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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">COVID-19 pneumonia: ARDS or not?</title><author><name sortKey="Gattinoni, Luciano" sort="Gattinoni, Luciano" uniqKey="Gattinoni L" first="Luciano" last="Gattinoni">Luciano Gattinoni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.7450.6</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0001 2364 4210</institution-id><institution>Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine,</institution><institution>Medical University of Göttingen, Georg-August-University of Goettingen,</institution></institution-wrap>Robert-Koch Straße 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chiumello, Davide" sort="Chiumello, Davide" uniqKey="Chiumello D" first="Davide" last="Chiumello">Davide Chiumello</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.4708.b</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0004 1757 2822</institution-id><institution>SC Anestesia e Rianimazione, Ospedale San Paolo – Polo Universitario, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute,</institution><institution>Università degli Studi di Milano,</institution></institution-wrap>Milan, Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rossi, Sandra" sort="Rossi, Sandra" uniqKey="Rossi S" first="Sandra" last="Rossi">Sandra Rossi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.411482.a</institution-id><institution>Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma,</institution></institution-wrap>Parma, Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">32299472</idno><idno type="pmc">7160817</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7160817</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:7160817</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s13054-020-02880-z</idno><date when="2020">2020</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000052</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000052</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">COVID-19 pneumonia: ARDS or not?</title><author><name sortKey="Gattinoni, Luciano" sort="Gattinoni, Luciano" uniqKey="Gattinoni L" first="Luciano" last="Gattinoni">Luciano Gattinoni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.7450.6</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0001 2364 4210</institution-id><institution>Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine,</institution><institution>Medical University of Göttingen, Georg-August-University of Goettingen,</institution></institution-wrap>Robert-Koch Straße 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Chiumello, Davide" sort="Chiumello, Davide" uniqKey="Chiumello D" first="Davide" last="Chiumello">Davide Chiumello</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.4708.b</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0004 1757 2822</institution-id><institution>SC Anestesia e Rianimazione, Ospedale San Paolo – Polo Universitario, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute,</institution><institution>Università degli Studi di Milano,</institution></institution-wrap>Milan, Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rossi, Sandra" sort="Rossi, Sandra" uniqKey="Rossi S" first="Sandra" last="Rossi">Sandra Rossi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3"><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.411482.a</institution-id><institution>Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma,</institution></institution-wrap>Parma, Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Critical Care</title><idno type="ISSN">1364-8535</idno><idno type="eISSN">1466-609X</idno><imprint><date when="2020">2020</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Maiolo, G" uniqKey="Maiolo G">G Maiolo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Collino, F" uniqKey="Collino F">F Collino</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vasques, F" uniqKey="Vasques F">F Vasques</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rapetti, F" uniqKey="Rapetti F">F Rapetti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tonetti, T" uniqKey="Tonetti T">T Tonetti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Romitti, F" uniqKey="Romitti F">F Romitti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cressoni, M" uniqKey="Cressoni M">M Cressoni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chiumello, D" uniqKey="Chiumello D">D Chiumello</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moerer, O" uniqKey="Moerer O">O Moerer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Herrmann, P" uniqKey="Herrmann P">P Herrmann</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brochard, L" uniqKey="Brochard L">L Brochard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Slutsky, A" uniqKey="Slutsky A">A Slutsky</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pesenti, A" uniqKey="Pesenti A">A Pesenti</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brower, Rg" uniqKey="Brower R">RG Brower</name></author><author><name sortKey="Matthay, Ma" uniqKey="Matthay M">MA Matthay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Morris, A" uniqKey="Morris A">A Morris</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schoenfeld, D" uniqKey="Schoenfeld D">D Schoenfeld</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thompson, Bt" uniqKey="Thompson B">BT Thompson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wheeler, A" uniqKey="Wheeler A">A Wheeler</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gattinoni, L" uniqKey="Gattinoni L">L Gattinoni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taccone, P" uniqKey="Taccone P">P Taccone</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carlesso, E" uniqKey="Carlesso E">E Carlesso</name></author><author><name sortKey="Marini, Jj" uniqKey="Marini J">JJ Marini</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Guerin, C" uniqKey="Guerin C">C Guerin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reignier, J" uniqKey="Reignier J">J Reignier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Richard, Jc" uniqKey="Richard J">JC Richard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="editorial"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Crit Care</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Critical Care</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1364-8535</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1466-609X</issn><publisher><publisher-name>BioMed Central</publisher-name><publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">32299472</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">7160817</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">2880</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s13054-020-02880-z</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Editorial</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>COVID-19 pneumonia: ARDS or not?</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Gattinoni</surname><given-names>Luciano</given-names></name><address><email>gattinoniluciano@gmail.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chiumello</surname><given-names>Davide</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>Sandra</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff3">3</xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label>1</label><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.7450.6</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0001 2364 4210</institution-id><institution>Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine,</institution><institution>Medical University of Göttingen, Georg-August-University of Goettingen,</institution></institution-wrap>Robert-Koch Straße 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label>2</label><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.4708.b</institution-id><institution-id institution-id-type="ISNI">0000 0004 1757 2822</institution-id><institution>SC Anestesia e Rianimazione, Ospedale San Paolo – Polo Universitario, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute,</institution><institution>Università degli Studi di Milano,</institution></institution-wrap>Milan, Italy</aff><aff id="Aff3"><label>3</label><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="GRID">grid.411482.a</institution-id><institution>Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma,</institution></institution-wrap>Parma, Italy</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>16</day><month>4</month><year>2020</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>16</day><month>4</month><year>2020</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2020</year></pub-date><volume>24</volume><elocation-id>154</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>24</day><month>3</month><year>2020</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>7</day><month>4</month><year>2020</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© The Author(s) 2020</copyright-statement><license license-type="OpenAccess"><license-p><bold>Open Access</bold>This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/</ext-link>) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.</license-p></license></permissions><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>COVID-19</kwd><kwd>ARDS</kwd><kwd>Mechanical ventilation</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2020</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><p id="Par1">Even though it can meet the ARDS Berlin definition [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">2</xref>], the COVID-19 pneumonia is a specific disease with peculiar phenotypes. Its main characteristic is the dissociation between the severity of the hypoxemia and the maintenance of relatively good respiratory mechanics. Indeed, the median respiratory system compliance is usually around 50 ml/cmH<sub>2</sub>O. Of note, the patients with respiratory compliance lower or higher than the median value experience hypoxemia of similar severity. We propose the presence of two types of patients (“non-ARDS,” type 1, and ARDS, type 2) with different pathophysiology. When presenting at the hospital, type 1 and type 2 patients are clearly distinguishable by CT scan (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>). If the CT scan is not available, the respiratory system compliance and possibly the response to PEEP are the only imperfect surrogates we may suggest.
<fig id="Fig1"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p>In these 2 patients were recorded the following variables: type 1 lung weight (1192 g), gas volume (2774 ml), percentage of non-aerated tissue (8.4%), venous admixture (56%), P/F (68), and respiratory system compliance (80 ml/cmH<sub>2</sub>O); type 2 lung weight (1441 g), gas volume (1640 ml), percentage of non-aerated tissue (39%), venous admixture (49%), P/F (61), and respiratory system compliance (43 ml/cmH<sub>2</sub>O)</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13054_2020_2880_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><sec id="Sec1"><title>Type 1: Near normal pulmonary compliance with isolated viral pneumonia</title><p id="Par2">In these patients, severe hypoxemia is associated with respiratory system compliance > 50 ml/cmH<sub>2</sub>O. The lung’s gas volume is high, the recruitability is minimal, and the hypoxemia is likely due to the loss of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and impaired regulation of pulmonary blood flow. Therefore, severe hypoxemia is primarily due to ventilation/perfusion (V<sub>A</sub>/Q) mismatch. High PEEP and prone positioning do not improve oxygenation through recruitment of collapsed areas, but redistribute pulmonary perfusion, improving the V<sub>A</sub>/Q relationship. Lung CT scans in those patients confirm that there are no significant areas to recruit, but the right-to-left venous admixture is typically around 50%.</p></sec><sec id="Sec2"><title>Type 2: Decreased pulmonary compliance</title><p id="Par3">In 20–30% of these COVID-19 patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), severe hypoxemia is associated with compliance values < 40 ml/cmH<sub>2</sub>O, indicating severe ARDS [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>]. It is certainly possible that their lower compliance (i.e., lower gas volume and increased recruitability) is due to the natural evolution of the disease, but we cannot exclude the possibility that this severity of damage (increased edema) results in part from the initial respiratory management. Indeed, some of these hypoxemic patients receive CPAP or non-invasive ventilation before ICU admission and present with very high respiratory drives, vigorous inspiratory efforts, and highly negative intrathoracic pressures. Therefore, in addition to viral pneumonia, those patients likely have self-inflicted ventilator-induced lung injury [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec3"><title>Clinical implications</title><sec id="Sec4"><title>Before ICU, in non-intubated patients</title><p id="Par4">CPAP and NIV are the first-line treatment when an overwhelming number of patients come to a hospital. These interventions, often applied outside the ICU in emergency rooms or in other medicine wards, usually improve blood oxygenation. A key aspect of care, however, should be the assessment of respiratory drive and the inspiratory efforts. The ideal indicator would be the measurement of the esophageal pressure swings. If impossible, the clinical signs of inspiratory efforts should be carefully scrutinized. If respiratory distress is present, endotracheal intubation should be strongly considered to avoid/limit the transition from type 1 to type 2 by self-induced lung injury.</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>In ICU, intubated patients</title><sec id="Sec6"><title>Tidal volume</title><p id="Par5">In type 2 patients, a lower tidal volume should be applied. However, type 1 patients lack the low compliance/high driving pressure prerequisites of ventilator-induced lung injury, even if treated with volumes higher than 6 ml/kg delivered at respiratory rates of 15–20 breaths/min [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>]. More liberal tidal volume (7–8 ml/kg) often attenuates dyspnea and may avoid hypoventilation with possible reabsorption atelectasis and hypercapnia.</p></sec><sec id="Sec7"><title>PEEP</title><p id="Par6">The type 1 patients lack the prerequisite for higher PEEP to work (recruitability). PEEP levels should be limited at 8–10 cmH<sub>2</sub>O, since higher levels will decrease pulmonary compliance and can impact right heart function. The type 2 patients are characterized by a reduction of total gas volume and an increase in lung weight and edema. These features may be due to the natural progression of the disease, to bacterial superinfection and/or to self-induced lung injury during the period preceding the intubation. In these patients, a cautious gradual increase of PEEP up to 14–15 cmH<sub>2</sub>O may be beneficial. A decrease in SvO2 during this phase suggests an inadequate cardiac output so that higher PEEP levels for lung recruitment may no longer be useful. Cardiac ultrasound may also be useful for assessing right heart function when increasing PEEP levels.</p></sec><sec id="Sec8"><title>Shunt determination</title><p id="Par7">Calculating the shunt fraction is the best tool to assess oxygenation.</p><p id="Par8">The etCO<sub>2</sub>/PaCO<sub>2</sub> relationship is a useful tool to quantify efficiency of pulmonary exchange. A ratio < 1 suggests elevated shunt and dead space (areas of lung ventilated and not perfused).</p><sec id="FPar1"><title>Prone positioning</title><p id="Par9">For type 2 patients, prone position could be used as a long-term treatment—as in any form of severe ARDS [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>]. However, in type 1 patients, prone positioning should be considered more as a <italic>rescue</italic> maneuver to facilitate the redistribution of pulmonary blood flow, rather than for opening collapsed areas. Long-term prone positioning/supine cycles is of very little benefit in patients with high lung compliance, and it leads to high levels of stress and fatigue in the personnel.</p></sec><sec id="FPar2"><title>Nitric oxide</title><p id="Par10">The oxygenation response to NO is variable. The COVID-19 pneumonia appears to interfere with the vascular regulation up to complete loss of vascular tone to vasoconstricting or vasodilating agents. We still do not have enough evidence to understand when and on which patients it should be applied. Nitric oxide should not work in fully vasoplegic patients (type 1 in our model) but possibly works in patients in which pulmonary hypertension is more likely (type 2 in our model).</p></sec><sec id="FPar3"><title>(Micro)thrombosis and D-dimer levels</title><p id="Par11">In this disease, thrombosis and associated ischemic events are very common. A daily check of coagulation parameters, in particular D-dimer levels, should be performed in both the type 1 and the type 2 patients, judiciously anticoagulated when indicated.</p><p id="Par12">Type 1 patients:
<list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p id="Par13">PEEP levels should be kept lower in patients with high pulmonary compliance</p></list-item><list-item><p id="Par14">Tidal volume thresholds should not be limited at 6 ml/kg</p></list-item><list-item><p id="Par15">Respiratory rate should not exceed 20 breaths/min</p></list-item><list-item><p id="Par16">Patients should be left “quiet”; avoiding doing too much is of higher benefit than intervening at any cost.</p></list-item></list></p><p id="Par17">Type 2 patients:
<list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p id="Par18">Standard treatment for severe ARDS should be applied (lower tidal volume, prone positioning, and relatively high PEEP).</p></list-item></list></p></sec></sec></sec></sec></body><back><fn-group><fn><p><bold>Publisher’s Note</bold></p><p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></fn></fn-group><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>None.</p></ack><notes notes-type="author-contribution"><title>Authors’ contributions</title><p>The authors equally contributed to the idea presented in the manuscript, which is derived from the direct observation of numerous COVID-19 patients treated in and outside intensive care. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p></notes><notes notes-type="funding-information"><title>Funding</title><p>Institutional.</p></notes><notes notes-type="data-availability"><title>Availability of data and materials</title><p>Not applicable.</p></notes><notes><title>Ethics approval and consent to participate</title><p id="Par19">Not applicable.</p></notes><notes><title>Consent for publication</title><p id="Par20">Not applicable.</p></notes><notes notes-type="COI-statement"><title>Competing interests</title><p id="Par21">Not applicable.</p></notes><ref-list id="Bib1"><title>References</title><ref id="CR1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Force* TADT: Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA. 2012;307(23):2526–33.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Force ARDSDT, Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, Ferguson ND, Caldwell E, Fan E, Camporota L, Slutsky AS. 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