Intracellular Redox State as Target for Anti-Influenza Therapy: Are Antioxidants Always Effective?
Identifieur interne : 000147 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 000146; suivant : 000148Intracellular Redox State as Target for Anti-Influenza Therapy: Are Antioxidants Always Effective?
Auteurs : Rossella Sgarbanti [Italie] ; Donatella Amatore [Italie] ; Ignacio Celestino [Italie] ; Maria Elena Marcocci [Italie] ; Alessandra Fraternale [Italie] ; Maria Rosa Ciriolo [Italie] ; Mauro Magnani [Italie] ; Raffaele Saladino [Italie] ; Enrico Garaci [Italie] ; Anna Teresa Palamara [Italie] ; Lucia Nencioni [Italie]Source :
- Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry [ 1568-0266 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
Influenza virus infections represent a big issue for public health since effective treatments are still lacking. In particular, the emergence of strains resistant to drugs limits the effectiveness of anti-influenza agents. For this reason, many efforts have been dedicated to the identification of new therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting the virus-host cell interactions. Oxidative stress is a characteristic of some viral infections including influenza. Because antioxidants defend cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species induced by different stimuli including pathogens, they represent interesting molecules to fight infectious diseases. However, most of the available studies have found that these would-be panaceas could actually exacerbate the diseases they claim to prevent, and have thus revealed "the dark side" of these molecules. This review article discusses the latest opportunities and drawbacks of the antioxidants used in anti-influenza therapy and new perspectives.
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DOI: 10.2174/1568026614666141203125211
PubMed: 25478883
PubMed Central: 4435240
Affiliations:
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Effective?</title><author><name sortKey="Sgarbanti, Rossella" sort="Sgarbanti, Rossella" uniqKey="Sgarbanti R" first="Rossella" last="Sgarbanti">Rossella Sgarbanti</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff1">IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Amatore, Donatella" sort="Amatore, Donatella" uniqKey="Amatore D" first="Donatella" last="Amatore">Donatella Amatore</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2">Ceinge, Advanced Biotechnology, Naples, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Ceinge, Advanced Biotechnology, Naples</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Naples</wicri:noRegion></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Celestino, Ignacio" sort="Celestino, Ignacio" uniqKey="Celestino I" first="Ignacio" last="Celestino">Ignacio Celestino</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2">Ceinge, Advanced Biotechnology, Naples, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Ceinge, Advanced Biotechnology, Naples</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Naples</wicri:noRegion></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Marcocci, Maria Elena" sort="Marcocci, Maria Elena" uniqKey="Marcocci M" first="Maria Elena" last="Marcocci">Maria Elena Marcocci</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 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Urbino</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Urbino</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Saladino, Raffaele" sort="Saladino, Raffaele" uniqKey="Saladino R" first="Raffaele" last="Saladino">Raffaele Saladino</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff6">Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Viterbo</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Viterbo</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Garaci, Enrico" sort="Garaci, Enrico" uniqKey="Garaci E" first="Enrico" last="Garaci">Enrico Garaci</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff1">IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Palamara, Anna Teresa" sort="Palamara, Anna Teresa" uniqKey="Palamara A" first="Anna Teresa" last="Palamara">Anna Teresa Palamara</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff1">IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Nencioni, Lucia" sort="Nencioni, Lucia" uniqKey="Nencioni L" first="Lucia" last="Nencioni">Lucia Nencioni</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Italie</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Rome</settlement><region nuts="2">Latium</region></placeName></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry</title><idno type="ISSN">1568-0266</idno><idno type="eISSN">1873-4294</idno><imprint><date when="2014">2014</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Influenza virus infections represent a big issue for public health since effective treatments are still lacking. In particular, the emergence of strains resistant to drugs limits the effectiveness of anti-influenza agents. For this reason, many efforts have been dedicated to the identification of new therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting the virus-host cell interactions. Oxidative stress is a characteristic of some viral infections including influenza. Because antioxidants defend cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species induced by different stimuli including pathogens, they represent interesting molecules to fight infectious diseases. However, most of the available studies have found that these would-be panaceas could actually exacerbate the diseases they claim to prevent, and have thus revealed "the dark side" of these molecules. This review article discusses the latest opportunities and drawbacks of the antioxidants used in anti-influenza therapy and new perspectives. </p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shaw, Ml" uniqKey="Shaw M">ML Shaw</name></author><author><name sortKey="Palese, P" uniqKey="Palese P">P Palese</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="De Clercq, E" uniqKey="De Clercq E">E De Clercq</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nencioni, L" uniqKey="Nencioni L">L Nencioni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sgarbanti, R" uniqKey="Sgarbanti R">R Sgarbanti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Amatore, D" uniqKey="Amatore D">D Amatore</name></author><author><name sortKey="Checconi, P" uniqKey="Checconi P">P Checconi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Celestino, I" uniqKey="Celestino I">I Celestino</name></author><author><name 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Curr Top Med Chem</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Curr Top Med Chem</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">CTMC</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1568-0266</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1873-4294</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Bentham Science Publishers</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25478883</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4435240</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">CTMC-14-2529</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2174/1568026614666141203125211</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Intracellular Redox State as Target for Anti-Influenza Therapy: Are Antioxidants Always Effective?</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sgarbanti</surname><given-names>Rossella</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="FN1">#</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Amatore</surname><given-names>Donatella</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="FN1">#</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Celestino</surname><given-names>Ignacio</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Marcocci</surname><given-names>Maria Elena</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Fraternale</surname><given-names>Alessandra</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ciriolo</surname><given-names>Maria Rosa</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">5</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Magnani</surname><given-names>Mauro</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Saladino</surname><given-names>Raffaele</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">6</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Garaci</surname><given-names>Enrico</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Palamara</surname><given-names>Anna Teresa</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Nencioni</surname><given-names>Lucia</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><label>1</label>IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Telematic University, Rome, Italy</aff><aff id="aff2"><label>2</label>Ceinge, Advanced Biotechnology, Naples, Italy</aff><aff id="aff3"><label>3</label>Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy</aff><aff id="aff4"><label>4</label>Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, Urbino, Italy</aff><aff id="aff5"><label>5</label>Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy</aff><aff id="aff6"><label>6</label>Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy</aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><label>*</label>Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy;
Tel: +390649694310-4311; Fax: +39064468625;
E-mail: <email xlink:href="annateresa.palamara@uniroma1.it">annateresa.palamara@uniroma1.it</email></corresp><fn id="FN1"><label>#</label><p>These authors contributed equally to this work.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epub"><month>11</month><year>2014</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>11</month><year>2014</year></pub-date><volume>14</volume><issue>22</issue><fpage>2529</fpage><lpage>2541</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>2</day><month>7</month><year>2014</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>29</day><month>10</month><year>2014</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>2</day><month>11</month><year>2014</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2014 Bentham Science Publishers </copyright-statement><copyright-year>2014</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Anna Teresa Palamara</copyright-holder><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/"><license-p>This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (<uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/</uri>) which permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Influenza virus infections represent a big issue for public health since effective treatments are still lacking. In particular, the emergence of strains resistant to drugs limits the effectiveness of anti-influenza agents. For this reason, many efforts have been dedicated to the identification of new therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting the virus-host cell interactions. Oxidative stress is a characteristic of some viral infections including influenza. Because antioxidants defend cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species induced by different stimuli including pathogens, they represent interesting molecules to fight infectious diseases. However, most of the available studies have found that these would-be panaceas could actually exacerbate the diseases they claim to prevent, and have thus revealed "the dark side" of these molecules. This review article discusses the latest opportunities and drawbacks of the antioxidants used in anti-influenza therapy and new perspectives. </p></abstract><kwd-group><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Anti-influenza therapy</kwd><kwd>Antioxidants</kwd><kwd>Antivirals</kwd><kwd>Influenza virus</kwd><kwd>Oxidative stress</kwd><kwd>Redox state.</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="F1" position="float"><label>Fig. (1)</label><caption><p><bold>Proposed molecular mechanism of GSH-C4 in inhibiting influenza virus replication.</bold> GSH-C4 arrested the folding of viral hemagglutinin
(HA): this disulfide-rich glycoprotein remained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as a reduced monomer, instead of undergoing
oligomerization. As a consequence, its insertion into the cell plasma-membrane was strongly reduced and the virus release was blocked. The
mechanism underlying GSH-C4 antiviral effect is related to the host-cell oxidoreductase, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). This protein
works in ER by helping the formation of disulphide bond during glycoprotein maturation [<xref rid="R11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="CTMC-14-2529_F1"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="T1" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>Relevant <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic> findings on antioxidants proposed as anti-influenza agents</p></caption><table frame="border" rules="all" width="100%"><thead><tr><th rowspan="2" colspan="1">Thiol Compounds and Pro-Drugs </th><th colspan="2" rowspan="1">Effect on Different Models of Influenza Virus Infection </th></tr><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>In vitro</italic></th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>In vivo</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Twenty-four h pre-incubation (5 to 15 mM): reduction of H5N1 virus-induced cytopathogenic effects, apoptosis and viral titer; reduction of pro-inflammatory molecules [<xref rid="R39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>, <xref rid="R40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>].<break></break>Pre- and post-treatment: decrease of pro-inflammatory cytokine production; weak decrease of viral titer; correlation with antioxidant activity [<xref rid="R41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>].<break></break>Post-treatment (15 mM): partial protection against H1N1 (2009) virus [<xref rid="R42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>].</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral or IP treatment (1g/Kg per day): reduction of influenza virus-induced lethal effects (alone or in combination with anti-viral) [<xref rid="R35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>-<xref rid="R38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>].<break></break>Oral administration (100 mg/Kg): no protection against H1N1 (2009) [<xref rid="R42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Glutathione (GSH) </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment (10 mM): strong reduction of viral titer and protein expression; increase of intracellular GSH levels in infected cells [<xref rid="R12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>, <xref rid="R13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral administration (50 mM): decrease of viral titer in both lung and trachea homogenates [<xref rid="R13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">GSH-C4 </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment(7.5-10 mM):<break></break>strong reduction of viral titer; impairment of influenza HA maturation; increase of intracellular GSH levels [<xref rid="R11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IP treatment (370 mg/Kg): reduction of mortality, viral titer in lungs and virus-induced inflammation [<xref rid="R11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PDTC </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment: inhibition of HA viral RNA, virus-induced apoptosis and ROS overproduction [<xref rid="R72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IP pre-treatment (75, 150, 200 mg/Kg): strong increase of survival; decrease of viral titer in lungs [<xref rid="R71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Polyphenols </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Resveratrol (RV) and analogue </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment (20 mg/ml): strong decrease of viral titer; no correlation with antioxidant activity [<xref rid="R90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref>].<break></break>Post treatment with analogue (10 mg/ml): impairment of vRNP traffic; partial restore of virus-induced GSH depletion [<xref rid="R95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IP treatment (1 mg/kg/day): significant improve of survival; decrease of pulmonary viral yields [<xref rid="R90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Curcumin and analogue </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pre-treatment (30 mM): strong reduction of virus yields [<xref rid="R96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref>].<break></break>Post-treatment (20 mg/ml) with analogue: block of NP in the nucleus; inhibition of late protein synthesis; impairment of HA maturation; restore of reducing condition in the cells [<xref rid="R95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hydroxytyrosol </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment with catechol derivatives of hydroxytyrosol (IC50=30 mM): reduction of viral titer [<xref rid="R97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tocopherols </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vitamin E </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IP pre-treatment (60, 120, 240 mg/Kg): protection from increased virus induced-lipid peroxidation [<xref rid="R113" ref-type="bibr">113</xref>, <xref rid="R114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref>].<break></break>Aged-mice fed with 500 ppm (supplemented diet): increase of antiviral activity; enhancement of Th1 response [<xref rid="R115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref>, <xref rid="R116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref>] </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Trolox </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-treatment: decrease of ROS overproduction; no inhibition of viral titer and virus-induced apoptosis [<xref rid="R72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vitamin C </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Weak inhibition of viral replication;<break></break>Treatment with dehydroascorbic acid (40 mM): strong antiviral activity due to toxic effects [<xref rid="R108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Enzymes </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NADPH oxidase (NOX) </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Treatment with NOX4 inhibitor or NOX4 silencing: reduction of viral titer; inhibition of ROS production [<xref rid="R14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>]. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NOX2-deficient mice: significant reduction in lung injury; improvement in lung function; lower airway inflammation and alveolar epithelial apoptosis [<xref rid="R134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref>, <xref rid="R137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref>]. </td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Superoxide dismutase (SOD) </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N.A. </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Modified Cu/Zn SOD: reduction of lethality of infection [<xref rid="R141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref>].<break></break>Naturally glycosylated Cu/Zn SOD in combination with rimantadine or polyphenol-rich extract: decrease of mortality rates and lung viral titer [<xref rid="R142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref>, <xref rid="R143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref>].<break></break>Aerosol of MnSOD in combination with ribavirin: inhibition of infection [<xref rid="R144" ref-type="bibr">144</xref>]. </td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="TF1"><p>IP: intraperitoneal administration</p></fn><fn id="TF2"><p>N.A.: Not available</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>Italie</li></country><region><li>Latium</li></region><settlement><li>Rome</li></settlement></list><tree><country name="Italie"><region name="Latium"><name sortKey="Sgarbanti, Rossella" sort="Sgarbanti, Rossella" uniqKey="Sgarbanti R" first="Rossella" last="Sgarbanti">Rossella Sgarbanti</name></region><name sortKey="Amatore, Donatella" sort="Amatore, Donatella" uniqKey="Amatore D" first="Donatella" last="Amatore">Donatella Amatore</name><name sortKey="Amatore, Donatella" sort="Amatore, Donatella" uniqKey="Amatore D" first="Donatella" last="Amatore">Donatella Amatore</name><name sortKey="Celestino, Ignacio" sort="Celestino, Ignacio" uniqKey="Celestino I" first="Ignacio" last="Celestino">Ignacio Celestino</name><name sortKey="Celestino, Ignacio" sort="Celestino, Ignacio" uniqKey="Celestino I" first="Ignacio" last="Celestino">Ignacio Celestino</name><name sortKey="Ciriolo, Maria Rosa" sort="Ciriolo, Maria Rosa" uniqKey="Ciriolo M" first="Maria Rosa" last="Ciriolo">Maria Rosa Ciriolo</name><name sortKey="Ciriolo, Maria Rosa" sort="Ciriolo, Maria Rosa" uniqKey="Ciriolo M" first="Maria Rosa" last="Ciriolo">Maria Rosa Ciriolo</name><name sortKey="Fraternale, Alessandra" sort="Fraternale, Alessandra" uniqKey="Fraternale A" first="Alessandra" last="Fraternale">Alessandra Fraternale</name><name sortKey="Garaci, Enrico" sort="Garaci, Enrico" uniqKey="Garaci E" first="Enrico" last="Garaci">Enrico Garaci</name><name sortKey="Magnani, Mauro" sort="Magnani, Mauro" uniqKey="Magnani M" first="Mauro" last="Magnani">Mauro Magnani</name><name sortKey="Marcocci, Maria Elena" sort="Marcocci, Maria Elena" uniqKey="Marcocci M" first="Maria Elena" last="Marcocci">Maria Elena Marcocci</name><name sortKey="Nencioni, Lucia" sort="Nencioni, Lucia" uniqKey="Nencioni L" first="Lucia" last="Nencioni">Lucia Nencioni</name><name sortKey="Palamara, Anna Teresa" sort="Palamara, Anna Teresa" uniqKey="Palamara A" first="Anna Teresa" last="Palamara">Anna Teresa Palamara</name><name sortKey="Palamara, Anna Teresa" sort="Palamara, Anna Teresa" uniqKey="Palamara A" first="Anna Teresa" last="Palamara">Anna Teresa Palamara</name><name sortKey="Saladino, Raffaele" sort="Saladino, Raffaele" uniqKey="Saladino R" first="Raffaele" last="Saladino">Raffaele Saladino</name></country></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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