to measure concentrations of such emergent contaminants on rivers of urbanized areas on the northeast of Puerto Rico, as one element in the assessment of the impact of urbanism on water quality in these communities. To accomplish this, we used Inductively Coupled Plasma and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry to measure amounts of heavy metals and phthalates, respectively, in superficial water of three rivers of Puerto Rico: Mameyes (non-urban), Río Piedras (urban river without a dam), and La Plata (urban river with a dam). The urban rivers had significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals arsenic, barium, cadmium, manganese, and antimony, when compared with the reference non-urban river. Manganese was the only metal found in concentrations higher than limits established by the EPA for drinking water. Of eight phthalates amenable to measurement with the chosen protocol and instrumentation, only dibutyl phthalate was detected, only in the La Plata river, and at concentrations ranging from 3 to 8 parts-per-billion. These findings suggest that urbanism close to rivers of Puerto Rico is likely having an impact on water quality and thus further study to identify the potential sources, as well as the inclusion of these emergent contaminants on the list of chemicals regularly monitored by government agencies is justified.</p>
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<pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<pmc-dir>properties manuscript</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-journal-id">101671195</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pubmed-jr-id">44561</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Environ Anal Toxicol</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J Environ Anal Toxicol</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of environmental & analytical toxicology</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2161-0525</issn>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">27148470</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4852550</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4172/2161-0525.1000353</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="manuscript">NIHMS780147</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Assessment of Concentrations of Heavy Metals and Phthalates in Two Urban Rivers of the Northeast of Puerto Rico</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ortiz-Colón</surname>
<given-names>Ana I</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A3">3</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Piñero-Santiago</surname>
<given-names>Luis E</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A4">4</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rivera</surname>
<given-names>Nilsa M</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A3">3</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sosa</surname>
<given-names>María A</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A3">3</xref>
<xref rid="FN1" ref-type="author-notes">*</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A1"><label>1</label>
Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Science Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 00936 USA</aff>
<aff id="A2"><label>2</label>
Institute of Neurobiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 00901 USA</aff>
<aff id="A3"><label>3</label>
Puerto Rico Center for Environmental Neuroscience, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 00936 USA</aff>
<aff id="A4"><label>4</label>
Department of Chemistry, Humacao Campus, University of Puerto Rico, Humacao, Puerto Rico, 00792 USA</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="FN1"><label>*</label>
Corresponding author: María A. Sosa, PhD, Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Office A543 UPR, School of Medicine, PO Box 365067, San Juan, PR 00936-5067, USA, Tel: 787-758-2525 extn. 1514/1500; Fax: 787-767-0788; <email>maria.sosa@upr.edu</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="nihms-submitted"><day>23</day>
<month>4</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><day>20</day>
<month>3</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>02</day>
<month>5</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>6</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>1000353</elocation-id>
<permissions><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p id="P1">Urbanization adjacent to rivers has increased in recent years and is considered a source of environmental contamination. The resulting increase in number of urban rivers in highly populated areas, such as the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, has led to the appearance of synthetic as well as naturally occurring chemicals not previously observed nor regularly monitored in freshwater habitats. Some of these chemicals, such as heavy metals and plasticizers, have been shown to affect endocrine, respiratory, and nervous system function in animals and humans, even at relatively low concentrations. The purpose of this study was to measure concentrations of such emergent contaminants on rivers of urbanized areas on the northeast of Puerto Rico, as one element in the assessment of the impact of urbanism on water quality in these communities. To accomplish this, we used Inductively Coupled Plasma and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry to measure amounts of heavy metals and phthalates, respectively, in superficial water of three rivers of Puerto Rico: Mameyes (non-urban), Río Piedras (urban river without a dam), and La Plata (urban river with a dam). The urban rivers had significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals arsenic, barium, cadmium, manganese, and antimony, when compared with the reference non-urban river. Manganese was the only metal found in concentrations higher than limits established by the EPA for drinking water. Of eight phthalates amenable to measurement with the chosen protocol and instrumentation, only dibutyl phthalate was detected, only in the La Plata river, and at concentrations ranging from 3 to 8 parts-per-billion. These findings suggest that urbanism close to rivers of Puerto Rico is likely having an impact on water quality and thus further study to identify the potential sources, as well as the inclusion of these emergent contaminants on the list of chemicals regularly monitored by government agencies is justified.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd>Urbanism</kwd>
<kwd>Emergent contaminants</kwd>
<kwd>Water pollution</kwd>
<kwd>Plasticizers</kwd>
<kwd>Consumer products solvents</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<floats-group><fig id="F1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>A. Map of Puerto Rico, showing location within the Greater Antilles archipelago. Enlarged map shows population density within regional subdivisions of municipalities. Color legend indicates number of inhabitants per square mile, based on the 2000 US Census data. The darker the color, the more densely populated the area is (map was created by Javier Rodríguez Galarza, copyright holder of the work under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License). B. Closer view of area shown in the rectangle on map A, showing location of selected rivers. Blue, yellow, and green colored lines represent the selected rivers: blue – Mameyes (non-urban); yellow – Río Piedras (urban without a dam); green – La Plata (urban with a dam).</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nihms780147f1"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="F2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><p>Satellite (Google Maps) images of the river sampling sites, illustrating the relative levels of urbanism at each. (Red X indicates that sampling was not possible at the upper reach of the Mameyes River because it corresponded to the interior to the Federal Reserve area).</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nihms780147f2"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="F3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>Comparison of heavy metal concentrations that were found to differ significantly amongst non-urban and urban rivers at the northeast of Puerto Rico during the 2013 rainy season. As=Arsenic; Ba=Barium; Cd=Cadmium; Mn=Manganese; Sb=Antimony; Zn=Zinc. Concentrations are shown in parts per billion. Brackets indicate comparisons where differences were significant (*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001). M=Mameyes river; RP=Río Piedras river; LP=La Plata river; u=upper reach; m=midpoint; l=lower reach.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nihms780147f3"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="T1" position="float" orientation="portrait"><label>Table 1</label>
<caption><p>Most common phthalates available commercially.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="box" rules="rows"><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Dimethyl phthalate (DMP)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Di-n-octyl phthalate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diethyl phthalate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">*Diisonyl phthalate (DnOP)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mono-n-butyl phthalate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-ethylhexanoic acid</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T2" position="float" orientation="landscape"><label>Table 2</label>
<caption><p>Physicochemical parameters of surface water samples obtained in a non-urban and two urban rivers on the northeast of Puerto Rico during the 2013 rainy season.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="box" rules="all"><thead><tr><th valign="top" rowspan="2" align="center" colspan="1">Parameters</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Mameyes (NU)</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Río Piedras (U)</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">La Plata (U)</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th>
</tr>
<tr><th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">pH</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.60</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.70</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.65 ± 0.07</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.99</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.16</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.08</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.08 ± 0.09**</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.47</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.55</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.39</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.47 ± 0.08</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Temperature</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">25.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26.7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26.1 ± 0.08</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28.8 ± 2.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29.4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29.1 ± 1.2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dissolved Oxygen</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.22</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.03</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.13 ± 0.13</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.36</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.92</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.15</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.14 ± 0.92</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.00</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.03</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.00</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.68 ± 0.59*</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN1"><p>Temperature values of non-urban and urban rivers were not different statistically (p=0.1321). Alkaline pH at the Río Piedras river (U) was significantly different when compared with pH values at Mameyes (NU) and La Plata (U) (p=0.0007**). A multiple comparison test for dissolved oxygen resulted in significant reduction of DO in La Plata (U) when compared with DO measurements at the Mameyes (NU) and Río Piedras (U) rivers (p=0.0126). NU: non-urban river; U: urban river; NM: not measured; temperature is in °C, and dissolved oxygen is expressed as mg/L.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T3" position="float" orientation="landscape"><label>Table 3</label>
<caption><p>Mean concentrations of heavy metals in surface water samples obtained from a non-urban and two urban rivers of Puerto Rico’s northeastern region, during the 2013 rainy season.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="box" rules="all"><thead><tr><th valign="top" rowspan="2" align="center" colspan="1">Metal</th>
<th valign="top" rowspan="2" align="center" colspan="1">EPA (MCL) ppb</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Mameyes(NU)</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Río Piedras (U)</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">La Plata (U)</th>
</tr>
<tr><th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid- Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid- Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid -Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ag</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN3" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.046 ± 0.044</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.021</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">As</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.150</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.150</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.737 ± 0.063</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.563 ± 0.158</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.928 ± 0.024</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.177 ± 0.688</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.796 ± 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.717 ± 0.791</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ba</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,000</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45.433 ± 1.069</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.233 ± 0.764</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">107.667 ± 1.528</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">102.633 ± 3.564</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">105.333 ± 0.577</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67.900 ± 2.138</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60.667 ± 6.183</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.767 ± 1.079</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Be</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.056 ± 0.050</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.031 ± 0.007</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.027</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cd</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.429 ± 0.033</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.409 ± 0.075</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.421 ± 0.049</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.503 ± 0.002</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.508 ± 0.025</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.233 ± 0.065</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.348 ± 0.026</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.439 ± 0.036</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cr</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.843 ± 0.064</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.893 ± 0.076</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.927 ± 0.055</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.717 ± 0.071</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.663 ± 0.091</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.023 ± 0.546</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.747 ± 0.183</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.203 ± 0.099</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cu</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,300</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.267 ± 0.356</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.640 ± 1.520</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.550 ± 0.537</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.970 ± 0.640</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.537 ± 0.522</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.950 ± 0.837</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.747 ± 0.283</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.100 ± 2.489</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mn</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN3" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
50</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.387 ± 0.025</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.900 ± 0.436</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43.267 ± 0.666</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40.333 ± 1.102</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32.400 ± 0.917</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">188.667 ± 4.509</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">207.333 ± 12.503</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">188.333 ± 5.508</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ni</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN4" ref-type="table-fn">**</xref>
100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.183 ± 0.660</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.513 ± 1.300</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.567 ± 0.125</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.500 ± 0.092</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.643 ± 0.201</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.393 ± 1.171</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.993 ± 0.176</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.360 ± 1.948</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pb</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.261 ± 0.103</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.213 ± 0.144</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.130</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.276 ± 0.253</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sb</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.047</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.069 ± 0.038</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.121 ± 0.002</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.101± 0.002</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.110 ± 0.003</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.125 ± 0.025</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.088 ± 0.005</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.106 ± 0.012</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Se</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.393 ± 0.045</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.360</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.417 ± 0.010</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.425 ± 0.059</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.583 ± 0.057</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.740 ± 2.252</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.504 ± 0.193</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.210 ± 2.475</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tl</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.020</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zn</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN3" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
5,000</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.733 ± 0.095</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.137 ± 2.662</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 3.600</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 3.600</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 3.600</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.773 ± 1.299</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 3.600</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.830 ± 3.948</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN2"><p>Mean values ± standard deviation; MCL: Maximum Contaminant Level allowed in drinking water by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2009);</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN3"><label>*</label>
<p>Maximum secondary levels allowed in drinking water (EPA, 2009);</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN4"><label>**</label>
<p>Determined by State of California; NU: non-urban river; U: urban river; ppb: parts per billion; NM: no measured.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T4" position="float" orientation="landscape"><label>Table 4</label>
<caption><p>Mean concentrations of heavy metals expressed as % of Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) allowed in drinking water in surface water samples obtained from a non-urban and two urban rivers of Puerto Rico’s northeastern region, during the 2013 rainy season.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="box" rules="all"><thead><tr><th valign="top" rowspan="2" align="center" colspan="1">Metal</th>
<th valign="top" rowspan="2" align="center" colspan="1">EPA (MCL) ppb</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Mameyes(NU)</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">Río Piedras (U)</th>
<th colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1">La Plata (U)</th>
</tr>
<tr><th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid- Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid- Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper Reach</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mid -Point</th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower Reach</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ag</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN6" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">As</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ba</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,000</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Be</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cd</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cr</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cu</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,300</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mn</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN6" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
50</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">87</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">81</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">377</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">415</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">377</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ni</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN7" ref-type="table-fn">**</xref>
100</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pb</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sb</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Se</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tl</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zn</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="TFN6" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>
5,000</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NM</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN5"><p>% of MCL. MCL: Maximum Contaminant Level allowed in drinking water by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2009).</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN6"><label>*</label>
<p>Maximum secondary levels allowed in drinking water (EPA);</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN7"><label>**</label>
<p>Determined by State of California; NU: non-urban river; U: urban river; ppb: parts per billion; NM: no measured</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</floats-group>
</pmc>
</record>
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