Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films for High Performance Strain Sensors
Identifieur interne : 000327 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 000326; suivant : 000328Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films for High Performance Strain Sensors
Auteurs : Olfa Kanoun ; Christian Müller ; Abderahmane Benchirouf ; Abdulkadir Sanli ; Trong Nghia Dinh ; Ammar Al-Hamry ; Lei Bu ; Carina Gerlach ; Ayda Bouhamed [Tunisie]Source :
- Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) [ 1424-8220 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
Compared with traditional conductive fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique advantages,
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/s140610042
PubMed: 24915183
PubMed Central: 4118397
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PMC:4118397Le document en format XML
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<author><name sortKey="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" sort="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" uniqKey="Benchirouf A" first="Abderahmane" last="Benchirouf">Abderahmane Benchirouf</name>
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<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films for High Performance Strain Sensors</title>
<author><name sortKey="Kanoun, Olfa" sort="Kanoun, Olfa" uniqKey="Kanoun O" first="Olfa" last="Kanoun">Olfa Kanoun</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Muller, Christian" sort="Muller, Christian" uniqKey="Muller C" first="Christian" last="Müller">Christian Müller</name>
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<author><name sortKey="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" sort="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" uniqKey="Benchirouf A" first="Abderahmane" last="Benchirouf">Abderahmane Benchirouf</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Sanli, Abdulkadir" sort="Sanli, Abdulkadir" uniqKey="Sanli A" first="Abdulkadir" last="Sanli">Abdulkadir Sanli</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Dinh, Trong Nghia" sort="Dinh, Trong Nghia" uniqKey="Dinh T" first="Trong Nghia" last="Dinh">Trong Nghia Dinh</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Al Hamry, Ammar" sort="Al Hamry, Ammar" uniqKey="Al Hamry A" first="Ammar" last="Al-Hamry">Ammar Al-Hamry</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Bu, Lei" sort="Bu, Lei" uniqKey="Bu L" first="Lei" last="Bu">Lei Bu</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Gerlach, Carina" sort="Gerlach, Carina" uniqKey="Gerlach C" first="Carina" last="Gerlach">Carina Gerlach</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(C.M.);<email>benchirouf@ieee.org</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Bouhamed, Ayda" sort="Bouhamed, Ayda" uniqKey="Bouhamed A" first="Ayda" last="Bouhamed">Ayda Bouhamed</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"> Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(C.M.);<email>benchirouf@ieee.org</email>
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<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-14-10042"> Higher Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, Sfax w.3038, Tunisia</nlm:aff>
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<series><title level="j">Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</title>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Compared with traditional conductive fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique advantages, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, excellent mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity and thermal stability. Nanocomposites as piezoresistive films provide an interesting approach for the realization of large area strain sensors with high sensitivity and low manufacturing costs. A polymer-based nanocomposite with carbon nanomaterials as conductive filler can be deposited on a flexible substrate of choice and this leads to mechanically flexible layers. Such sensors allow the strain measurement for both integral measurement on a certain surface and local measurement at a certain position depending on the sensor geometry. Strain sensors based on carbon nanostructures can overcome several limitations of conventional strain sensors, e.g., sensitivity, adjustable measurement range and integral measurement on big surfaces. The novel technology allows realizing strain sensors which can be easily integrated even as buried layers in material systems. In this review paper, we discuss the dependence of strain sensitivity on different experimental parameters such as composition of the carbon nanomaterial/polymer layer, type of polymer, fabrication process and processing parameters. The insights about the relationship between film parameters and electromechanical properties can be used to improve the design and fabrication of CNT strain sensors.</p>
</div>
</front>
<back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kulha, P" uniqKey="Kulha P">P. Kulha</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Boura, A" uniqKey="Boura A">A. Boura</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Husak, M" uniqKey="Husak M">M. Husak</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tanner, J L" uniqKey="Tanner J">J.L. Tanner</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Mousadakos, D" uniqKey="Mousadakos D">D. Mousadakos</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Giannakopoulos, K" uniqKey="Giannakopoulos K">K. Giannakopoulos</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Skotadis, E" uniqKey="Skotadis E">E. Skotadis</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Tsoukalas, D" uniqKey="Tsoukalas D">D. Tsoukalas</name>
</author>
</analytic>
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<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sangeetha, N M" uniqKey="Sangeetha N">N.M. Sangeetha</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Decorde, N" uniqKey="Decorde N">N. Decorde</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Viallet, B" uniqKey="Viallet B">B. Viallet</name>
</author>
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<pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</journal-title>
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<issn pub-type="epub">1424-8220</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>MDPI</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24915183</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4118397</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/s140610042</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">sensors-14-10042</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject>
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</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films for High Performance Strain Sensors</article-title>
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<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-14-10042"><sup>1</sup>
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<xref rid="c1-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="corresp"><sup>*</sup>
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<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-14-10042"><sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-14-10042"><sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="af1-sensors-14-10042"><label>1</label>
Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany; E-Mails:<email>christian.mueller@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(C.M.);<email>benchirouf@ieee.org</email>
(A.B.);<email>abdulkadir.sanli@s2012.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(A.S.);<email>nghia.dinh-trong@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(T.N.D.);<email>ammar.al-hamry@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(A.A.-H.);<email>bulei2008@hotmail.de</email>
(L.B.);<email>carina.gerlach@etit.tu-chemnitz.de</email>
(C.G.);<email>aydabouhamed@gmail.com</email>
(A.B.)</aff>
<aff id="af2-sensors-14-10042"><label>2</label>
Higher Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, Sfax w.3038, Tunisia</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="c1-sensors-14-10042"><label>*</label>
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: <email>kanoun@ieee.org</email>
; Tel.: +49-371-531-36931; Fax: +49-371-531-836931.</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>6</month>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>06</day>
<month>6</month>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>14</volume>
<issue>6</issue>
<fpage>10042</fpage>
<lpage>10071</lpage>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>25</day>
<month>3</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>09</day>
<month>5</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>19</day>
<month>5</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2014</copyright-year>
<license><license-p>This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/</ext-link>
).</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p>Compared with traditional conductive fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique advantages, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, excellent mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity and thermal stability. Nanocomposites as piezoresistive films provide an interesting approach for the realization of large area strain sensors with high sensitivity and low manufacturing costs. A polymer-based nanocomposite with carbon nanomaterials as conductive filler can be deposited on a flexible substrate of choice and this leads to mechanically flexible layers. Such sensors allow the strain measurement for both integral measurement on a certain surface and local measurement at a certain position depending on the sensor geometry. Strain sensors based on carbon nanostructures can overcome several limitations of conventional strain sensors, e.g., sensitivity, adjustable measurement range and integral measurement on big surfaces. The novel technology allows realizing strain sensors which can be easily integrated even as buried layers in material systems. In this review paper, we discuss the dependence of strain sensitivity on different experimental parameters such as composition of the carbon nanomaterial/polymer layer, type of polymer, fabrication process and processing parameters. The insights about the relationship between film parameters and electromechanical properties can be used to improve the design and fabrication of CNT strain sensors.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd>carbon nanotubes</kwd>
<kwd>nanocomposites</kwd>
<kwd>piezoresistivity</kwd>
<kwd>printed electronics</kwd>
<kwd>strain sensors</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<floats-group><fig id="f2-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label>
<caption><p>Volume filler fraction as a function of the aspect ratio <italic>l</italic>
/<italic>d</italic>
(length/diameter) exemplarily shown for carbon black and CNTs.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f2"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f1-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label>
<caption><p>The construction of CNTs from a graphene sheet along the chiral vector <italic>C</italic>
<italic><sub>h</sub>
</italic>
[<xref rid="b16-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f1"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f3-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label>
<caption><p>Electrical conductivity as a function of CNT volume fraction [<xref rid="b42-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f3"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f4-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label>
<caption><p>Viscosity and conductivity of MWCNT/epoxy composites. (<bold>a</bold>
) viscosity depending on the filler concentration. (<bold>b</bold>
) conductivity depending on the filler concentration [<xref rid="b36-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f4"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f5-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label>
<caption><p>Piezoresistive characterization of MWCNTs/Polysulfone films. (<bold>a</bold>
) 0.75% MWCNTs, E<sub>AC</sub>
= 7.3 kV/m (aligned). (<bold>b</bold>
) 0.75% MWCNTs, E<sub>AC</sub>
= 0 kV/m [<xref rid="b45-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f5"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f6-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label>
<caption><p>Mechanism by which surfactants help to disperse SWNT. (<bold>a</bold>
) SWNT encapsulated in a cylindrical surfactant micelle (both cross section and side-view). (<bold>b</bold>
) Hemimicellar adsorption of surfactant molecules on a SWNT. (<bold>c</bold>
) random adsorption of surfactant molecules on a SWNT [<xref rid="b59-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">59</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f6"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f7-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 7.</label>
<caption><p>Schematic view of the unbundling of CNTs by surfactant interaction and sonication processes.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f7"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f8-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 8.</label>
<caption><p>Fabrication of CNT/polymer composites using a combination of <italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization and solution mixing.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f8"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f9-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 9.</label>
<caption><p>BP-CNT films subjected to compression and tension. (<bold>a</bold>
) change in voltage as function of stress. (<bold>b</bold>
) change in voltage as function of strain [<xref rid="b96-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">96</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f9"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f10-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 10.</label>
<caption><p>Voltage output of MWCNT film and foil strain gauge under applied strain [<xref rid="b105-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">105</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f10"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f11-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 11.</label>
<caption><p>Relative change of resistance of MWCNT strain gauges dispersed in different surfactants.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f11"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f12-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 12.</label>
<caption><p>MWCNT films deposited by inkjet printing. (<bold>a</bold>
) Optical microscopy image of a CNT film with a size of 2 mm × 30 mm. (<bold>b</bold>
) corresponding SEM image of the CNT film. (<bold>c</bold>
) change of resistance <italic>vs.</italic>
strain at first and second cycle in tenile test redrawn from [<xref rid="b110-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">110</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f12"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f13-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 13.</label>
<caption><p>Strain measurement setup [<xref rid="b110-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">110</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f13"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f14-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 14.</label>
<caption><p>Resistance <italic>vs.</italic>
sonication time. (<bold>a</bold>
) for 0.1 wt% SWCNT dispersed in SDS. (<bold>b</bold>
) for 1 wt% MWCNT dispersed in SDS [<xref rid="b64-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f14"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f15-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 15.</label>
<caption><p>The relative change in film resistance <italic>versus</italic>
the applied strain for drop casted CNT films. (<bold>a</bold>
) MWCNT (IoLiTec Ionic Liquids Technologies GmbH) films prepared by using MWCNT dispersions with 1 wt% MWCNTs, 0.5 wt% SDS and 15-min sonication time. (<bold>b</bold>
) SWCNT (Array) films prepared using the SWCNT dispersion with 0.1 wt% SWCNTs, 0.5 wt% SDS and 15-min sonication time [<xref rid="b64-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f15"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f16-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 16.</label>
<caption><p>Resistance–strain curves for spray-coated SWCNT film strain gauges under (<bold>a</bold>
) tensile. (<bold>b</bold>
) compressive load [<xref rid="b93-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">93</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f16"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="f17-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Figure 17.</label>
<caption><p>Numerical calculation of resistance change depending on strain for different MWCNT concentrations [<xref rid="b31-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>
].</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="sensors-14-10042f17"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="t1-sensors-14-10042" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label>
<caption><p>Experimental parameters for CNT/polymer film and corresponding strain sensor parameters. Acronyms: PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate), PVA (polyvinyl acetate), PSS (poly(sodium 4-styrene-sulfonate)), PSF (Polysulfon), PEO (polyethylene oxide).</p>
</caption>
<table frame="box" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Filler (Diameter; Length)</bold>
</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Polymer</bold>
</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Fabrication Method</bold>
</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Conductivity [S/m]</bold>
</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Gauge Factor (Amount of CNT)</bold>
</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref.</bold>
</th>
</tr>
<tr><th valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SWCNT</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PMMA</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">buckypaper filled with PMMA</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.3 (0.5 wt.%)-1 (10 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b10-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SWCNT</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PVA, PSS</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">solution mixing; layer by layer, thin film</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.208</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b118-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">118</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SWCNT</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PVA, PSS</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">solution mixing; layer by layer, thin film</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.805</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b119-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">119</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="6" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (60–100 nm; 0.5–500 µm)</td>
<td rowspan="6" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">PMMA</td>
<td rowspan="6" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">bulk mixing then melt processing (film: 0.127 mm)</td>
<td rowspan="6" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15.32 (1 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="6" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b120-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">120</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.59 (3 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.26 (5 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.27 (6 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.9 (8 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.44 (10 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MWCNT (10–20 nm; Several µm)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (three roll mill); mould casting</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 × 10<sup>−4</sup>
</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.75 (0.1 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b121-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">121</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (10–20 nm; Several µm)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (three roll); mould casting</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 × 10<sup>−4</sup>
</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5 (0.1 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b122-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">122</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.32 × 10<sup>−2</sup>
</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.5 (0.3 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="4" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (10 nm; 5–15 µm) small and curved shapes</td>
<td rowspan="4" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td rowspan="4" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (planetary mixer); mould casting</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.07 × 10<sup>−4</sup>
(5 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.9 (5 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="9" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b113-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">113</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.92 × 10<sup>−3</sup>
(7 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5 (7 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.33 × 10<sup>−3</sup>
(10 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.8 (10 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.49 × 10<sup>−2</sup>
(15 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.4 (15 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="5" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (40–90 nm; 5–10 µm) straight shapes</td>
<td rowspan="5" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td rowspan="5" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (planetary mixer); mould casting</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.4 (5 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.4 (1 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65.8 (7 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.6 (4 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95.2 (10 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.2 (5 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">125.1 (15 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.8 (7 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.2 (10 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (40 nm; 4–6 µm)</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (planetary mixer); mould casting</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02 (1 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.4 (1 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b31-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (2 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12 (2 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10 (5 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (5 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (40–90 nm; 10–30 µm)</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">epoxy</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1"><italic>in-situ</italic>
polymerization (planetary mixer)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3 × 10<sup>−2</sup>
(1 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.4 (1 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b123-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">123</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.13 (2 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11.6 (2 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.4 (5 wt.%)</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.2 (5 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (4–13 nm; 1–4 µm)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">PSF</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">solution mixing then mould casting in AC electrical field (aligned)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.68 (0.5 wt.%)</td>
<td rowspan="4" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b45-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.82 (0.75 wt.%)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT (4–13 nm; 1–4 µm)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">PSF</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">solution mixing then mould casting; (randomly distributed)</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.73 (0.75 wt.%, <0.5% strain)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.57 (0.75 wt.%, >0.5% strain)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="bottom" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><hr></hr>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">MWCNT</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">PEO</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">solution mixing; mould casting</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">-----</td>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.7 (1.12 wt.%, <0.85% strain)</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top" align="left" colspan="1">[<xref rid="b112-sensors-14-10042" ref-type="bibr">112</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.6 (2.9 wt.%, <2% strain)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50 (2.9 wt.%, >2% strain)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
</floats-group>
</pmc>
<affiliations><list><country><li>Tunisie</li>
</country>
</list>
<tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Al Hamry, Ammar" sort="Al Hamry, Ammar" uniqKey="Al Hamry A" first="Ammar" last="Al-Hamry">Ammar Al-Hamry</name>
<name sortKey="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" sort="Benchirouf, Abderahmane" uniqKey="Benchirouf A" first="Abderahmane" last="Benchirouf">Abderahmane Benchirouf</name>
<name sortKey="Bu, Lei" sort="Bu, Lei" uniqKey="Bu L" first="Lei" last="Bu">Lei Bu</name>
<name sortKey="Dinh, Trong Nghia" sort="Dinh, Trong Nghia" uniqKey="Dinh T" first="Trong Nghia" last="Dinh">Trong Nghia Dinh</name>
<name sortKey="Gerlach, Carina" sort="Gerlach, Carina" uniqKey="Gerlach C" first="Carina" last="Gerlach">Carina Gerlach</name>
<name sortKey="Kanoun, Olfa" sort="Kanoun, Olfa" uniqKey="Kanoun O" first="Olfa" last="Kanoun">Olfa Kanoun</name>
<name sortKey="Muller, Christian" sort="Muller, Christian" uniqKey="Muller C" first="Christian" last="Müller">Christian Müller</name>
<name sortKey="Sanli, Abdulkadir" sort="Sanli, Abdulkadir" uniqKey="Sanli A" first="Abdulkadir" last="Sanli">Abdulkadir Sanli</name>
</noCountry>
<country name="Tunisie"><noRegion><name sortKey="Bouhamed, Ayda" sort="Bouhamed, Ayda" uniqKey="Bouhamed A" first="Ayda" last="Bouhamed">Ayda Bouhamed</name>
</noRegion>
</country>
</tree>
</affiliations>
</record>
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