Chemical engineering and environmental challenges. Cyclic adsorption/reaction technologies: Materials and process together!
Identifieur interne : 000305 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000304; suivant : 000306Chemical engineering and environmental challenges. Cyclic adsorption/reaction technologies: Materials and process together!
Auteurs : Alírio E. RodriguesSource :
- Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering [ 2213-2929 ] ; 2020.
Abstract
I start with a brief survey of paradigms in Chemical Engineering to highlight that in the early 70 s my thesis advisor P. Le Goff already mentioned the strong link of chemical processes with Environment, Energy and Economy (Market). Then I move to my vision of ChE today summarized in ChE = M2P2E (Molecular, Materials, Process and Product Engineering). I describe how I built a research lab centered around Cyclic Adsorption/Reaction Processes focusing in adsorption technologies to help solving environmental problems. I stress the basic concepts of adsorption processes and the need to use proper diffusion models for intraparticle mass transfer instead of pseudo first order or second order kinetic models. I also consider that adsorbent metrics should be linked to the process where the material is used: materials and processes together!
In the last section I review some challenging areas where adsorption technologies are useful. Carbon Capture and Utilization involving Pressure Swing Adsorption to capture CO2 from flue gas in a pilot plant, 3D printed composite monoliths for Electric Swing Adsorption, and Utilization of CO2 to be transformed in methanol or Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) (Power-to-Gas concept). I also address the general topic “Processing of diluted aqueous solutions” with special attention for the development of Simulated Moving Bed coupled with Expanded Bed Adsorption. Finally the integrated process to produce high-added valued compounds (vanillin and syringaldehyde) from Kraft lignin is shown as an example of Lignin valorization in pulp mill biorefinery.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.103926
PubMed: NONE
PubMed Central: 7138389
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Chemical engineering and environmental challenges. Cyclic adsorption/reaction technologies: Materials and process together!</title><author><name sortKey="Rodrigues, Alirio E" sort="Rodrigues, Alirio E" uniqKey="Rodrigues A" first="Alírio E." last="Rodrigues">Alírio E. Rodrigues</name></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmc">7138389</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7138389</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:7138389</idno><idno type="doi">10.1016/j.jece.2020.103926</idno><idno type="pmid">NONE</idno><date when="2020">2020</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000305</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000305</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Chemical engineering and environmental challenges. Cyclic adsorption/reaction technologies: Materials and process together!</title><author><name sortKey="Rodrigues, Alirio E" sort="Rodrigues, Alirio E" uniqKey="Rodrigues A" first="Alírio E." last="Rodrigues">Alírio E. Rodrigues</name></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering</title><idno type="ISSN">2213-2929</idno><idno type="eISSN">2213-3437</idno><imprint><date when="2020">2020</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>I start with a brief survey of paradigms in Chemical Engineering to highlight that in the early 70 s my thesis advisor P. Le Goff already mentioned the strong link of chemical processes with Environment, Energy and Economy (Market). Then I move to my vision of ChE today summarized in ChE = M<sup>2</sup>P<sup>2</sup>E (Molecular, Materials, Process and Product Engineering). I describe how I built a research lab centered around Cyclic Adsorption/Reaction Processes focusing in adsorption technologies to help solving environmental problems. I stress the basic concepts of adsorption processes and the need to use proper diffusion models for intraparticle mass transfer instead of pseudo first order or second order kinetic models. I also consider that adsorbent metrics should be linked to the process where the material is used: materials and processes together!</p><p>In the last section I review some challenging areas where adsorption technologies are useful. Carbon Capture and Utilization involving Pressure Swing Adsorption to capture CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gas in a pilot plant, 3D printed composite monoliths for Electric Swing Adsorption, and Utilization of CO<sub>2</sub> to be transformed in methanol or Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) (Power-to-Gas concept). I also address the general topic “Processing of diluted aqueous solutions” with special attention for the development of Simulated Moving Bed coupled with Expanded Bed Adsorption. Finally the integrated process to produce high-added valued compounds (vanillin and syringaldehyde) from Kraft lignin is shown as an example of Lignin valorization in pulp mill biorefinery.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Le Goff, P" uniqKey="Le Goff P">P. Le Goff</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bird, B" uniqKey="Bird B">B. Bird</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stewart, W" uniqKey="Stewart W">W. Stewart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lightfoot, E" uniqKey="Lightfoot E">E. 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Loureiro</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rodrigues, A E" uniqKey="Rodrigues A">A.E. Rodrigues</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ribeiro, A M" uniqKey="Ribeiro A">A.M. Ribeiro</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sigurbjornsson, Mar" uniqKey="Sigurbjornsson ">Ómar Sigurbjörnsson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Miguel, C V" uniqKey="Miguel C">C.V. Miguel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Soria, M A" uniqKey="Soria M">M.A. Soria</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mendes, A" uniqKey="Mendes A">A. Mendes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Madeira, L M" uniqKey="Madeira L">L.M. Madeira</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Martins, Joana A" uniqKey="Martins J">Joana A. Martins</name></author><author><name sortKey="Catarina Faria, A" uniqKey="Catarina Faria A">A. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Environ Chem Eng</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J Environ Chem Eng</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2213-2929</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2213-3437</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Elsevier Ltd.</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">7138389</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">S2213-3437(20)30274-8</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jece.2020.103926</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">103926</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Chemical engineering and environmental challenges. Cyclic adsorption/reaction technologies: Materials and process together!</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" id="aut0005"><name><surname>Rodrigues</surname><given-names>Alírio E.</given-names></name><email>arodrig@fe.up.pt</email><xref rid="fn0005" ref-type="fn">1</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff0005">Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal</aff><author-notes><fn id="fn0005"><label>1</label><p id="npar0005"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.lsre-lcm.fe.up.pt" id="intr0005">www.lsre-lcm.fe.up.pt</ext-link></p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>7</day><month>4</month><year>2020</year></pub-date><pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on .</pmc-comment>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>8</month><year>2020</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>7</day><month>4</month><year>2020</year></pub-date><volume>8</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>103926</fpage><lpage>103926</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>26</day><month>3</month><year>2020</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>30</day><month>3</month><year>2020</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>31</day><month>3</month><year>2020</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2020</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Elsevier Ltd</copyright-holder><license><license-p>Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="abs0005"><p>I start with a brief survey of paradigms in Chemical Engineering to highlight that in the early 70 s my thesis advisor P. Le Goff already mentioned the strong link of chemical processes with Environment, Energy and Economy (Market). Then I move to my vision of ChE today summarized in ChE = M<sup>2</sup>P<sup>2</sup>E (Molecular, Materials, Process and Product Engineering). I describe how I built a research lab centered around Cyclic Adsorption/Reaction Processes focusing in adsorption technologies to help solving environmental problems. I stress the basic concepts of adsorption processes and the need to use proper diffusion models for intraparticle mass transfer instead of pseudo first order or second order kinetic models. I also consider that adsorbent metrics should be linked to the process where the material is used: materials and processes together!</p><p>In the last section I review some challenging areas where adsorption technologies are useful. Carbon Capture and Utilization involving Pressure Swing Adsorption to capture CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gas in a pilot plant, 3D printed composite monoliths for Electric Swing Adsorption, and Utilization of CO<sub>2</sub> to be transformed in methanol or Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) (Power-to-Gas concept). I also address the general topic “Processing of diluted aqueous solutions” with special attention for the development of Simulated Moving Bed coupled with Expanded Bed Adsorption. Finally the integrated process to produce high-added valued compounds (vanillin and syringaldehyde) from Kraft lignin is shown as an example of Lignin valorization in pulp mill biorefinery.</p></abstract><kwd-group id="kwd0005"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Adsorption processes</kwd><kwd>Environmental challenges</kwd><kwd>Adsorbent metrics</kwd><kwd>Adsorption models</kwd><kwd>Carbon capture and utilization</kwd><kwd>Lignin valorization</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta><notes><p id="misc0005">Editor: G.L. Dotto</p></notes></front><body><sec id="sec0005"><label>1</label><title>Chemical engineering: past, present and future</title><p id="par0005">In the early 70s during my doctoral work in Nancy, my advisor Prof P. Le Goff [<xref rid="bib0005" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>] described Chemical Engineering (ChE) as an ensemble of separation and reaction processes to transform raw materials into useful products (<xref rid="fig0005" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>). At that time we were living with the Second Paradigm of ChE – the Engineering Science movement represented by the book of Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, “Transport Phenomena” published in 1960 [<xref rid="bib0010" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>]. The First Paradigm was around the concept of Unit Operation, a term coined by Arthur D. Little in 1915 [<xref rid="bib0015" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]. It is interesting to note that in this “old” vision of ChE, Le Goff already emphasized the connections with Environment (waste generation and management), Energy and Market (Economy).<fig id="fig0005"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p>The “old” vision of ChE pointing out important forces: Environment, Energy, Economy (Market) according to Pierre Le Goff.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0010">Fig. 1</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr1_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0010">Later, in 1988, the Amundson report [<xref rid="bib0020" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>] although stressing the importance of core disciplines (Thermodynamics and kinetics, transport phenomena, reaction engineering, separation processes, process design and control, systems engineering) pointed out the relation of ChE with new frontier areas: Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Electronic, Photonic, and Recording Materials and Devices, Microstructured Materials, In-Situ Processing of Energy and Mineral Resources, Liquid Fuels for the Future, Responsible Management of Hazardous Substances, Surface and Interfacial Engineering Advanced Computational Methods and Process Control. A recent illustration of this last topic is the acquisition of PSE Ltd (a leading company on process modeling, simulation and optimization with the package gPROMS) by Siemens (a leading company in automation and control).</p><p id="par0015">The Product Engineering perspective (Needs, Ideas, Selection of ideas, Manufacturing) already used in other Engineering areas and Management Schools [<xref rid="bib0025" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>] was pioneered in ChE by Cussler and Moggridge [<xref rid="bib0030" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>], Wesselingh [<xref rid="bib0035" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>] to name a few. Solke Bruin in his Inaugural lecture [<xref rid="bib0040" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>] at TU Eindhoven “Product-driven process engineering. The eternal triangle molecules, product, process” presented ChE as a lozenge with Transformations (reactions), Separations, Stabilizing and Structuring processes particularly relevant in the Food Engineering area. He also presented a “new” vision of ChE in the sense that chemical engineers need to address the whole chain - “To Make, To Service, To Care.”</p><p id="par0020">My vision of ChE today is summarized in the formula ChE = M2P2E where “M” relates to Molecular and Materials Engineering and “P” relates to Process and Product Engineering (<xref rid="fig0010" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>).<fig id="fig0010"><label>Fig. 2</label><caption><p>My vision of ChE today: ChE = M<sup>2</sup>P<sup>2</sup>E [<xref rid="bib0045" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>].</p></caption><alt-text id="at0015">Fig. 2</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr2_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0025">Molecular Engineering tools as Molecular Simulations will help more and more in the screening and design of adsorbents (MOFs, COFs, etc) for target processes and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) will help in process design. Process Modeling and Simulation packages such as gPROMS are now used replacing homemade simulators and learning of numerical methods; this was predicted in the 90 s by the late Colin Mc Greavy (U. Leeds) when we were teaching a Chemical Reaction Engineering course at UFSC in Florianopolis.</p></sec><sec id="sec0010"><label>2</label><title>Research in cyclic Adsorption/Reaction processes</title><sec id="sec0015"><label>2.1</label><title>Starting a research laboratory: MMM + K</title><p id="par0030">When I started my lab at U. Porto in 1976 (now Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-LSRE) I had only one M (Man-human resources) of the three MMM (Man, Money, Machines) needed according to old economists (<xref rid="fig0015" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref>).<fig id="fig0015"><label>Fig. 3</label><caption><p>Man, Money, Machines. In 1976 I was missing the last two ingredients to combine science and technology for the development of sustainable processes and products.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0020">Fig. 3</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr3_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0035">However, I had some K (Knowledge) which helped me to start a research laboratory along with some principles:<list list-type="simple" id="lis0005"><list-item id="lsti0005"><label>i)</label><p id="par0040">If you don’t wish something, you will never get it,</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0010"><label>ii)</label><p id="par0045">Keep eyes open to other areas (cross-fertilization),</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0015"><label>iii)</label><p id="par0050">Accountability (publish research results),</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0020"><label>iv)</label><p id="par0055">In research you can always do what you want; it can take longer because of lack of money, etc.</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0025"><label>v)</label><p id="par0060">Researchers should leave their fingerprint in the lab,</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0030"><label>vi)</label><p id="par0065">Research can’t be done with absent people.</p></list-item></list></p><p id="par0070">I started my lab with three PhD students, teaching assistants at the Department of ChE of U. Porto, working in topics involving Separation and Reaction Engineering related to Environment and Bioengineering.<list list-type="simple" id="lis0010"><list-item id="lsti0035"><label>i)</label><p id="par0075">removal of phenol from wastewater using polymeric adsorbent resins [<xref rid="bib0050" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>],</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0040"><label>ii)</label><p id="par0080">denitrification of water in fluidized bed biological reactors [<xref rid="bib0055" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>],</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0045"><label>iii)</label><p id="par0085">removal of heavy metals with complexing resins and adsorption/reaction processes [<xref rid="bib0060" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>].</p></list-item></list></p><p id="par0090">I remember reading a comment by P. V. Danckwerts [<xref rid="bib0065" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>] on the use of chemical engineering principles. In his words: “I was reminded of this 15 or so years later when I sat in a committee concerned with sewage and water treatment. The suggestion that chemical engineering had some knowledge relevant to these processes, e.g., in the field of mass transfer, moved Civil engineers on the committee, who had always regarded the field as their own, to apoplexy”. I experienced the same reaction in a meeting in Porto…</p></sec><sec id="sec0020"><label>2.2</label><title>Adsorption processes in fixed beds: the key results from De Vault equation</title><p id="par0095">In many of these projects adsorption is the technology under study. I remember again P. Le Goff in his lectures saying:</p><p id="par0100">“Any ChE problem including adsorption can be modeled by writing:<list list-type="simple" id="lis0015"><list-item id="lsti0050"><label>i)</label><p id="par0105">conservation equations (mass, energy, momentum balances),</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0055"><label>ii)</label><p id="par0110">equilibrium law at the interface,</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0060"><label>iii)</label><p id="par0115">kinetic laws of mass/heat transfer,</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0065"><label>iv)</label><p id="par0120">boundary and initial conditions, and</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0070"><label>v)</label><p id="par0125">optimization criterion.</p></list-item></list></p><p id="par0130">I also tell my students that factors governing adsorption processes can be divided in first order factors (adsorption equilibrium isotherms) and second order factors (all leading to dispersive effects: kinetics of mass transfer, axial dispersion, etc.). The message is: equilibrium first and show a picture of I. Langmuir! (<xref rid="fig0020" ref-type="fig">Fig. 4</xref>) [<xref rid="bib0070" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>].<fig id="fig0020"><label>Fig. 4</label><caption><p>Factors governing adsorption in fixed-bed columns: first and second order effects (Langmuir; equilibrium first!).</p></caption><alt-text id="at0025">Fig. 4</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr4_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0135">I also say that to understand adsorption in fixed bed columns you must know De Vault equation developed in 1943 [<xref rid="bib0075" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>] from a “simplissime” model based on equilibrium theory. Combining a mass balance in a bed volume element with the adsorption equilibrium isotherm <inline-formula><mml:math id="M1" altimg="si1.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>f</mml:mi><mml:mfenced open="(" close=")"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></inline-formula> one can get:<disp-formula id="eq0005"><label>(1)</label><mml:math id="M2" altimg="si2.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mfenced open="(" close=")"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mo>∂</mml:mo><mml:mi>z</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mo>∂</mml:mo><mml:mi>t</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext></mml:mrow><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi></mml:mfrac><mml:msup><mml:mi>f</mml:mi><mml:mtext>'</mml:mtext></mml:msup><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:math></disp-formula></p><p id="par0140">Don De Vault equation [<xref rid="bib0005" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>] shows that adsorption in fixed beds is a wave (concentration) propagation phenomenon; it also explains the effect of the nature of the adsorption equilibrium isotherm <inline-formula><mml:math id="M3" altimg="si1.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>f</mml:mi><mml:mfenced open="(" close=")"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></inline-formula> on the shape of the breakthrough curve. In the above equation u<sub>i</sub> is the interstitial fluid velocity and ε is the bed porosity. De Vault equation says that the velocity of a concentration C<sub>i</sub> depends on the slope of the adsorption equilibrium isotherm <inline-formula><mml:math id="M4" altimg="si3.svg"><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula>: if the isotherm is favorable the concentration front is compressive and will lead to a shock; if the isotherm is unfavorable it leads to a dispersive front (<xref rid="fig0025" ref-type="fig">Fig. 5</xref>). To me this is the most important result to understand fixed bed adsorption: the concepts of compressive and dispersive waves as I learned from my thesis co-advisor Daniel Tondeur.<fig id="fig0025"><label>Fig. 5</label><caption><p>Compressive and dispersive fronts from equilibrium theory of fixed bed adsorption learned from D. Tondeur in Nancy.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0030">Fig. 5</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr5_lrg"></graphic></fig></p></sec><sec id="sec0025"><label>2.3</label><title>Adsorption equilibrium isotherms first!</title><p id="par0145">So the first thing to do in adsorption process development is to measure adsorption equilibrium isotherms. For liquid/solid systems measurements are done by contacting different masses of adsorbent with a known volume of solution with initial concentration <inline-formula><mml:math id="M5" altimg="si4.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mn>0</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula>. The average adsorbed concentration at any time is simply<disp-formula id="eq0010"><label>(2)</label><mml:math id="M6" altimg="si5.svg"><mml:mfenced open="〈" close="〉"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>W</mml:mi></mml:mfrac><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>W</mml:mi></mml:mfrac><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:math></disp-formula></p><p id="par0150">This is the operating line with slope –V/W, which is simply the integrated mass balance and relates at any time the average adsorbed phase concentration and the fluid phase concentration. After sufficient time equilibrium is reached and a point of the adsorption equilibrium isotherm is obtained <inline-formula><mml:math id="M7" altimg="si6.svg"><mml:mfenced open="(" close=")"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>f</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>f</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></inline-formula>. So with equilibrium and operating lines it is a simple exercise to understand the effect of initial concentration in liquid phase and the effect of adsorbent loading! Lots of experimental work and published papers could have been saved! Also the regeneration process can be easily understood with simple graphical schemes. (<xref rid="fig0030" ref-type="fig">Fig. 6</xref>).<fig id="fig0030"><label>Fig. 6</label><caption><p>Batch adsorption: all we need is adsorption equilibrium isotherm and operating line!.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0035">Fig. 6</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr6_lrg"></graphic></fig></p></sec><sec id="sec0030"><label>2.4</label><title>Kinetics of adsorption processes- it is time to use more realistic models and adsorbent metrics linked to processes!</title><p id="par0155">Adsorption is a mass transfer operation between a fluid phase and a solid adsorbent phase. The driving force for the intraparticle mass transfer in the case of “homogeneous” adsorbents is <inline-formula><mml:math id="M8" altimg="si7.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mfenced open="〈" close="〉"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></inline-formula> where <inline-formula><mml:math id="M9" altimg="si8.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> is the adsorbent concentration at the interface in equilibrium with the fluid concentration at the interface <inline-formula><mml:math id="M10" altimg="si9.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula>.</p><p id="par0160">The simplest kinetic law is the Linear Driving Force (LDF) model of Glueckauf [<xref rid="bib0080" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]<disp-formula id="eq0015"><label>(3)</label><mml:math id="M11" altimg="si10.svg"><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mfenced open="〈" close="〉"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>k</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mfenced open="(" close=")"><mml:mrow><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mtext>*</mml:mtext></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mfenced open="〈" close="〉"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></disp-formula>where <inline-formula><mml:math id="M12" altimg="si11.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>k</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>15</mml:mn><mml:msub><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula>. In a batch adsorption process <inline-formula><mml:math id="M13" altimg="si8.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> is changing with time unless the adsorbent particle is in an infinite bath. For porous adsorbent structures one can easily relate <inline-formula><mml:math id="M14" altimg="si12.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula> with pore diffusion <inline-formula><mml:math id="M15" altimg="si13.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>p</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula> at least for linear systems; for bidisperse adsorbent structures involving macropore diffusion and micropore (crystal) diffusion <inline-formula><mml:math id="M16" altimg="si14.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula> adequate relations with <inline-formula><mml:math id="M17" altimg="si12.svg"><mml:msub><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:math></inline-formula> can be derived.</p><p id="par0165">Other models are often used called pseudo-order models of first order, second order…It is time to describe adsorption using diffusion inside particles: LDF, Fick, Stefan-Maxwell!. One of such pseudo-order models is Lagergreen model where the rate of adsorption is proportional to a distance to equilibrium <inline-formula><mml:math id="M18" altimg="si7.svg"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>*</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mfenced open="〈" close="〉"><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>q</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:mfenced></mml:math></inline-formula>; I wrote a note on this “What’s wrong with Lagergreen pseudo first order model for adsorption kinetics? “[<xref rid="bib0085" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>].</p><p id="par0170">Adsorption processes are Multi-scale problems both in space and time ranging from nanometer scale (pore scale), micrometer scale (crystal), millimeter scale (adsorbent particle) up to the adsorption column scale (1-10 m) with time constants for convection, macropore diffusion, crystal diffusion, film mass transfer, etc. covering various orders of magnitude.</p><p id="par0175">There is a growing interest in finding metrics for the screening of adsorbents. Everyone knows that a good adsorbent should have good adsorption capacity, fast adsorption kinetics, good selectivity, and good thermal, mechanical and chemical stability. However translating these properties in numbers is trickier. Metrics based on Working Capacity (WC), Adsorbent Figure of Merit (AFM), Capture Figure of Merit (CFM) etc. have been presented but in my opinion the metrics only make sense for a defined process in which the material will be used [<xref rid="bib0090" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, <xref rid="bib0095" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>, <xref rid="bib0100" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>]. A good summary of adsorbent metrics can be found in reference [<xref rid="bib0095" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>]. The selectivity requirement for an adsorbent for Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is not the same as that needed for use with Simulated Moving Bed (SMB) technology [<xref rid="bib0105" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>]. As Sircar said once “Each adsorbent must be “married” to a process that maximizes the potential” [<xref rid="bib0110" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>].</p><p id="par0180">A comment on models should be made and as Einstein said: “Keep it simple but not simpler”. I have seen big failures in predictions of employment rates during the last financial crisis of 2008. Now we face tough times with COVID-19 staying at home and following the numbers of infected people in various countries. My colleague Manuel Alves prepared a plot in semi log scale of <italic>N</italic> (number of infected people) versus time. The slope of these lines in all countries is around <inline-formula><mml:math id="M19" altimg="si15.svg"><mml:mi>k</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>0.287</mml:mn><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:msup><mml:mi>y</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:math></inline-formula>. The virus doesn’t discriminate countries! This is a simple model of exponential epidemics <inline-formula><mml:math id="M20" altimg="si16.svg"><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mn>0</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:msup><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi>k</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:math></inline-formula> (<xref rid="fig0035" ref-type="fig">Fig. 7</xref>).<fig id="fig0035"><label>Fig. 7</label><caption><p>The progress of COVID-19 in various countries (from Manuel Alves, ChE Department, U. Porto).</p></caption><alt-text id="at0040">Fig. 7</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr7_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0185">Coming back to the modeling approach of adsorption processes I suggest:<list list-type="simple" id="lis0020"><list-item id="lsti0075"><label>i)</label><p id="par0190">Start with simple models; obtain from such models information which remains valid for more complex models;</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0080"><label>ii)</label><p id="par0195">The validity of a model is not just a result of a good fit; more important is the capability to predict the system behavior under conditions different from those used to get model parameters,</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0085"><label>iii)</label><p id="par0200">Good results can only be obtained if the model well represents the reality and</p></list-item><list-item id="lsti0090"><label>iv)</label><p id="par0205">Use models to obtain useful design parameters and their dependence on operating conditions; use independent experiments if possible to get model parameters.</p></list-item></list></p></sec></sec><sec id="sec0035"><label>3</label><title>Some challenges: processing diluted aqueous solutions, carbon capture and utilization (CCU) and lignin valorization</title><p id="par0210">There are societal challenges related to the need of clean air, water and soils and relevant topics as the processing of diluted aqueous solutions and valorization of biomass; in all these areas at some point adsorption technologies will be part of the solution.</p><sec id="sec0040"><label>3.1</label><title>Processing diluted aqueous solutions</title><p id="par0215">Interestingly the first EU research project I got was on Environmental area “Purification of wastewaters by parametric pumping and ion exchange” [<xref rid="bib0115" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>]. Parametric pumping is a cyclic adsorption process involving two steps in a cycle: one step at lower temperature (say 20 °C) and other at higher temperature (say 60 °C) with flow reversal. So it is a temperature swing adsorption (TSA) with flow reversal. It can be useful in processing diluted aqueous solutions. We can recover a concentrated phenol solution in the top reservoir and a purified water in the bottom reservoir.</p><p id="par0220">Processing of Diluted aqueous solutions is a topic relevant to industry and was addressed in the EU project PRODIAS coordinated by BASF [<xref rid="bib0120" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>]. One of the companies involved at that time XENDO (now XPure) was developing a technology combining SMB and Expanded Bed Adsorption (EBA) [<xref rid="bib0125" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]. EBA is an interesting idea where the core-shell adsorbent particles expand nicely in a bed without the chaotic movement of particles thanks to properly designed particle size and density distribution allowing cell debris to pass through the bed whilst the solute (proteins) are retained by the adsorbent. In principle with EBA one doesn’t need previous solid/liquid separation; however some concerns remain with adsorbent capacity loss due to cell adhesion to the particle surface and dead volumes in the top of EBA columns are not good for SMB chromatographic separation [<xref rid="bib0130" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>,<xref rid="bib0135" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>].</p><p id="par0225">The need for low-cost water treatment processes to remove fluoride, iron and arsenic is extremely important in some countries. In the framework of a project involved our lab, TU Munich and three Universities in India we were involved in the study of continuous electrocoagulation processes for fluoride removal [<xref rid="bib0140" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>,<xref rid="bib0145" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec0045"><label>3.2</label><title>Carbon capture and utilization</title><p id="par0230">Some of these societal challenges are enormous as the Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) to tackle Global Warming from Greenhouse Gases. I started my involvement with CO<sub>2</sub> capture in connection with the development of Sorption Enhanced Reaction Processes [<xref rid="bib0150" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>] to shift the equilibrium towards hydrogen production by coupling methane steam reforming with CO<sub>2</sub> sorption on hydrotalcites at high temperature [<xref rid="bib0155" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>]. Later I moved to capture of CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gases using various adsorbents such as 13X zeolites, carbon materials, binderless zeolites in different shapes (monoliths, beads, extrudates) using cyclic adsorption technologies as Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA), Vacuum Swing Adsorption (VSA), Temperature Swing adsorption (TSA), Electric Swing Adsorption (ESA). All this work was developed in parallel with modeling and simulation with home-made packages for process simulation [<xref rid="bib0160" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>]. One of the PhD students working in this area was Zhen Liu who returned to ECUST in Shangai, after a sandwich period at LSRE, and built a pilot plant (<xref rid="fig0040" ref-type="fig">Fig. 8</xref>) to treat flue gas from a coal-fired power plant involving a 2-bed PSA and a 3-bed PSA under the guidance of Prof Yu Jianguo and Ping Li [<xref rid="bib0165" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>,<xref rid="bib0170" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>]. I was impressed with his achievement when I went to ECUST for his PhD defense.<fig id="fig0040"><label>Fig. 8</label><caption><p>CO<sub>2</sub> capture from flue gases: pilot plant near Shangai (PhD of Zhen Liu).</p></caption><alt-text id="at0045">Fig. 8</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr8_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0235">Development of adsorbent processes is highly connected with materials development. The problems in the synthesis of new adsorbents is the scale-up from gr scale to kg scale and increase the productivity by using new reactors such as NETmix reactor [<xref rid="bib0175" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>]. Nevertheless at the end we get powder material and shaping is required to use the adsorbents in fixed bed columns. An example was the 3D printing of composite monolith of 13 X zeolite and activated carbon to be used in ESA operation for CO<sub>2</sub> capture [<xref rid="bib0180" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>]</p><p id="par0240">The cost of CO<sub>2</sub> capture is still high and one option is storage. More interesting is the Utilization of CO<sub>2</sub> captured. Still there is a mismatch between the amounts of CO<sub>2</sub> to be captured and the potential use as reactant in current industrial processes. It is important to mention the transformation of CO<sub>2</sub> from geothermal power plant in methanol in Carbon Recycling International (Iceland) following the concept of methanol economy of Nobel Prize George Olah [<xref rid="bib0185" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>]. Another option is the use of adsorption/reaction cyclic process to make Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) from CO<sub>2</sub>. This is the Power-to-Gas concept; in a first step CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gas or other source is adsorbed over hydrotalcites (and concentrated) and in a second step hydrogen from water electrolysis powdered by renewal energy (wind) is fed and methanation reaction occurs producing SNG [<xref rid="bib0190" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>,<xref rid="bib0195" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>]. This second step is the reactive regeneration of the adsorbent (<xref rid="fig0045" ref-type="fig">Fig. 9</xref>).<fig id="fig0045"><label>Fig. 9</label><caption><p>Power to Gas concept [Reprinted from C. Miguel et al, Chem. Eng. J., 322, 590-602 (2017). with permission from Elsevier.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0050">Fig. 9</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr9_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0245">This idea can be applied in pulp mills where the lime kiln is a source of CO<sub>2</sub> thus allowing its transformation in SNG which is needed in the plant.</p></sec><sec id="sec0050"><label>3.3</label><title>Biorefineries and lignin valorization</title><p id="par0250">Pulp mills are also nice examples of biorefineries. In Kraft processes lignin is removed from wood and the black liquor, after recovery of chemicals, is burned in boilers and therefore pulp mills are net producers of electricity injected in the grid. Typically for a pulp mill processing 1 million ton/year of wood, 250,000 ton/year of lignin are obtained. One may need to increase the capacity of the plant and be limited by the boiler capacity; in such case a fraction of the black liquor can be taken to produce chemicals such as vanillin or syringaldehyde depending on the wood source. In our lab, we developed an integrated process shown in <xref rid="fig0050" ref-type="fig">Fig. 10</xref>[<xref rid="bib0200" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>] involving first lignin oxidation followed by membrane separation of low molecular weight compounds from the degraded lignin, which can be sent to the boiler or used to make polyurethane foams. The permeate stream is sent to adsorption columns were a clear separation by families: acids, aldehydes, ketones is achieved (<xref rid="fig0055" ref-type="fig">Fig. 11</xref>) [<xref rid="bib0205" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>]. Proper elution allows enriched fractions of the compounds of interest and finally extraction/crystallization processes lead to the final product (vanillin or syringaldehyde) [<xref rid="bib0210" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>]. There is room here to implement cyclic adsorption processes using some kind of multi-column technology.<fig id="fig0050"><label>Fig. 10</label><caption><p>Integrated process to produce vanillin and syringaldehyde from lignin. Reprinted from Rodrigues et al “An Integrated Approach for Added-Value Products from Lignocellulosic Biorefineries: Vanillin Syringaldehyde, polyphenols and polyuretahne” with permission from Springer.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0055">Fig. 10</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr10_lrg"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig0055"><label>Fig. 11</label><caption><p>Breakthrough from the development of the adsorption process to separate the permeate fraction containing lignin derived phenolic compounds, by families: acids (vanillic acid, VA), aldehydes (vanillin, V and <italic>p</italic>-hydroxybenzaldehyde, H) and acetovanillone (VO). Reprinted from SEPPUR 216, 92-101 (2019) with permission from Elsevier.</p></caption><alt-text id="at0060">Fig. 11</alt-text><graphic xlink:href="gr11_lrg"></graphic></fig></p><p id="par0255">A final word: Chemical Engineers combine expertise in chemistry, physics, mathematics and some in biology with an engineering thinking and are players in many frontier areas to develop Sustainable processes/products and help solving Environmental challenges. “Shaking the present. 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Technol.</source><year>2020</year></element-citation></ref></ref-list><ack id="ack0005"><title>Acknowledgment</title><p>This work was financially supported by: Base Funding - UIDB/50020/2020 of the <funding-source id="gs0005">Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM</funding-source> - funded by national funds through FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC).</p><p>The help of Dr Elson Gomes in the preparation of figures is gratefully acknowledged.</p></ack></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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