An empirical investigation of the impact of nonverbal communication on service evaluation
Identifieur interne : 003608 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 003607; suivant : 003609An empirical investigation of the impact of nonverbal communication on service evaluation
Auteurs : Mark Gabbott ; Gillian HoggSource :
- European Journal of Marketing [ 0309-0566 ] ; 2000-04-01.
Abstract
Considers the role of nonverbal communication in consumers evaluation of service encounters. Nonverbal communication has been extensively studied in the psychology and psychotherapy disciplines and has been shown to have a central effect on participants perceptions of an event. As services are essentially interpersonal interactions it follows that nonverbal communication will play a major part in service evaluation. Uses an experimental methodology based on video scenarios to demonstrate the effect of this type of communication on consumers. The results indicate significant differences in respondents reactions to the scenario according to the nonverbal behaviour of the service provider.
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DOI: 10.1108/03090560010311911
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The results indicate significant differences in respondents reactions to the scenario according to the nonverbal behaviour of the service provider.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>emerald</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Mark Gabbott</name><affiliations><json:string>Department of Business and Economics, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, and</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Gillian Hogg</name><affiliations><json:string>Department of Marketing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><subject><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Services marketing</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Nonverbal communication</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Perceptions</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Consumer behaviour</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Customer satisfaction</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>Service quality</value></json:item></subject><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><abstract>Considers the role of nonverbal communication in consumers evaluation of service encounters. 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Do Not Edit! --><article dtd-version="1.0" xml:lang="en" article-type="research-article"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ejm</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="doi">10.1108/ejm</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>European Journal of Marketing</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0309-0566</issn><publisher><publisher-name>MCB UP Ltd</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1108/03090560010311911</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="original-pdf">0070340307.pdf</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="filename">0070340307</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="type-of-publication"><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">research-article</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Research paper</compound-subject-part></compound-subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="subject"><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-MARK</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Marketing</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><subj-group><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-MSM</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Marketing strategy/methods</compound-subject-part></compound-subject></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>An empirical investigation of the impact of non‐verbal communication on service evaluation</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><string-name><given-names>Mark</given-names> <surname>Gabbott</surname></string-name><aff>Department of Business and Economics, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, and</aff></contrib><x></x><contrib contrib-type="author"><string-name><given-names>Gillian</given-names> <surname>Hogg</surname></string-name><aff>Department of Marketing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><day>01</day><month>04</month><year>2000</year></pub-date><volume>34</volume><issue>3/4</issue><fpage>384</fpage><lpage>398</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>© MCB UP Limited</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2000</copyright-year><license license-type="publisher"><license-p></license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="03090560010311911.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><p>Considers the role of non‐verbal communication in consumers’ evaluation of service encounters. Non‐verbal communication has been extensively studied in the psychology and psychotherapy disciplines and has been shown to have a central effect on participants’ perceptions of an event. As services are essentially interpersonal interactions it follows that non‐verbal communication will play a major part in service evaluation. Uses an experimental methodology based on video scenarios to demonstrate the effect of this type of communication on consumers. The results indicate significant differences in respondents’ reactions to the scenario according to the non‐verbal behaviour of the service provider.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Services marketing</kwd><x>, </x><kwd>Non‐verbal communication</kwd><x>, </x><kwd>Perceptions</kwd><x>, </x><kwd>Consumer behaviour</kwd><x>, </x><kwd>Customer satisfaction</kwd><x>, </x><kwd>Service quality</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>peer-reviewed</meta-name><meta-value>no</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta><meta-name>academic-content</meta-name><meta-value>yes</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta><meta-name>rightslink</meta-name><meta-value>included</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>The implicit assumption in the quest for customer satisfaction and service quality is that there is a link between positive evaluation and re‐purchase behaviour (Zeithaml <italic>et al.</italic>, 1996). As a consequence, understanding how and what aspects of the service product impact on customers’ evaluation is a critical first step. There are a number of service product attributes which have been identified as contributing towards the customer’s overall evaluation, these include the service environment (see Bitner, 1990; Russell and Mehrabian, 1976), service employees (see Bowen and Lawler, 1992; Bowen <italic>et al.,</italic>, 1989), and the impact of other customers (see Booms and Bitner, 1981; Hui and Bateson, 1991; Langeard <italic>et al.,</italic> 1987). The attributes of the service product have been grouped under headings such as process versus outcome dimensions, core versus peripheral product dimensions and functional versus technical qualities, (Grönroos, 1991; Iacobucci <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994; Zeithaml, 1988). While these groupings are not identical there are strong conceptual parallels between them since they all allude to an evaluative relationship between how the service is provided and what the customer actually receives. The problem with discussing “how” the service is delivered is that there are both soft and hard components of the delivery process. While we can prescribe many “hard” aspects of the process, including the sequence of events, the associated behaviours and even the words used, there are also many “soft” elements of the service encounter, which cannot be prescribed and can dramatically alter the way that the customer perceives the service.</p><p>The “soft” process elements are concentrated on the individual service provider and the interpersonal or quasi‐interpersonal exchange with the customer. This aspect of the soft process presents the greatest challenges to researchers as they embody the full range of inter‐personal behaviour and also tend to be highly heterogeneous. According to Klaus (1985), interpersonal service encounters comprise both task and “ceremonial” elements, in which the former relate to the economic exchange and the latter psychological satisfaction. They are primarily social occasions which allow strangers to interact and, as Czepiel (1990) points out, frequently the social nature of the exchange appears to overshadow the economic. It is acknowledged within the service quality literature that an important part of consumer satisfaction with the service is related to aspects of this personal relationship. Indeed, three of Zeithaml <italic>et al.</italic>’s (1990) five dimensions of service quality relate to interpersonal aspects of exchange; empathy, assurance, and responsiveness.</p><p>At the heart of any evaluative process is the consumers’ perception of the service received. Underlying the evaluation of any human exchange is a complex language of behaviours, which communicate meaning and provide a message on which evaluations are based. This language is non‐verbal and part of everyday social behaviour and, therefore, also a component of every interpersonal service encounter. In an attempt to understand the interpersonal aspects of the exchange, the idea of services as drama has gained wide‐scale acceptance in the services marketing literature. Developed from the social interactionist perspective by Grove and Fisk (1983), dramaturgy extends role theory by placing it within a staged setting, the service encounter. The idea of roles in marketing research is not new and has been reviewed by a number of authors in terms of the cues that guide and direct individual behaviour in a social setting (see, for example, Lutz and Kakkar, 1976; Solomon <italic>et al.</italic>, 1985). The dramaturgical approach depicts social behaviour as a theatrical performance in which actors perform to certain roles to an audience. In this perspective, the action (service encounter) takes place within a theatre (servicescape) and the performance of the service requires actors, audience, script, setting, rehearsal, appearances, and importantly, authenticity. What is missing from the current dramaturgy literature, however, is the non‐verbal behaviour of the actors, which is a key element in any performance. Indeed Bentley (1968) concludes that life and theatre contain all of the same elements, and theatre, therefore, is merely a simulation of the basic components of social interaction. A key part in the maintaining “truth” of the performance and the illusion of the reality of the role lies in the non‐verbal presentation of the actor (Jones, 1996). This non‐verbal content has two elements, body language as illustrated by mime, and paralinguistics or the conveyance of meaning through vocal tone, pitch etc., as illustrated by radio drama. The purpose of this paper is to review the literature available from the psychology and anthropology literature on the impact of non‐verbal behaviour on interpersonal interaction and to apply this to the context of service encounters. Results are then presented of a preliminary exploration of this issue using an experimental methodology to compare consumers’ responses to two scenarios differing only on the basis of the non‐verbal behaviour of the service provider.</p></sec><sec><title>Non‐verbal communication</title><p>Non‐verbal communication (NVC) takes place every time one person interacts with another, it may be intentional or unintentional and is part of the rapid stream of communication that passes between two interacting individuals. The interpretation of this communication has been shown to have a central effect on participants’ perceptions of the event and has been extensively studied in the psychology and psychotherapy disciplines (see, for example, Argyle, 1994; Delmonte, 1991; Giles and Robinson, 1990; Vogelaar and Silverman, 1984, Hargie <italic>et al.</italic>, 1987). Despite the volume of research available, studies of non‐verbal behaviour in the marketing discipline have been relatively few. Considering that personal interaction between purchaser and provider is central to most service encounters and that NVC will always take place where two individuals interact, it follows that this element of human communication is critical to understanding how a service is perceived and evaluated</p><p>Although there are a number of definitions of NVC, in its broadest sense it is communication that transcends the bare elements of the written or spoken word. It encompasses a number of aspects of body language including facial expression, eye contact, posture, gesture and inter‐personal distance (Mehrabian, 1972). To these can be added a number of factors associated with the delivery of speech, for example stress, loudness and intonation. In combination these components modify the semantic content of the exchange; indeed Fromkin and Rodman (1983) suggest that up to 90 per cent of the communicative process takes place non‐verbally. Unlike the spoken word this form of communication is not only constant, but is projected and received via a large number of different channels. In summary non‐verbal influence can be categorised into four broad areas: proxemics, the use of personal space and distance; kinesics, body postures and movements; oculesics, communicative aspects of eye behaviour (gaze and movement); and vocalics or para‐languistic cues, such as vocal tone and intonation. The key to these behaviours is that they convey meaning and thus have a direct effect on how the parties conduct themselves during the exchange. The extent of their impact, however, depends on accurate projection and interpretation by the parties involved.</p><p>NVC is in effect a series of cues that are encoded by the sender, either consciously or unconsciously, and subsequently decoded by the receiver. Communication and reception of these messages happens continuously at both sides of the dyad forming a second level of conversation whose effectiveness is ultimately dependent on the accurate coding and decoding of the signals. The problem is that within this basic paradigm are a number of possibilities for a breakdown in the discourse. At a simple level the NVC could be misunderstood; for example, lack of eye contact could be interpreted as disinterest rather than embarrassment or distraction, and vice versa. At a more complex level the breakdown can occur where verbal and non‐verbal messages are not synchronized, i.e. when two forms of communication contradict each other. As NVC is generally considered to be more credible as it is less controllable, it is this part of the exchange that will carry more weight in decoding underlying meaning in this situation.</p><sec><title>Factors affecting NVC</title><p>The characteristics of the individuals involved and their response to coding and decoding signals govern the role of NVC in any exchange. Three specific variables can be identified as impacting on the nature of NVC during the exchange, gender: culture and personal traits.</p></sec><sec><title>Gender</title><p>One of the most important determinants of NVC communication is gender. Put simply, men and women encode and interpret communication cues differently (Eisenberg and Lennon, 1983). Men speaking to men will use different NVC from men speaking to women, and women have been demonstrated to be more trusting and open with other women. Women generally smile more (and frown less), approach closer than men, fidget less and make more eye contact, especially when listening. Males have a higher level of touch avoidance than women and women respond more positively to (appropriate) touch as they perceive it to be friendly (Argyle, 1994). These differences are important to service providers, especially when considering the establishment of empathy or control.</p></sec><sec><title>Culture</title><p>Cultural norms and learned behaviours play an extremely large part in NVC and there is evidence to show that people can read more accurately the non‐verbal behaviour of others who are culturally, linguistically and racially similar (Wolfgang, 1984). It is evident that some behaviours are universal while others are not; for example, Keating <italic>et al.</italic> (1981) found that smiling was interpreted as happiness in all of the cultures studied. However, in studies to establish “display rules”, i.e. when emotional expressions should be used, wide variations were detected between cultures. For example, the Japanese display rule is that negative emotions should not be shown; thus the smile is used as a “mask” for negative emotions, such as embarrassment or reserve (Ramsey, 1984). While it is possible for anthropologists to trace and identify the reasons for these differences, for services managers it is more important to recognise that such differences exist, and can potentially change the perception of the encounter. Awareness of the potential for cultural misinterpretation is important, therefore, especially in services that require a high degree of empathy, such as counselling or medical care.</p></sec><sec><title>Personal characteristics</title><p>Because NVC is an inter‐personal behaviour there are a number of personal characteristics which will impact on its encoding and the decoding of others’ communication. All social behaviour is governed by rules (Argyle, 1983) and as individuals we learn and adapt these rules throughout the course of our lives according to experience. Linked to this are the personal traits that influence the way that individuals interact with the situation (Argyle, 1994). This concept has two dimensions, communication competence and communication apprehension (see Boorom <italic>et al.,</italic> 1998). Communication competence refers to the ability to follow and make sense of conversations, the degree of interaction involvement and the amount of turn taking and yielding, which determines the effectiveness of the interaction for each party. Communication apprehensiveness, by contrast, is defined as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey, 1984, p. 14). This type of apprehension varies on a continuum from a trait, which is a generalised unease about communication situations, to a state of fear in a specific communication situation. Individuals with communication apprehension have poor cognitive processing during interactions and have been found to differ on three behavioural characteristics: attentiveness, perceptiveness, and responsiveness. This implies that certain people will be less able to receive both verbal and non‐verbal information, to interpret and assign meaning to what they observe and to formulate their own messages effectively. In understanding service evaluation, therefore, it is necessary to take account of the way that individuals react in service situations.</p><p>The final personal trait is the way that the receiver perceives the attractiveness of the sender (DeShields <italic>et al.,</italic> 1996; Marlowe <italic>et al.,</italic> 1996). Studies in persuasion research have demonstrated that the impact of a communication is directly affected by how the receiver decodes the attractiveness of the spokesperson. Attractiveness in this context goes beyond the simple physical appearance of the individual and incorporates similarity, familiarity and liking. There is empirical evidence to show that persons who are perceived as being attractive get more donations when soliciting for charitable organisations, are treated more cordially as salespersons by buyers and are assumed to be more likeable (Reingen and Kernan, 1994). What is not clear from this research is how this notion of attractiveness influences consumer satisfaction with a particular service offering. Landy and Signall (1974) demonstrated that the effect of attractiveness did not over‐ride features of the product as an evaluative criterion. Similarly Joseph (1982) reported that, when a spokesperson was perceived to be an “expert”, physical attractiveness had no effect on preferences; however, when the person was not seen as an expert, attractiveness was an issue. A generalized state of attractiveness is associated with the perceived ability to perform certain tasks (Webster and Driskell, 1983) and, on this basis, customers who perceive the service provider to be attractive are more likely to assess the service positively.</p><p>Based on the above discussion, non‐verbal communication is clearly an important consideration for service marketers. Not only can it enhance service delivery, but it can also destroy erstwhile well designed and researched delivery systems. It follows therefore that customers’ responses to service delivery, perceived service quality or satisfaction, are dependent on their interpretation of various non‐verbal signals during the encounter and their decoding of the meaning associated with them. In an effort to explore this further, this research attempts to assess whether differences in non‐verbal behaviour alone can affect satisfaction and perceived service quality in a specific service context. Specifically, in this research we:</p><list list-type="bullet"><list-item><label>• </label><p>examine the effect of non‐verbal behaviour on subjects’ perceptions of a service event;</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>assess subjects’ responses to different aspects of the service delivery;</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>investigate the impact of culture, gender and personal characteristics on the overall evaluation.</p></list-item></list></sec></sec><sec><title>Research design</title><p>In order to address some of the practical and ethical problems in conducting research into behaviours that are essentially subliminal and frequently unconscious, the research employed an experimental approach. The apparent rarity of experiments in management research would suggest that the application of this method in management research is problematic. The chief limitation of the experimental method is that the relevant behaviour is not observed in its everyday setting and the artificiality of the observation is likely to affect the way in which the participants respond to stimuli. For some this limitation is a devastating critique of the method and one which invalidates the use of the true experiment in social science research. However, the advantages of the experimental method are in allowing the researcher to isolate a particular phenomenon (the independent variable under investigation), and examine its effects by controlling the influence of extraneous variables. The internal validity of the experiment is based on the fact that similar subjects experience the same stimuli, with a minimum of distortion, in a manner which is both ethically and practically feasible (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). The attraction for social scientists is that the method allows for an unusually powerful isolation of causal relationships. As Voss <italic>et al.</italic> (1998) point out, most attempts to manipulate service performance have relied on written scenarios, occasionally supported with visual cues. Bateson and Hui (1992), however, provided empirical evidence that videotapes offer an ecologically valid method to simulate service exchanges in an experimental setting. In this study it was important to be able to manipulate the non‐verbal characteristics of the service scenario as the independent variable. In order to achieve this manipulation two service scenarios were prepared, based on a common service setting. A professional actress was employed to prepare and act out the check‐in experience at a hotel reception. The camera was positioned to give only the customer’s perspective, i.e. the camera is the customer (see also Voss <italic>et al.,</italic> 1998).</p><p>The common components of the scenario were:</p><list list-type="order"><list-item><label>1. </label><p>(1) <italic>The setting</italic>: reception style desk at waist height, with computer screen and keyboard, anonymous single colour background.</p></list-item><list-item><label>2. </label><p>(2) <italic>The receptionist</italic>: aged 30, female, dressed in dark suit with light blouse, standing behind the reception desk, face to the camera.</p></list-item><list-item><label>3. </label><p>(3) <italic>The script</italic>: a one‐sided service encounter (customer silent) including welcome, registration, card imprint, handing‐over of keys and a general enquiry about hotel facilities.</p></list-item><list-item><label>4. </label><p>(4) <italic>The props</italic>: reception desk, computer keyboard and hidden terminal screen and flowers situated to the right.</p></list-item><list-item><label>5. </label><p>(5) <italic>Time</italic>: each video lasted a total of two minutes and 17 seconds.</p></list-item></list><p>Before filming, the actress was briefed about the nature of the non‐verbal messages to be conveyed and rehearsed the sequences which varied according to behaviours previously identified from the literature (Argyle, 1994; Giles and Robinson, 1990; Mehrabian, 1972). Specifically, these included the use of altered posture (kinesics), eye contact (oculesics), smiling and nodding, vocal tone and intonation (para‐linguistics). Owing to the limitations of the experimental method using video exposure it was not possible to simulate haptics (the effect of touch). The only approximation for this was the difference between the receptionist handing the customer a room key and laying it on the desk. After several “takes” all the video scenarios were piloted independently with small groups to assess both the validity of the service situation and their reaction to the NVC characteristics of the scenarios. Two scenarios were selected as the experimental instruments.</p><p>A questionnaire was then developed which asked the participants to evaluate the service scenario. The questionnaire was divided into three parts. In the first part, respondents were asked to rate aspects of the service, the service organisation and the service employee using amended service dimensions of PZB, responsiveness, assurance, tangibles and empathy (RATE) as the basis of their evaluation. These dimensions were adopted as they provide a framework for service evaluation that recognises the multifaceted nature of service evaluation. While there has been widescale criticism of the SERVQUAL scale using these dimensions developed by Zeithaml <italic>et al.</italic> (see, for example, Buttle, 1996), the need for any form of service evaluation to take account of the multifaceted nature of service dimensions and the complex nature of the service encounter has been recognised by a number of authors (see, for example, Iacobucci <italic>et al.,</italic> 1994). In order to account for variation in personal characteristics of customers, the second section of the questionnaire included an adapted version of the Communication Apprehension and Involvement scales developed by McCroskey (1984). In the final section respondents were asked for information regarding gender, culture, age and experience of checking into hotels. None of the questions specifically asked about the non‐verbal behaviour of the provider, rather they focused on the response to the service provided.</p><p>In accordance with the “true” experimental method (see Gill and Johnson, 1991) it was necessary to identify two comparable groups to whom the video scenarios could be exposed and to control for as many extraneous variables as possible. Two large student classes were each shown one version of the video at the same time in April 1998. They were not informed that the experiment concerned non‐verbal behaviour. Once they had watched the video they were then given the questionnaire to complete. A total of 377 questionnaires were entered into the analysis, 203 relating to the positive scenario and 174 relating to the negative scenario. From the piloting of the videos it was evident that the paralinguistic cues were frequently perceived to be more powerful than the body language, i.e. that vocal tone and intonation may over‐ride the aspects of body language such as stance, eye contact and facial expression. As a result the experiment was repeated with four smaller groups, two of which heard the sound track (either positive or negative) but did not see the picture and two of which viewed the tape without sound. No significant differences were observed between the mean scores of these groups and the main experimental group. Given this result and the strong inter‐relationship between tone of voice and body language, we conclude that it is feasible to analyse the effect of NVC on customer evaluation as an overall effect, rather than a series of individual effects.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><sec><title>Perceptions of service delivery</title><p>The first research objective was to examine the effect of non‐verbal behaviour on subjects’ perceptions of a service event. Each subject was asked to rate their responses to 17 service dimensions portrayed on the video they were shown rated on a 1 to 5 Likert scale. The difference in responses to the two service scenarios was tested using an independent samples <italic>T</italic>‐test, the results of which are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_0070340307001">Table I</xref>. The results of the <italic>T</italic>‐test indicate there is a significant difference between respondents’ assessment of the service they saw in the video, which differed only on the non‐verbal behaviour of the service provider portrayed. On this basis we can conclude that the NVC influences customer evaluation of the whole service experience and is therefore highly relevant in understanding service quality perceptions and evaluation. Asked if they would be satisfied with the service provided, 78 per cent of those who saw the positive scenario agreed that they would be either satisfied or very satisfied, with only 2 per cent indicating dissatisfaction. In comparison only 1 per cent of those who saw the negative scenario indicated that they would be satisfied with the service and 86 per cent said they would be dissatisfied. Similarly, when asked about their overall impression of the hotel 68.8 per cent of the positive respondents had a favourable impression compared to only 0.6 per cent of the negative group.</p></sec><sec><title>Service dimensions</title><p>The second research question addressed the subjects responses to different aspects of the service. The questionnaire included four of the five dimensions of service quality proposed by ZPB. The reliability dimension was not included in the questionnaire, as, in terms of the experience portrayed on the video, it was not possible for the respondents to assess the service outcome. The sentences were grouped according to their membership of the four dimensions. A MANOVA procedure was used to determine whether there were differences between the groups across the RATER variable sets. The items were entered into a series of four MANOVA procedures using treatment scenario as the independent variable. The results are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_0070340307002">Table II</xref>.</p><p>MANOVA is a multivariate technique that compares groups according to their reactions over a series of variables. In this case, it was used to determine whether there was an overall effect across the range of RATE variables according to the scenario seen. As the MANOVA analysis provides significant main effects for each of the RATE dimensions, we can conclude that non‐verbal communication of the service provider changed the respondents’ perceptions of the service on each of the four dimensions included. When analysing the between, subjects effects it was apparent that the only two variables which were not significantly affected by the non‐verbal communication of the provider were the perception of how busy she was and whether she was perceived to be appropriately dressed. The extension of the result is that evaluation seems concentrated on personal service aspects and not tangibles or the service environment.</p></sec><sec><title>Individual characteristics</title><p>The final research objective was to investigate the impact of culture, gender and personal characteristics on the overall evaluation of the service observed. Owing to the difficulties in operationalising culture in this context respondents were asked to state their nationality. These were then coded into two cultural groups; Western (including US, Australasian and European respondents) Pacific Eastern (including Asian, Chinese, Japanese). While this may be considered to be an arbitrary classification, it reflects the cultural affinity zones suggested by Usunier (1996) and the composition of the group. Clearly nationality may not be a good indicator of culture, but the characteristics of the sample, resident only temporarily and retaining original nationality, made this an acceptable proxy. Using culture as a covariate, it was observed that there is a significant difference in response to four of the RATER variables. Further analysis demonstrated that the Eastern cultural group consistently rated the service provider as more interested in the customer, busier and friendlier than the Western group. By contrast, the Western group consistently viewed the service provider as more reliable regardless of the scenario observed. A similar analysis using gender as a covariate indicated that there were no significant differences as to how men and women perceived the service observed (chi square = 7.016, 4df, <italic>p</italic> = 0.135).</p><p>The personal characteristics were stated in relation to communication competence divided into communication apprehensiveness and communication involvement (see Boorom <italic>et al.,</italic> 1998). The sample was divided into high, medium and low communication competence by summing response scores to the scale items. Competence was then used as the fixed factor in a MANOVA in order to investigate whether there was any difference in the degree of response to the scenarios, i.e. whether communication competency produced exaggerated response. The results of this analysis, however, provided no evidence that communication competent individuals were more sensitive to the impact of non‐verbal behaviour within each scenario (communication involvement <italic>F</italic> = 0.864, df = 30:718, <italic>p</italic> = 0.677) or that communication apprehensive individuals were less sensitive to the impact of non‐verbal communication (communication apprehensiveness <italic>F</italic> = 0.898, df = 30:720, <italic>p</italic> = 0.625). While this result apparently contradicts previous work on the effects of communication competence on interpersonal interaction, this study was conducted using video images, which were observed rather than experienced, and this may in turn affect individual responses to the communication. This may be considered to be a limitation of the method employed in this study rather than as a significant result.</p><p>The final consideration under individual differences is the effect of degree of perceived attractiveness of the sender on overall responses to the service communication. Although a significant association was observed between perceived attractiveness of the provider and satisfaction with the service (Chi square = 80.86, 8df, <italic>p</italic> = 0.000) examination of directional measures suggested that individuals who were satisfied with the service they had observed were more likely to consider the provider attractive. This is in contradiction of other research on sender attractiveness that suggested that satisfaction with the service was more likely to be dependent on provider attractiveness.</p></sec></sec><sec><title>Conclusions and implications</title><p>This consideration of the role of non‐verbal behaviour in service situations raises a number of important managerial implications which go beyond the mere recognition of this phenomenon as an important component in customer service evaluation. Before this examination we can summarise the results of this study under the objectives highlighted above. First, we have evidence that the non‐verbal communication in a service encounter dramatically impacts on the customer’s evaluation of the service event. Second, that this impact is both overall and in relation to specific components. Finally, that there are some differences between customer groups in how they react to non‐verbal behaviour. In themselves, these results are consistent with the literature in psychology but the implications for managers and academics are considerable. In the first instance NVC may explain inconsistency between survey satisfaction results and customer repurchase. It may be possible for employees to comply with management guidelines on service delivery standards, scripts etc. but without the correct body language or paralinguistic cues customers are either dissatisfied or fail to develop the empathy with the provider which leads to repurchase behaviour. Put simply, it is more than good service systems that lead to service satisfaction but interpersonal behaviours that transcend current service satisfaction research. There are, however, a number of other interpersonal factors that were not addressed in this research that may provide additional insights; in particular the issue of perceived status and the possible tensions that it causes between service provider and customers could be investigated.</p><p>Although some managers may believe that non‐verbal aspects of the exchange are beyond their control, it is evident that managers of services need to recognise and accept that NVC will inevitably take place and that it has a significant effect on both the customer’s and the employee’s perceptions of the service. On the basis that the core exchange paradigm occurs between people, and specifically in the service context between a customer and a service provider, it follows that the selection and training of service employees is of paramount importance. A number of techniques are available in the staff recruitment phase to identify individuals who have well developed NVC skills. For instance, the use of simulated customer contact scenarios, personality testing for service inclination and extemporisation exercises in selection. It is also apparent that even making employees aware of non‐verbal behaviour can be considered a significant advantage and this area should be included in any training needs assessment. Although many of the skills referred to in this paper are evidently personal, there are a range of basic skills that can be imparted through staff training. Argyle (1994), for instance, refers to the efficacy of social skills training in improving both the coding and decoding of non‐verbal signals and these social skills can be extrapolated into the service context to provide a training agenda.</p><p>The context in which the service takes place clearly affects the primary communication exchange. A number of environmental factors have been identified above that can facilitate effective communication, for instance the physical environment can be designed to facilitate appropriate NVC. The key word here is appropriate; depending on the type of service, different non‐verbal signals may be appropriate. Professional services providers may wish to communicate authority and distance, while personal service providers may be more concerned with the development of warmth and personal closeness. The environmental props associated with this management of appropriateness may include desks to signify distance, closed versus open office designs, standing versus sitting positions, the use of service tangibles, or the ability to touch the other party. Associated with environmental design is service process design. There are instances where the process will emphasise the importance of non‐verbal behaviour. A situation where the employee and the customer are waiting for some third party or remote process to take place can add to the service experience where signals are positive, such as eye contact, smiling: equally it can detract from the service experience by emphasising an uneasy or extended period with no activity.</p><p>The important role that NVC plays in the service encounter and its impact on customer assessments of the service mean that it must be incorporated into any standard setting, bench‐marking or quality assessment exercises. While this type of communication is implicit in most of the service quality and satisfaction measures used by managers, there are considerable advantages in making it explicit. For instance, ratings of individual employees may be made in the consumer’s mind entirely on the outcome of decoding NVC rather than on elements of the service product. Similarly an unsatisfactory service product may be masked by particularly effective NVC on the part of the employee. As elements of this evaluation are subconscious, simply asking customers about NVC is inappropriate and therefore more subtle techniques are required. For example the use of expert mystery shoppers to evaluate the non‐verbal elements of the service may provide better information than surveys (Wilson, 1998).</p><p>Clearly the NVC research in marketing is relatively scarce and it will be necessary to apply and extend the contributions from psychology, psychotherapy and anthropology to the pursuit of applicable marketing research. The evidence so far from these literatures is that NVC is an extremely complex phenomenon and will require considerable examination of applied research methodologies. The empirical methods adopted must be mindful of the complexity of behaviour and its inter‐relatedness with the environment and overt verbal communication. A number of methodologies are already available, but these have yet to be tested in commercial environments and therefore there is considerable scope for replication and extension. Experimental methods in particular have been under‐utilised within the marketing discipline and in this context they appear to be one of the few techniques to have produced meaningful results. Unfortunately by their very nature they are unable to replicate conditions in which NVC actually takes place, but in the absence of other ethically appropriate methods they are a valuable source of information. Further developments of this methodology may be able to isolate particular non‐verbal behaviours as being of more significance than others or more closely linked to specific aspects of evaluation. In this research we were only able to isolate body language for para‐linguistic cues but there are clearly a number of aspects within these broad categories that could have varying influences. It is also clear that further research in this area may have to move beyond the use of video as a research tool as it has obvious drawbacks in experiments that attempt to assess individuals’ communication competencies or to simulate behaviours such as touch.</p></sec><sec><fig position="float" id="F_0070340307001"><label><bold>Table I.<x> </x></bold></label><caption><p>Independent samples <italic>T</italic>‐test*</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="0070340307001.tif"></graphic></fig></sec><sec><fig position="float" id="F_0070340307002"><label><bold>Table II.<x> </x></bold></label><caption><p>Results of four independent MANOVA using amended RATER items as dependent and exposure scenario as independent variables</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="0070340307002.tif"></graphic></fig></sec></body><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="b1"><mixed-citation><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Argyle</surname>, 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type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Gillian</namePart><namePart type="family">Hogg</namePart><affiliation>Department of Marketing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland</affiliation><role><roleTerm type="text">author</roleTerm></role></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article"></genre><originInfo><publisher>MCB UP Ltd</publisher><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2000-04-01</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2000</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract lang="en">Considers the role of nonverbal communication in consumers evaluation of service encounters. Nonverbal communication has been extensively studied in the psychology and psychotherapy disciplines and has been shown to have a central effect on participants perceptions of an event. As services are essentially interpersonal interactions it follows that nonverbal communication will play a major part in service evaluation. Uses an experimental methodology based on video scenarios to demonstrate the effect of this type of communication on consumers. The results indicate significant differences in respondents reactions to the scenario according to the nonverbal behaviour of the service provider.</abstract><subject><genre>Keywords</genre><topic>Services marketing</topic><topic>Nonverbal communication</topic><topic>Perceptions</topic><topic>Consumer behaviour</topic><topic>Customer satisfaction</topic><topic>Service quality</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>European Journal of Marketing</title></titleInfo><genre type="Journal">journal</genre><subject><genre>Emerald Subject Group</genre><topic authority="SubjectCodesPrimary" authorityURI="cat-MARK">Marketing</topic><topic authority="SubjectCodesSecondary" authorityURI="cat-MSM">Marketing strategy/methods</topic></subject><identifier type="ISSN">0309-0566</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">ejm</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1108/ejm</identifier><part><date>2000</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>34</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>3/4</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>384</start><end>398</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">8AD8C9524F1B3E0B85B425675D95DE387EB44DB2</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1108/03090560010311911</identifier><identifier type="filenameID">0070340307</identifier><identifier type="original-pdf">0070340307.pdf</identifier><identifier type="href">03090560010311911.pdf</identifier><accessCondition type="use and reproduction" contentType="copyright">© MCB UP Limited</accessCondition><recordInfo><recordContentSource>EMERALD</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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