Proximate Composition, Amino Acid, Mineral, and Heavy Metal Content of Dried Laver
Identifieur interne : 000468 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000467; suivant : 000469Proximate Composition, Amino Acid, Mineral, and Heavy Metal Content of Dried Laver
Auteurs : Eun-Sun Hwang ; Kyung-Nam Ki ; Ha-Yull ChungSource :
- Preventive Nutrition and Food Science [ 2287-1098 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
Laver, a red algae belonging to the genus
Url:
DOI: 10.3746/pnf.2013.18.2.139
PubMed: 24471123
PubMed Central: 3892503
Links to Exploration step
PMC:3892503Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Proximate Composition, Amino Acid, Mineral, and Heavy Metal Content of Dried Laver</title><author><name sortKey="Hwang, Eun Sun" sort="Hwang, Eun Sun" uniqKey="Hwang E" first="Eun-Sun" last="Hwang">Eun-Sun Hwang</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-pnf018-02-09">Department of Nutrition and Culinary Science, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ki, Kyung Nam" sort="Ki, Kyung Nam" uniqKey="Ki K" first="Kyung-Nam" last="Ki">Kyung-Nam Ki</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-pnf018-02-09">Department of Food and Biotechnology, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chung, Ha Yull" sort="Chung, Ha Yull" uniqKey="Chung H" first="Ha-Yull" last="Chung">Ha-Yull Chung</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-pnf018-02-09">Department of Food and Biotechnology, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24471123</idno><idno type="pmc">3892503</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3892503</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3892503</idno><idno type="doi">10.3746/pnf.2013.18.2.139</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000468</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000468</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Proximate Composition, Amino Acid, Mineral, and Heavy Metal Content of Dried Laver</title><author><name sortKey="Hwang, Eun Sun" sort="Hwang, Eun Sun" uniqKey="Hwang E" first="Eun-Sun" last="Hwang">Eun-Sun Hwang</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-pnf018-02-09">Department of Nutrition and Culinary Science, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ki, Kyung Nam" sort="Ki, Kyung Nam" uniqKey="Ki K" first="Kyung-Nam" last="Ki">Kyung-Nam Ki</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-pnf018-02-09">Department of Food and Biotechnology, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chung, Ha Yull" sort="Chung, Ha Yull" uniqKey="Chung H" first="Ha-Yull" last="Chung">Ha-Yull Chung</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09">Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-pnf018-02-09">Department of Food and Biotechnology, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Preventive Nutrition and Food Science</title><idno type="ISSN">2287-1098</idno><idno type="eISSN">2287-8602</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Laver, a red algae belonging to the genus <italic>Porphyra</italic>, is one of the most widely consumed edible seaweeds. The most popular commercial dried laver species, <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>, were collected from Korea and China, respectively, and evaluated for proximate composition, amino acids, minerals, trace heavy metals, and color. The moisture and ash contents of <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> ranged from 3.66~6.74% and 8.78~9.07%, respectively; crude lipid and protein contents were 1.96~2.25% and 32.16~36.88%, respectively. Dried lavers were found to be a good source of amino acids, such as asparagine, isoleucine, leucine, and taurine, and γ-aminobutyric acid. K, Ca, Mg, Na, P, I, Fe, and Se minerals were selected for analysis. A clear regional variation existed in the amino acid, mineral, and trace metal contents of lavers. Regular consumption of lavers may have heath benefits because they are relatively low in fat and high in protein, and contain functional amino acids and minerals.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nisizawa, K" uniqKey="Nisizawa K">K Nisizawa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Noda, H" uniqKey="Noda H">H Noda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kikuchi, R" uniqKey="Kikuchi R">R Kikuchi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Watanabe, T" uniqKey="Watanabe T">T Watanabe</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sahoo, D" uniqKey="Sahoo D">D Sahoo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tang, X" uniqKey="Tang X">X Tang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yarish, C" uniqKey="Yarish C">C Yarish</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Burtin, P" uniqKey="Burtin P">P 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Prev Nutr Food Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Prev Nutr Food Sci</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Preventive Nutrition and Food Science</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2287-1098</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2287-8602</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24471123</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3892503</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3746/pnf.2013.18.2.139</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">pnf018-02-09</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Proximate Composition, Amino Acid, Mineral, and Heavy Metal Content of Dried Laver</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Hwang</surname><given-names>Eun-Sun</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-pnf018-02-09">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-pnf018-02-09">2</xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-pnf018-02-09"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ki</surname><given-names>Kyung-Nam</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-pnf018-02-09">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-pnf018-02-09">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chung</surname><given-names>Ha-Yull</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-pnf018-02-09">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-pnf018-02-09">3</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-pnf018-02-09"><label>1</label>Department of Nutrition and Culinary Science, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</aff><aff id="af2-pnf018-02-09"><label>2</label>Korean Foods Global Center, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</aff><aff id="af3-pnf018-02-09"><label>3</label>Department of Food and Biotechnology, Hankyong National University, Gyeonggi 456-749, Korea</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-pnf018-02-09">Correspondence to Eun-Sun Hwang, Tel: +82-31-670-5182, E-mail: <email>ehwang@hknu.ac.kr</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>6</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>18</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>139</fpage><lpage>144</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>28</day><month>3</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>09</day><month>5</month><year>2013</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2013 by The Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. All rights Reserved.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><license><license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0</ext-link>) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Laver, a red algae belonging to the genus <italic>Porphyra</italic>, is one of the most widely consumed edible seaweeds. The most popular commercial dried laver species, <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>, were collected from Korea and China, respectively, and evaluated for proximate composition, amino acids, minerals, trace heavy metals, and color. The moisture and ash contents of <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> ranged from 3.66~6.74% and 8.78~9.07%, respectively; crude lipid and protein contents were 1.96~2.25% and 32.16~36.88%, respectively. Dried lavers were found to be a good source of amino acids, such as asparagine, isoleucine, leucine, and taurine, and γ-aminobutyric acid. K, Ca, Mg, Na, P, I, Fe, and Se minerals were selected for analysis. A clear regional variation existed in the amino acid, mineral, and trace metal contents of lavers. Regular consumption of lavers may have heath benefits because they are relatively low in fat and high in protein, and contain functional amino acids and minerals.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>dried laver</kwd><kwd>proximate composition</kwd><kwd>amino acids</kwd><kwd>minerals</kwd><kwd>heavy metals</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>INTRODUCTION</title><p>Laver (<italic>Porphyra</italic> spp.) has long been cultivated in Asian countries, mainly Korea, Japan, and China, which are the world’s major areas of laver production (<xref rid="b1-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>). The genus <italic>Porphyra</italic>, traditionally known as <italic>kim</italic> in Korea, <italic>nori</italic> in Japan, and <italic>zicai</italic> in China, has been subject to increased demand due to the increasing popularity of oriental cuisine and macrobiotic diets in Western countries in recent years (<xref rid="b2-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>,<xref rid="b3-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>). Lavers are rich in essential amino acids such as methionine, threonine, and tryptophan, and contain an abundance of minerals such as potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and calcium (Ca) (<xref rid="b2-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>). From a nutritional perspective, lavers are characterized by high concentrations of fiber and minerals (<xref rid="b4-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>,<xref rid="b5-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>), are low in fat, and have relatively high levels of protein (<xref rid="b6-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>,<xref rid="b7-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>). Seaweed consumption has increased in Western countries in recent years because of its nutritive value and health benefits (<xref rid="b8-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>). Seaweeds provide a bioavailable, alternative dietary source of macro, trace, and ultratrace elements (<xref rid="b5-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>,<xref rid="b9-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>). Therefore, the value of seaweed as a new health and functional ingredient is attracting much attention (<xref rid="b10-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>).</p><p>In contrast to land plants, the chemical composition of seaweeds, including lavers, has been poorly investigated. Seaweeds live in a harsh environment constantly exposed to various environmental stresses (<xref rid="b10-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>). The chemical and nutrient compositions of seaweeds are determined by species and environmental conditions such as habitat, light, water temperature, and salinity (<xref rid="b11-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="b12-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>). Seaweeds can accumulate essential mineral elements, such as Ca, Mg, cobalt (Co), selenium (Se), iron (Fe), and iodine (I), from seawater at higher rates than land vegetables (<xref rid="b13-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>). However, as a result of environmental pollution, seaweeds can also concentrate several toxic elements, such as arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) (<xref rid="b14-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="b15-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>).</p><p>Previous studies have been performed on raw seaweeds; however, lavers are mostly consumed in the dried form to improve palatability. Despite the fact that most laver is manufactured and consumed in dried form, few studies have conducted chemical analyses of commercialized dried laver. Some studies have reported that thermal treatments can alter the mineral and heavy metal content (or their chemical forms), leading to a more toxic produce than the original fresh state (<xref rid="b16-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>). However, Sartal et al. (<xref rid="b16-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>) reported that 34~71% of as in four different seaweeds (Kombu, Wakame, Nori, and sea lettuce) were removed during cooking and released into the cooking water.</p><p>In the present study, we investigated the proximal levels of amino acids, minerals, and heavy metals in dried laver obtained from Korea and China. The results emphasize the differences between species and regional growing conditions, and enhance our nutritional knowledge of laver.</p></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods"><title>MATERIALS AND METHODS</title><sec sec-type="materials"><title>Chemicals and materials</title><p>Lavers, purchased from a local market in Wando, Korea and Jiangsu, China on December, 2012, were collected and dried. Samples were blended to obtain homogeneous mixtures and stored in airtight plastic bags (due to their hygroscopic nature) until undergoing analytical treatment. Organic solvents were purchased from Burdick & Jackson (Batavia, IL, USA). Ninhydrin reagent and a 45 amino acid standard mixture were purchased from Pickering (Pickering Laboratories, Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA). All reagents and chemicals used were of analytical grade.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Proximate analysis</title><p>Residual moisture content was determined by drying to a constant weight at 105°C in an oven (EYELA, Tokyo Rikakikai Co., Tokyo, Japan). Ash content was determined using a previously published method (<xref rid="b17-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>). Briefly, laver samples were incinerated in a digitally controlled Hobersal HD-230 furnace (Kukje Engineering, Daejeon, Korea). Temperature was gradually increased to 550°C and then maintained for 16 h. Ash mass was quantified gravimetrically. Crude lipids were extracted from the laver powder in a Soxhlet extractor (Soxtec System HT6, Tecator AB, Hoganas, Sweden) using ethylether. The crude lipid content was determined gravimetrically following oven-drying of the extract at 105°C overnight. Nitrogen content was determined using the micro-Kjeldahl method (<xref rid="b17-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>). The crude protein content was calculated by multiplying the Kjeldahl nitrogen by a factor of 6.25. About 0.1 g pulverized sample was taken for protein analysis. All determinations were performed in triplicate, and the data are expressed in terms of mean±standard deviation (SD).</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Color analysis</title><p>Laver color was determined with a colorimeter (Model CR-400, Konica Minolta Business Technologies Inc., Tokyo, Japan) using a 1.4 cm measuring aperture and a white background. Before the test, the instrument was calibrated using standard black and standard white glass provided by the manufacturer. The L*, a*, and b* components of the CIELAB space were recorded, where L* indicates lightness, a* indicates chromaticity on a green (−) to red (+) axis, and b* indicates chromaticity on a blue (−) to yellow (+) axis.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Amino acid analysis</title><p>Free amino acids were analyzed using an Agilent 1100 system (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Separations were performed with a cation exchange column (3×250 mm, 8 μm particle size; Pickering Laboratories Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA) at 40°C with a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. The reactor was a Pinnacle PCX (Pickering Laboratories Inc.) and the temperature was 130°C. The laver was cut into small pieces weighing ~10 g, and was mixed with 150 mL 70% ethanol and extracted for 2 h at 80°C. The mixture was centrifuged at 5,000×<italic>g</italic> for 20 min, and the upper layer was saved to another tube. The extraction was performed three times. Solvent fractions were combined and evaporated to dryness in a vacuum at 45°C. The residue was redissolved in a 50 mL mass flask with lithium. The mixture was centrifuged and filtered through a 0.2 μm syringe filter. The mixture was diluted 40-fold using 10 μL column injections of lithium diluents (pH 2.36). The amino acid concentrations of lavers were calculated from calibration curves based on amino acid standard mixtures (Pickering Laboratories Inc.).</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Mineral and heavy metal analysis</title><p>Approximately 0.5000 g pulverized laver was placed in a beaker with 1 mL HNO<sub>3</sub>. The mixture was reacted at 50°C on a hot plate to allow the sample to be digested by HNO<sub>3</sub> in the fume hood. After acid digestion, the beaker was carefully removed from the hot plate and the contents were left to cool for 30 min, also allowing the acid to evaporate. After evaporation of the acid, the digested samples were transferred to a 50 mL volumetric flask with deionized water (1~5% acid concentration). Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, and P were analyzed by inductive coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES, Jobin Yvon, Longjumeau, France). Other minerals (I, Se) and heavy metal ions were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, Agilent Technologies). Triplicate determinations for each element were carried out. The concentration of elements was determined from calibration curves of the standard elements.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Statistical analysis</title><p>Experimental values were mean±SD from three separate experiments. Significance was assessed using ANOVA-tests in SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). A probability value of <italic>P</italic><0.05 was considered significant.</p></sec></sec><sec><title>RESULTS AND DISCUSSION</title><sec><title>Proximate composition</title><p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-pnf018-02-09">Table 1</xref> shows the proximate composition of laver. The moisture content of <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> were 3.66% and 6.74%, respectively. The <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> contained significantly higher (<italic>P</italic><0.01) moisture content than in <italic>P. tenera</italic>. Some red seaweeds (<italic>Hypnea japonica</italic> and <italic>H. japonica</italic>) have been found to have higher moisture contents than our values, at 9.95~10.9% (<xref rid="b12-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>).</p><p>The ash content of the <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> was similar across samples at 8.78~9.07%, with no statistically significant differences between species and growing region. The ash contents of lavers in our study were lower than those reported for alternative seaweed species. More specifically, <italic>Ulva lactuca</italic> and <italic>U. pertusa</italic> were found to contain 24.6% and 24.7% ash by dry weight (DW), respectively (<xref rid="b18-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="b19-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>).</p><p><italic>P. tenera</italic> contained higher crude lipid content (2.25%) than <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>. Our results are similar to those reported by Fleurence et al. (<xref rid="b20-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>), and the 3.4% DW for <italic>Porphyra umbilicalis</italic>, 1.6% DW for <italic>P. palmate</italic>, and 1.4~1.5% for red seaweeds (<italic>Hypnea japonica</italic> and <italic>H. japonica</italic>) reported by Wong et al. (<xref rid="b12-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>). However, Yaich et al. (<xref rid="b21-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>) reported the lipid content of <italic>Ulva lacturca</italic> seaweed collected in Tunisia to be 7.8%, which is higher than our results.</p><p>The crude protein content of the two different species were between 32.16% and 36.88%, within the range for red seaweed (10~47%) reported by Fleurence (<xref rid="b22-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>). The variation in the protein content of laver may be due to the different species and processing methods (<xref rid="b22-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>). Wong and Cheung (<xref rid="b12-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>) reported that the crude protein content was 21.3~22.8% DW in two subtropical red seaweeds (<italic>Hypnea charoides</italic> and <italic>Hypnea japonica</italic>) and one green seaweed (<italic>Ulva lactuca</italic>). Norziah and Ching (<xref rid="b23-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>) reported that <italic>Porphyra</italic> spp. contained high levels of protein, comparable to those of high-protein plant-based foods such as white soybean (33.8% protein).</p><p>Denis et al. (<xref rid="b24-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>) reported that the composition of <italic>Grateloupia turuturu</italic>, edible red seaweed in France, was 18.5% ash, 22.9% total protein, and 2.6% total lipid. Red seaweed, especially laver (<italic>Porphyra</italic> tenera), possesses a high level of protein, as much as 47.5% (<xref rid="b25-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>). Differences in proximate composition may be attributed to factors such as climate, temperature, pH, geographical differences, species, and season (<xref rid="b22-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>,<xref rid="b26-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Color analysis</title><p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2-pnf018-02-09">Table 2</xref> shows the color parameters of the different species of lavers. P. tenera had higher lightness (L*) values but not significantly different compared to P. haitanensis (<italic>P</italic>>0.05). P. tenera had lower redness (a*) than P. haitanensis. No previously reported color analysis results for laver exist and therefore no data with which to compare our data. The color differences we found may be characteristics of laver, or be representative of their chemical composition.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Amino acid analysis</title><p>The quantitative measurement of amino acids was conducted using an Agilent 1100 system. The amino acid composition of laver is presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3-pnf018-02-09">Table 3</xref>. <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> were good sources of amino acids such as taurine, alanine, and glutamic acid. <italic>P. tenera</italic> contained 13 different amino acids, and was particularly rich in asparagine, isoleucine, luecine, and GABA. <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> contained high amounts of threonine, serine, asparagine, and alanine. Both <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> contained 141.98 and 171.37 mg of aspartic acid in 100 g DW, respectively. The high levels of these amino acids are responsible for the special flavor of the seaweed (<xref rid="b27-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>). All lavers also contained alanine (936.28~1218.71 mg/100 g DW) and glycine (22.06~26.11 mg/100 g DW). Seaweeds containing these compounds have a sweet flavor (<xref rid="b28-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>).</p><p>Taurine was the most abundant amino acid in red algae, especially <italic>Porphyra</italic> species. The <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> contained high levels of taurine, 975.04 mg and 645.55 mg in 100 g DW, respectively. Dawczynski et al. (<xref rid="b8-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>) detected significantly high levels of taurine in <italic>Porphyra</italic> sp. from Korea and Japan amounting to 4 g/16 g nitrogen compared to <italic>Porphyra</italic> sp. collected from China (2.4 g/16 g nitrogen) or brown algae varieties (0.1~0.6 g/16 g nitrogen). Taurine is a free amino acid that is found in most tissues, with particularly high levels in the heart, blood, and developing brain (<xref rid="b29-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>). Red seaweeds, especially lavers (<italic>Porphyra</italic> sp.) are good sources of taurine, which is a main ingredient of bile and aids in the digestion of fats and the absorption of vitamins that are fat-soluble (<xref rid="b29-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>). Increased dietary intake of taurine may have beneficial effects on the heart and may help battle diabetes and hypertension (<xref rid="b30-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>–<xref rid="b32-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>).</p><p>GABA is a non-protein amino acid that is widely distributed in nature and well-known for its physiological functions, such as the induction of hypotension and diuretic effects, and the inhibition of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (<xref rid="b33-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>,<xref rid="b34-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>). The amino acid profiles of red and green seaweeds are clearly different. Red seaweeds have been found to have higher levels of sulfur-containing amino acids (16.2~17.3 g/100 g DW) than green seaweeds (6.30 g/100 g DW) (<xref rid="b12-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Mineral analysis</title><p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t4-pnf018-02-09">Table 4</xref> shows the concentration of minerals in <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>. Eight elements, K, Ca, Mg, Na, P, I, Fe, and Se, were found in both species of lavers. K was the most abundant (27,340~28,020 μg/g DW) in both <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis. P. tenera</italic> contained high amounts of K (28,020 μg/g DW), Na (7,811 μg/g DW), and I (3,108 μg/g DW) compared to <italic>P. haitanensis. P. haitanensis</italic> contained high levels of Ca (4,606 μg/g DW), Fe (700 μg/g DW), and Mg (6,120 μg/g DW) compared to <italic>P. tenera</italic>. Both <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> contained relatively high levels of I (2,407~3,108 μg/g DW).</p><p>Seaweeds, including laver, are characteristically a good source of I. Dried kombu (<italic>Laminaria japonica</italic>) has the highest I content of all seaweeds, approximately 2,700 mg/kg (<xref rid="b35-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>). Regular consumption of laver may decrease the incidence of breast cancer due to its high I content (<xref rid="b36-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>). In the present study, Se levels in laver were 126~204 μg/g DW (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4-pnf018-02-09">Table 4</xref>). Se is an essential micronutrient for animals and humans, and it plays important biological roles as an antioxidant, a regulator of thyroid hormone metabolism, and as an anti-carcinogenic agent.</p><p>Several studies have shown that the alkalinity of seaweed confers numerous health benefits, such as improving thyroid function and lowering the acidity levels in the body, thus preventing the development of degenerative illnesses such as cancer and heart disease (<xref rid="b37-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>). Mineral content has been shown to vary according to the seaweed species, oceanic residence time, geographical place of harvest, wave exposure, season, annual environment, type of processing methods, and so forth (<xref rid="b13-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="b38-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>). Mineral content in laver is higher than that of land plants and animal products (<xref rid="b11-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="b39-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>). Thus edible marine seaweeds may be an important source of minerals because some of these trace elements are either absent from, or only very minor in, land vegetables (<xref rid="b1-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="b11-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="b39-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>).</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Heavy metal analysis</title><p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t5-pnf018-02-09">Table 5</xref> shows the heavy metal concentration in <italic>P. tenera</italic> and <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>. Mercury (Hg) levels in both species of laver were less than 100 ng/g DW, the limit of detection of the methodology. However, a relatively high level of Pb has been detected in <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> with concentrations of 1,566 ng/g DW. The Pb content of <italic>P. tenera</italic> was 256 ng/g DW and was considered a moderate level compared to that of <italic>P. haitanensis</italic>. The Pb contents varied depending on the species of seaweed. Almela et al. (<xref rid="b40-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>) reported that the Pb content of red and brown seaweeds were 554 ng/g DW and 598 ng/g DW, respectively. On the other hand, several researchers have detected much higher amounts of Pb (2,200~14,200 ng/g DW) in red and brown seaweeds (<xref rid="b39-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>).</p><p>The Cd level in <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> (3,408 ng/g DW) was relatively higher than <italic>P. tenera</italic> (1,629 ng/g DW). Almela et al. (<xref rid="b40-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>) found a wide range of Cd concentrations (19~3,000g ng/g) in <italic>Porphyra</italic> of different origins including those from Korea and Japan. van Netten et al. (<xref rid="b41-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>) reported lower Cd levels at 270~830 ng/g for <italic>Porphyra</italic> from Japan.</p><p>The level of As in <italic>P. tenera</italic> was 32,027 ng/g DW, and 1.37 times higher in <italic>P. haitanensis</italic> (43,895 ng/g DW). Usually, the concentration of as is higher in marine organisms than in terrestrial ones because seafood can accumulate more As than other foods (<xref rid="b42-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>).</p><p>Seaweed has a high accumulation capacity for heavy metals and has been used as a bio-indicator of contamination of marine environments (<xref rid="b43-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>). Environmental factors such as water salinity, water temperature, and pH may affect metal accumulation (<xref rid="b43-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>–<xref rid="b45-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>). Ródenas de la Rocha et al. (<xref rid="b15-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>) reported that Asian seaweeds had higher levels of Pb (623~1,265 ng/g DW) and Cd (1.6~3.1 ng/g DW) than their European counterparts (Pb: 317~403 ng/g DW, Cd: 0.40~1.70 ng/g DW); this likely reflects different levels of environmental pollution, as the concentrations of heavy metals vary widely between the areas studied. Several countries, such as France, the United States, and Australia, have established specific regulations for toxic elements in edible seaweed; however, most other countries have no such regulations (<xref rid="b40-pnf018-02-09" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>). More importantly, the levels of toxic heavy metals must be monitored along with developing human health thresholds.</p></sec></sec></body><back><ack><title>ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</title><p>This research was supported by grants from the Globalization of Korean Foods R&D program (911051-1), funded by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of Korea.</p></ack><fn-group><fn id="fn1-pnf018-02-09"><p><bold>AUTHOR DISCLOSURE STATEMENT</bold></p><p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p></fn></fn-group><ref-list><title>REFERENCES</title><ref id="b1-pnf018-02-09"><label>1</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group 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person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Marinho-Soriano</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Fonseca</surname><given-names>PC</given-names></name><name><surname>Carneiro</surname><given-names>MAA</given-names></name><name><surname>Moreira</surname><given-names>WSC</given-names></name></person-group><year>2006</year><article-title>Seasonal variation in the chemical composition of two tropical seaweeds</article-title><source>Biores Technol</source><volume>97</volume><fpage>2402</fpage><lpage>2406</lpage></element-citation></ref></ref-list></back><floats-group><table-wrap id="t1-pnf018-02-09" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Concentration of moisture, ash, crude lipid, and crude protein in laver (%)</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. tenera</italic></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. haitanensis</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Moisture</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.66±0.25</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.74±0.51*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ash</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.07±0.29</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.78±0.12</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crude lipid</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.25±0.29*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.96±0.4</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crude protein</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36.88±0.90</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32.16±1.21</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn1-pnf018-02-09"><p>Data are mean±SD from three separate experiments. The values marked with an asterisk indicate significant differences with other treatment (<italic>P</italic><0.05).</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-pnf018-02-09" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Color parameters of lavers</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sample</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. tenera</italic></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. haitanensis</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lightness, L*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40.10±0.75</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37.02±1.38</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Redness, a*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.36±0.07</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.44±0.11</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellowness, b*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.66±0.11</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.47±0.12</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn2-pnf018-02-09"><p>Data are mean±SD of four separate experiments.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-pnf018-02-09" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Concentration (mg/100 g) of amino acids in laver</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. tenera</italic></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. haitanensis</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Taurine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">979.04±37.41*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">646.55±12.51</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aspartic acid</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">141.98±2.63</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">171.37±1.02</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Threonine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31.80±1.02</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86.43±1.36*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Serine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.02±2.56</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44.81±1.87*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Asparagine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.37±0.25</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86.55±2.54*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Glutamic acid</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">843.35±34.55*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">277.45±10.54</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Glycine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.06±0.38</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26.11±1.81</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alanine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">936.28±12.33</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,218.71±25.64*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Citrulline</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">77.80±4.58</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">71.32±3.25</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Valine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33.48±7.55</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Isoleucine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">46.67±2.08</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">49.88±1.97</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leucine</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.92±2.30</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33.22±1.65</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">γ-aminobutyric acid</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31.34±1.25</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn3-pnf018-02-09"><p>Data are mean±SD of four separate experiments. The values marked with an asterisk indicate significant differences with other treatment (<italic>P</italic>>0.05).</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t4-pnf018-02-09" position="float"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Concentration (μg/g) of minerals in laver</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. tenera</italic></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. haitanensis</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ca</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,514±4.17</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4,606±4.33*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fe</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">180.0±2.03</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">700.5±2.37*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">K</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28,020±7.14</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27,340±7.45</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mg</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4,203±3.30</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,120±5.49*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Na</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7,811±7.20*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,992±2.10</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">P</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8,201±6.90</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8,854±4.09</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,108±4.24*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,407±3.65</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Se</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">204±1.03*</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">126±0.98</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn4-pnf018-02-09"><p>Data are mean±SD of three separate experiments. The values marked with an asterisk indicate significant differences with other treatment (<italic>P</italic><0.05).</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t5-pnf018-02-09" position="float"><label>Table 5</label><caption><p>Concentration (ng/g) of heavy metals in laver</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. tenera</italic></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>P. haitanensis</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hg</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><100</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><100</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pb</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">256±0.12</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,566±0.22*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cd</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,629±0.30</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,408±0.45*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">As</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32,027±7.44</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43,895±12.04*</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn5-pnf018-02-09"><p>Data are mean±SD of three separate experiments. The values marked with an asterisk indicate significant differences with other treatment (<italic>P</italic><0.05).</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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