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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">SARS: lessons in strategic planning for hoteliers and destination
marketers</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmc">7147429</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7147429</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:7147429</idno><idno type="doi">10.1108/09596110810866145</idno><idno type="pmid">NONE</idno><date when="2008">2008</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">001641</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">001641</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">SARS: lessons in strategic planning for hoteliers and destination
marketers</title></analytic><series><title level="j">International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management</title><idno type="ISSN">0959-6119</idno><imprint><date when="2008">2008</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Purpose</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>The purpose of this paper is to review the impact that the 2003 SARS epidemic had on
tourism and summarize the lessons that were learned from this crisis. To offer both
practical and strategic tips for hoteliers and destination marketers in the Niagara
region should a similar crisis affect this region.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Design/methodology/approach</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>Findings were derived from the analysis of both secondary and primary data. The popular
press and academic journals as well as reports, briefs, and presentations were analyzed.
A questionnaire was designed to investigate the impact of SARS, management during the
crisis, recovery strategies, and formal planning.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Findings</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>Provides information on how industry dealt with a major, extended crisis. Recognizes
the importance of an integrated strategy for dealing with a crisis.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Research limitations/implications</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>The paper concentrates on the effects of an epidemic in two large North American
cities. The strategic and practical tips may not be suitable in other jurisdictions.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Practical implications</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>This paper provides information on how the tourism industry can prepare itself for a
crisis or disaster and describes how all stakeholders must work together to better deal
with the effects of a crisis.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Originality/value</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>This paper summarizes the effects that SARS had on the tourism industry and offers
practical and strategic tips for preparing for and managing crises.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ansoff, H I" uniqKey="Ansoff H">H.I. Ansoff</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Barton, L" uniqKey="Barton L">L. Barton</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bradsher, K A" uniqKey="Bradsher K">K.A. Bradsher</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brahmbhatt, M" uniqKey="Brahmbhatt M">M. Brahmbhatt</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Braun Atour, K A" uniqKey="Braun Atour K">K.A. Braun‐LaTour</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="David, F R" uniqKey="David F">F.R. David</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dev, C" uniqKey="Dev C">C. Dev</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Edgar, D A" uniqKey="Edgar D">D.A. Edgar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Faulker, B" uniqKey="Faulker B">B. Faulker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Flynn, D" uniqKey="Flynn D">D. Flynn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Glaesser, D" uniqKey="Glaesser D">D. Glaesser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Higley, J" uniqKey="Higley J">J. Higley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lattin, G W" uniqKey="Lattin G">G.W. Lattin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mason, P" uniqKey="Mason P">P. Mason</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Matthews, G" uniqKey="Matthews G">G. Matthews</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Miles, R" uniqKey="Miles R">R. Miles</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nikiel, R" uniqKey="Nikiel R">R. Nikiel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Olsen, M" uniqKey="Olsen M">M. Olsen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Parsons, W" uniqKey="Parsons W">W. Parsons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Preble, J" uniqKey="Preble J">J. Preble</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pine, R" uniqKey="Pine R">R. Pine</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Saloner, G" uniqKey="Saloner G">G. Saloner</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shrivastava, P" uniqKey="Shrivastava P">P. Shrivastava</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smith, M" uniqKey="Smith M">M. Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stafford, G" uniqKey="Stafford G">G. Stafford</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tufts, S" uniqKey="Tufts S">S. Tufts</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yu, L" uniqKey="Yu L">L. Yu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijchm</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="doi">10.1108/ijchm</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0959-6119</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Emerald Group Publishing Limited</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">7147429</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1108/09596110810866145</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">0410200308.pdf</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">0410200308</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Paper</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="subject"><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-THOS</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Tourism &
hospitality</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><subj-group><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-THMM</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Tourism & hospitality
management/marketing</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><subj-group><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-BIT</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Brand image in
tourism</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-DMM</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Destination
management/marketing</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-FBM</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Food & beverage
management</compound-subject-part></compound-subject><compound-subject><compound-subject-part content-type="code">cat-HTMN</compound-subject-part><compound-subject-part content-type="label">Hotel management</compound-subject-part></compound-subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>SARS: lessons in strategic planning for hoteliers and destination
marketers</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Jayawardena</surname><given-names>Chandana</given-names><prefix>Dr</prefix></name><aff>George Brown College, Ontario, Canada</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Johnson Tew</surname><given-names>Paula</given-names></name><aff>School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, George Brown College, Toronto, Canada</aff></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Lu</surname><given-names>Zhen</given-names></name><aff>Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada</aff></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Tolomiczenko</surname><given-names>George</given-names></name><aff>Crohn's & Colitis Foundation of Canada, Toronto, Canada</aff></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Gellatly</surname><given-names>Joanne</given-names></name><aff>School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, George Brown College, Toronto, Canada</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><day>18</day><month>4</month><year>2008</year></pub-date><volume>20</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title>How should Niagara region respond to the challenges it faces and find solutions
to preserve and develop its tourism industry?</issue-title><issue-title content-type="short">Challenges facing tourism in Niagara</issue-title><fpage>332</fpage><lpage>346</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>© Emerald Group Publishing Limited</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2008</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted
research re-use and secondary analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement
of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World
Health Organization (WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="09596110810866145.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Purpose</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>The purpose of this paper is to review the impact that the 2003 SARS epidemic had on
tourism and summarize the lessons that were learned from this crisis. To offer both
practical and strategic tips for hoteliers and destination marketers in the Niagara
region should a similar crisis affect this region.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Design/methodology/approach</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>Findings were derived from the analysis of both secondary and primary data. The popular
press and academic journals as well as reports, briefs, and presentations were analyzed.
A questionnaire was designed to investigate the impact of SARS, management during the
crisis, recovery strategies, and formal planning.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Findings</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>Provides information on how industry dealt with a major, extended crisis. Recognizes
the importance of an integrated strategy for dealing with a crisis.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Research limitations/implications</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>The paper concentrates on the effects of an epidemic in two large North American
cities. The strategic and practical tips may not be suitable in other jurisdictions.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Practical implications</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>This paper provides information on how the tourism industry can prepare itself for a
crisis or disaster and describes how all stakeholders must work together to better deal
with the effects of a crisis.</p></sec><sec><title content-type="abstract-heading">Originality/value</title><x xml:space="preserve"> – </x><p>This paper summarizes the effects that SARS had on the tourism industry and offers
practical and strategic tips for preparing for and managing crises.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Diseases</kwd><x xml:space="preserve">, </x><kwd>Strategic planning</kwd><x xml:space="preserve">, </x><kwd>Health and safety</kwd><x xml:space="preserve">, </x><kwd>Tourism</kwd><x xml:space="preserve">, </x><kwd>Hotel and catering industry</kwd><x xml:space="preserve">, </x><kwd>Canada</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>peer-reviewed</meta-name><meta-value>yes</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta><meta-name>academic-content</meta-name><meta-value>yes</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta><meta-name>rightslink</meta-name><meta-value>included</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>In the summer of 2003, the unprecedented epidemic, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS), had a devastating effect on the tourism and hospitality industry and put tremendous
strain on the health care system. This effect was worldwide for tourism but most noticed in
Beijing, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Toronto (<xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KPMG,
2003</xref>; <xref rid="b26" ref-type="bibr">Pine and McKercher, 2004</xref>). The Toronto
tourism and hospitality industry felt an immediate impact from this previously unknown
disease.</p><p>SARS was first discovered in the southern province of Guangdong, China, in late 2002. At
that time, very little was known about the disease, including, how it originated and the way
it is transmitted. By May 15, 2003, over 150 cases of SARS, worldwide, were reported to the
World Health Organization with Canada reporting seven cases including two deaths (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/index.html">www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/index.html</ext-link>). On May 18, 2004, WHO reported
that “the chain of human‐to‐human transmission [of SARS] appears to be broken” (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html">www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html</ext-link>). In all, the virus killed
approximately 800 people (<xref rid="b41" ref-type="bibr">WHO, 2006</xref>) and infected
many thousands more. In Canada there were 251 reported cases of SARS and 43 deaths. The
economic impact of SARS, though difficult to ascertain due to multiple crises in 2002 and
2003, is estimated to be in excess of $15 billion worldwide and continues to impact tourism
even today (<xref rid="b29" ref-type="bibr">SARS, 2003a</xref>, <xref rid="b30" ref-type="bibr">b</xref>, <xref rid="b32" ref-type="bibr">c</xref>).</p><p>The SARS epidemic gave researchers an opportunity to examine the effectiveness of strategic
management in dealing with a highly uncertain event. The two sectors most directly affected
by the SARS outbreak were the tourism industry and the health care and social assistance
sector. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>• </label><p>review the impact that the 2003 SARS epidemic had on tourism, in particular hotels
and attractions, and summarise the lessons that were learned from this crisis; and</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>offer both practical and strategic tips for hoteliers and destination marketers in
the Niagara region should a similar crisis affect this region and recommend
preparedness plans.</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec><title>Methodology</title><p>This paper is concerned with offering tourism and hospitality operators both practical and
strategic tips for limiting the negative impacts of a crisis or disaster. Findings were
derived from the analysis of both secondary and primary data. Extensive coverage was given
to the SARS epidemic in both the popular press and academic journals as well as through
reports, briefs, and presentations by members of concerned and associated organizations
(e.g. WHO, Conference Board of Canada).</p><p>In addition, a questionnaire with 28 questions was designed to investigate the following
areas: the impact of SARS on the hotel performance; measures and actions used manage the
SARS crisis during the outbreak; recovery strategies implemented after the SARS outbreak;
and extent of the formality of the strategic planning system of the hotels.</p><p>The first part of the survey included two questions. In the first question respondents were
asked to estimate, using a five‐point Likert scale, the impact that the SARS crisis had on
their hotel's performance. In the second question respondents were asked when their business
went back to normal operating levels or when they thought it would. A nominal scale was used
to measure this variable. The second part of the questionnaire dealt with the measures
respondents' organizations used to during the SARS crisis. A total of 11 nominal scale
questions were designed to identify the measures organizations used during the crisis
period. Part two of the survey included an open question, which asked respondents if there
were any other actions used to deal with the crisis.</p><p>The third part of the questionnaire was designed to measure the respondents' attitude
toward the recovery strategies employed after the SARS outbreak. The fourth part of the
questionnaire, which contained five questions, measured the extent of formality of the
strategic planning systems adopted by the hotels. The first question measured the time frame
of the company's long‐range plan. In the second question respondents were asked how often
this plan was reviewed. The third question was used to measure the formality of the process
used for analysing the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
(i.e. SWOT analysis) and finally, in the fourth question respondents were asked to ascertain
the nature and components of the strategic plan (i.e. mission statement, long‐term
objectives, action plans, scenario plans, and crisis management plans).</p><p>An introduction letter which included a link to the web‐based questionnaire was sent by
e‐mail in May 2004 to 125 hotels in Greater Toronto Area (GTA). Specifically, the e‐mail was
directed to potential respondents who held a management position of department head or
higher. Of the 125 e‐mails sent to potential respondents, 29 were returned as undeliverable
due to invalid addresses. A total of 17 completed questionnaires and one incomplete
questionnaire was received. The actual response rate was 18 percent (17/96).</p></sec><sec><title>SARS in 2003 – impact on tourism in Toronto</title><p>Based on the trends of the last 20 years of the twentieth century, it was widely assumed
that tourism, on a global scale, would continue to grow however, events in the first part of
the twenty‐first century have slowed, and even setback, tourism growth (<xref rid="b18" ref-type="bibr">Mason <italic>et al.</italic>, 2005</xref>). By 2003, the
tourism industry was beginning to recover from the effects of 9/11 and other terror attacks
aimed at tourists (e.g. Bali). However, 2003 turned out to be a very difficult year for
tourism in Canada and worldwide. The Iraq war, currency fluctuations, Mad Cow Disease (BSE),
problems in the airline sector both nationally and internationally, and SARS all took their
toll on the fragile, recovering tourism industry in Toronto and other destinations.</p><p>It was anticipated, however cautiously, that 2003 would mark the recovery of the tourism
industry in Canada. Indeed, the results of the first two months of 2003 suggested that the
recovery had, indeed, started. Demand for accommodations, across Canada, were up slightly in
January and February. However, this demand was slipped with the first reports of SARS in
Canada. <xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting (2003)</xref> reported that over two
million room nights were lost, across Canada, in the second quarter of 2003. Loss in room
nights went from almost 23,000 in March (down 0.4 percent) to over 662,000 in April, a loss
of 11.1 percent over 2002. May and June saw massive room night losses with over 590,000
(−9.1 percent) in May and 732,000 (−10.4 percent) in June (<xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting, 2003</xref>).</p><p>The accommodation sector of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) was the hardest hit area in
Canada. <xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting (2003)</xref> reported that Quarter 2
occupancy rates in the GTA were down 20 points to 48 percent indicating a loss of 1 million
rooms and $111 million in lost revenue. Not unexpectedly, the downtown core experienced the
greatest losses in the GTA as leisure and business travelers cancelled plans to visit the
city (47 percent occupancy in 2003 versus 72 percent in 2002) (<xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting, 2003</xref>).</p><p>According to the <italic>Tourism Expenditure Monitor</italic>, published weekly by KPMG,
the Toronto tourism and hospitality industry lost a reported $342.5 million from March 2,
2003 (date of the first SARS related death) to mid‐July, 2003 (<xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KPMG, 2003</xref>). Industry‐wide reports showed that the tourism industry, as a
whole, suffered a tremendous loss in both visitors and revenue. KPMG reports that between
April 6 and May 4, 2003 tourism related expenditures in Toronto decreased by 45 percent or
approximately $97 million. Indeed, the week of April 27, 2003 saw the most dramatic decline
in terms of tourism expenditures in Toronto. <xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KMPG
(2003)</xref> estimates that, during this week, tourist expenditures fell about 60 percent
compared to the same period in 2002. This loss in revenue amounted to almost $35 million in
one week. Toronto hotels, according to KPMG, were probably the most affected tourism sector
with an estimated 75 percent loss in revenue.</p><p>KPMG noted that all tourism sectors experienced a decline in revenue in the eight weeks
following April 6, 2003. The estimated losses, as calculated by KPMG, in the various tourist
sectors during this time period, are outlined in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_0410200308002">Table I</xref>.</p><p>Many hotels and tourism related organizations were caught unprepared for such an epidemic.
The common strategies adopted during this period were cutting costs, laying off workers, and
closing facilities and floors/wings of lodging areas (e.g. hotels). Industry experts claimed
that the magnitude of the impact on the tourism industry was even larger than that
experienced after 9/11 (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/news/0305/197.htm">http://cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/news/0305/197.htm</ext-link>). Indeed, SARS had a profound and
continuing impact on the tourism and hospitality organizations. The tourism fear factor
related to Canada as a destination choice was felt nationwide even though the crisis was
isolated in the Toronto region.</p><p>In terms employment, the Toronto tourism sector experienced losses of 12,100 jobs
(<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/english/media/2003/nr-jobsapr.html">www.fin.gov.on.ca/english/media/2003/nr‐jobsapr.html</ext-link>). The majority of job
losses were concentrated among workers in the accommodation and food and beverage sectors.
In addition, many other workers had their hours reduced (<xref rid="b39" ref-type="bibr">Tufts, 2003</xref>) in response to the decrease in the number of visitors. In some cases
the reduced hours were part of a work sharing agreement between the employer, the employees,
and Human Resources Development Canada (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/cs/comm/news/2003/030625a.shtml">www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/cs/comm/news/2003/030625a.shtml</ext-link>).</p><p>The tourism industry in Toronto was affected on many distribution levels and interrelated
support services as a result of the SARS epidemic. For example, the annual meeting of the
American Association for Cancer Research that was scheduled to take place in Toronto was
cancelled (<xref rid="b34" ref-type="bibr">Smith, 2003</xref>). This conference was expected
to draw upwards of 16,000 participants. The loss of this conference and others such as The
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario was devastating to the hospitality industry. In
total, in Toronto, nine major conventions were cancelled as a direct result of SARS (<xref rid="b19" ref-type="bibr">Matthews, 2005</xref>). Many other conferences organizers
hesitated to bring their delegates to a perceived risk area and therefore delayed their
plans to hold a conference in Toronto.</p><p>It is interesting to note the differences in impact that 9/11 and SARS had on the tourism
industry. <xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting (2003)</xref> reports that losses
associated with 9/11 were felt in the first month (i.e. 51 percent total room nights lost
and that each subsequent month saw a major reduction of losses. Within four months, the
losses, for Canada, due to 9/11 were negligible. In contrast, the losses attributed to SARS
escalated from February through to peak tourist season in the summer months.</p><p>Although the Niagara region received little attention, compared to Toronto, in the media
during and after the SARS epidemic, Niagara's tourism industry was nonetheless severely
affected. In fact, there was a decrease in tourism‐related expenditures in most Canadian
markets during the SARS epidemic (<xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KPMG, 2003</xref>). In
terms of the accommodation sector, the Niagara region experienced a loss of over 122,000
room nights in the second quarter of 2003. This loss translates in a loss of $19 million in
room revenue (<xref rid="b27" ref-type="bibr">PKF Consulting, 2003</xref>).</p><p>The Niagara region experienced a $8.8 million decrease in tourism related revenue for the
week of July 13 to 19, 2003, as compared to the same period in 2002 (<xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KPMG, 2003</xref>). Tourism expenditures in the Niagara region declined 41.4
percent in the first week of the 2003 summer tourist season as compared to the same period
in 2002 (<xref rid="b15" ref-type="bibr">KPMG, 2003</xref>). KPMG notes that the decline in
tourist expenditures in Niagara Falls, specifically, in 2003 was greater than for the other
six major Canadian cities. This decline is due, in part, to the high percentage of
international visitors to the city, including visitors from the USA. See <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_0410200308003">Table II</xref> for a comparison for losses in
Niagara Falls and Toronto.</p><p>In order to determine the impact that SARS had on hotels in the GTA, data was collected in
the spring and summer of 2004, a year after SARS hit Canada. The main purpose of this survey
was to measure the following four areas:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>1. </label><p>the extent of the impact of SARS on hotel performance;</p></list-item><list-item><label>2. </label><p>measures and actions used during the SARS outbreak;</p></list-item><list-item><label>3. </label><p>recovery strategies implemented after the SARS outbreak; and</p></list-item><list-item><label>4. </label><p>the extent to which strategic planning systems were formalized in the hotels.</p></list-item></list>Over 82 percent of respondents reported that SARS had an extremely hard or very hard
impact on their hotel's performance. This result is not surprising given the massive drop in
tourists and the World Health Organization's travel advisory. Interestingly, almost 12
percent reported that SARS had a negligible impact on hotel performance. Despite the
apparent hardship caused by the SARS epidemic, the majority of respondents believed that
business would return to normal by 2004 (11.8 percent) or 2005 (82.4 percent).</p><p>Most respondents (89 percent) reported that during the SARS outbreak the company sent
detailed information to managers on how to respond to the crisis. The second most frequently
used measure was asking employees to take vacation or unpaid leave (78 percent). Just over
70 percent of hotels (72 percent) redirected their marketing and sales efforts with just
over 60 percent offering deeply discounted packages to boost their hotel occupancy (61
percent). Almost 60 percent of respondents reported that they had laid off employees (59
percent) while 12 percent cut management salaries.</p><p>It appears that working actively with industry associations and governments was the most
frequently used strategy in the recovering stage (66 percent). Offering large discounts to
lure customers back (22 percent) and changing strategic plans had been assigned (22 percent)
appear to be less common as recovery strategies. Only 6 percent of respondents reported
using guest rooms for purposes other than accommodation (e.g. rent as commercial offices).
Filing an insurance claim (i.e. “Act of God”) was reported by one hotel (<xref rid="b13" ref-type="bibr">Government of Canada, 2003</xref>).</p><p>These results are consistent with other data. For example, the Toronto Board of Trade
reported that the SARS impact was considerable. Approximately 75 percent of businesses were
affected with 20 percent of these organizations were considered to have been affected in a
major way. Over 75 percent of the hospitality sector in Toronto experienced a downturn in
revenue during the SARS crisis and one in ten businesses, in general, and one in five
hospitality sector businesses, were forced to lay off staff.</p><p>All respondents indicated that their hotels had a strategic plan, which included a mission
statement, long‐term objectives, and action plans. Almost half of these hotels (47 percent)
said their strategic management plan included scenario plans and more than half of these
hotels (56 percent) also indicated that the strategic plan included a crisis management
plan. Over half of the respondents reported that the time frame of their strategic plans was
five years or longer (56 percent) and exactly half of hotels reviewed their strategic plan
annually. It is interesting to note that, anecdotally at least, hotels that review strategic
plans more frequently and that have a shorter time frame for the plan reported experiencing
less severe impacts from SARS on their organization's performance than did those hotels that
did not review their strategic plan frequently.</p></sec><sec><title>Crises and disasters: dealing with epidemics</title><p>There are many definitions of crisis and disaster (<xref rid="b10" ref-type="bibr">Faulker,
2001</xref>; <xref rid="b24" ref-type="bibr">Parsons, 1996</xref>; <xref rid="b25" ref-type="bibr">Preble, 1997</xref>; <xref rid="b35" ref-type="bibr">Stafford <italic>et
al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). A crisis is defined as internal. That is, a crisis is the
result of risks stemming from within an organization itself. In contrast, a disaster is
external. Disasters are a result of risks originating from outside the organization (<xref rid="b35" ref-type="bibr">Stafford <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>).</p><p>The SARS epidemic was what <xref rid="b24" ref-type="bibr">Parsons (1996)</xref> refers to
as a highly uncertain environmental event which had great negative impact on the affected
organizations. Faulkner suggests that a disaster is a:<disp-quote><p>[situation] where an enterprise (or collection of enterprises in the case of a tourist
destination) is confronted with sudden unpredictable catastrophic changes over which it
has little control (<xref rid="b24" ref-type="bibr">Parsons, 1996</xref>, p. 136).</p></disp-quote></p><p>There is no doubt that the SARS outbreak of 2003 meets the definition of disaster as
outlined by <xref rid="b10" ref-type="bibr">Faulkner (2001)</xref>.</p><p>It is almost certain that the world will experience another epidemic, similar in severity
to SARS in 2003, or pandemic. Epidemics, which vary in severity, occur every one to three
years and happen when there are more cases of a disease in a community or population than
would normally be expected. In contrast, pandemics, which are essentially epidemics that
occur on a very large scale (e.g. entire country, region, or globally), occur at
unpredictable intervals and are more devastating than epidemics. In the past century,
influenza pandemics occurred in 1918‐1919, 1957‐1958, and 1968‐1969 (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.pandemicflu.gov;">www.pandemicflu.gov;
</ext-link><xref rid="b23" ref-type="bibr">Pandemic preparedness, n.d.</xref>). There is
speculation that the next pandemic might come in the form of the H5N1 virus, also known as
bird or avian flu.</p><p>The World Bank estimates that the global cost of a bird‐flu pandemic could be 3.1 percent
of World GDP which, in 2007, is over $1 trillion. Milan Brahmbhatt, the World Bank Lead
Economist for East Asia and the Pacific, notes that a pandemic's immediate impact would be
seen in a “severe demand shock for services sectors such as tourism, mass transportation,
retail sales, hotels and restaurants, as well as a supply shock due to workplace
absenteeism, disruption of production processes and shifts to more costly procedures”
(<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://go.worldbank.org/QIB54LB5L0,para.10">http://go.worldbank.org/QIB54LB5L0, para. 10</ext-link>).</p><p>The World Health Organization and many governments worldwide have developed, or are in the
process of developing, pandemic preparedness plans focusing on an influenza pandemic. The
reasons stated for developing such plans are two‐fold. First, having a plan in place eases
the impacts of a pandemic. Second, preparation results in immediate improvements in
infrastructure which can ease the effects of epidemics and other disease threats (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/pandemic/en/">www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/pandemic/en/</ext-link>).</p><p>Similar to governments implementing a preparedness plan, organizations adopting strategic
management processes have better ability to deal with an uncertain environment (<xref rid="b1" ref-type="bibr">Ansoff, 1979</xref>; <xref rid="b20" ref-type="bibr">Miles and
Snow, 1978</xref>). Whether companies that adopt strategic management practices deal with
“highly unexpected, sudden changes” more effectively than those organizations that do not
adopt these practices is unknown.</p><p>The very nature of crises suggest that they are unexpected, but brief, events with few
managers possessing either first‐hand knowledge or practical experience in dealing with the
particular situation (<xref rid="b24" ref-type="bibr">Parsons, 1996</xref>). <xref rid="b2" ref-type="bibr">Barton (1994</xref>, p. 59) argued that “companies having a
crisis management plan in hand can reassure the pubic and speed the return to normal
operations”. This assertion appears to be supported by <xref rid="b35" ref-type="bibr">Stafford <italic>et al.</italic> (2002)</xref> in their research on how Washington, DC
hotels responded to terrorism after 9/11. In particular, they found that “recovery
strategies pursued collectively by the [industry] yielded positive results” (<xref rid="b35" ref-type="bibr">Stafford <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>, p. 99).</p><p>Many studies have concluded that a strategic management or strategic planning system can
help organizations align their organizational resources to their environments and thus
increase their performance (<xref rid="b22" ref-type="bibr">Olsen <italic>et al.</italic>,
1998</xref>). <xref rid="b8" ref-type="bibr">Dev and Olsen (1989</xref>, p. 171) tested
the tenet that “there exists an optimal pattern or ‘fit’ between the environment and the
firm's business strategy that separates the more successful operations from the less
successful ones”. The findings indicate that, for higher performance companies, there is a
“match” between the state of the environment and a firm's business strategy. These findings
suggest that a strategic emergency preparedness plan allows organizations to be better
equipped and more in control of their brand management positioning strategies through
organized methodical approaches to crises.</p><p>Few studies, however, have addressed the question of whether or not strategic management
can help companies prevent and mitigate negative effects of a crisis in particular one
stemming unexpectedly from the outside environment (<xref rid="b25" ref-type="bibr">Preble,
1997</xref>). A review of strategic management textbooks revealed that very little has
been discussed explicitly on whether or not strategic management will prevent crisis.
However, there is a general consensus on the notion that strategic management processes help
organizations deal with change effectively.</p><p>Strategic management is a process of “developing and implementing a strategy that allows
managers to exercise more control over the firm's direction and to chart a course that
enhances the firm's performance” (<xref rid="b28" ref-type="bibr">Saloner <italic>et
al.</italic>, 2001</xref>, p. 20). <xref rid="b7" ref-type="bibr">David (2003</xref>, p.
15) suggests that strategic management allows an organization to be “more proactive than
negative in shaping its own future” and “exerts control over its own destiny”. <xref rid="b33" ref-type="bibr">Shrivastava and Mitroff (1987)</xref> indicate that a sudden
crisis has a devastating effect on an organization, or even a community in its vicinity,
when that organization or community is unprepared to deal with the crisis. They further note
that corporations that develop strategic plans will have better capacity to prevent and cope
with crises.</p><p>There are some criticisms of strategic management. In particular, some authors note that
strategic management will not prevent a crisis because it tends to focus on an offensive
strategy (<xref rid="b12" ref-type="bibr">Glaesser, 2003</xref>; <xref rid="b21" ref-type="bibr">Nykiel, 2005</xref>; <xref rid="b25" ref-type="bibr">Preble, 1997</xref>) that
tries to eliminate or contain the problem. Further, it fails to recognize the low
possibility but potentially high impact event. <xref rid="b9" ref-type="bibr">Edgar and
Nisbet (1996)</xref> further asserted that “long range strategic planning is of little
benefit to businesses operating in the hospitality industry”, as crises are inevitable in
the hospitality industry (<xref rid="b2" ref-type="bibr">Barton, 1994</xref>). They
suggested that the companies in hospitality industry should not try to overcome their
environment but, rather, should change and adapt with the environment.</p><p>Anecdotal evidence suggests larger organizations (e.g. chain hotels) deal with disasters,
such as SARS, better than smaller organizations (e.g. independent hotels). For example,
Accor sent detailed information on how to respond to SARS, the previously unheard of
illness, to all the managers of its 3,800 hotels worldwide (<xref rid="b3" ref-type="bibr">Bradsher, 2003</xref>). Ritz‐Carton launched a post‐SARS recovery effort within the hotel
that consisted of a re‐launch and renewal countdown in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Singapore.
The advantages that larger organizations (e.g. chain affiliated hotels) have are that they
have strong brands, better communications technology, proven record of management
experience, strong financial support, and successful management systems (<xref rid="b16" ref-type="bibr">Lattin, 2002</xref>).</p></sec><sec><title>Practical tips</title><p>Crisis management offers a strategic planning framework for both anticipating and dealing
with a major crisis. According to the nature of crisis development, crisis management can be
divided into four stages (<xref rid="b42" ref-type="bibr">Yu <italic>et al.</italic>,
2006</xref>):<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>1. </label><p>pre‐crisis stage;</p></list-item><list-item><label>2. </label><p>acute crisis stage;</p></list-item><list-item><label>3. </label><p>chronicle crisis stage; and</p></list-item><list-item><label>4. </label><p>review stage.</p></list-item></list>These stages are reviewed below. By implementing a crisis management plan across the
organization, tourism operators will be in a better position to mitigate the effects of a
crisis when it occurs.</p><sec><title>The pre‐crisis stage</title><p>This is when action can be taken to prevent or mitigate the effects of potential crises.
Every hotel, regardless its size, location and affiliation, should develop a sound
understanding of how specific crises might affect the tourist industry, in general, and,
specifically, their particular organization. Further they should develop crisis
contingency plan and integrate it into their strategic planning systems to effectively
detect and avoid or at least minimise the potential crisis. There are four main elements
of the crisis management responses and strategies for tourism operators in the pre‐crisis
stage.</p><p>First, organizations must develop a crisis management plan (<xref rid="b2" ref-type="bibr">Barton, 1994</xref>; <xref rid="b14" ref-type="bibr">Higley, 2006</xref>) and
integrate it to strategic planning systems. Since crises pose threats to existing
strategies and strategic actions, companies should develop strategic plans and programs to
deal with these crises. Strategic plans allow organizations to develop their capacity to
cope with crises when they do occur (<xref rid="b25" ref-type="bibr">Preble, 1997</xref>;
<xref rid="b33" ref-type="bibr">Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987</xref>). In conjunction
with the development of a crisis management plan is the need to work with various
stakeholders.</p><p>Managers should be appointed to work with destination marketing organizations (DMOs) and
government agencies to identify the early warning signs of a potential crisis. Further,
these managers should be responsible for creating and training a crisis management term to
manage the impact of the crisis should it occur (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.pandemicflu.gov/">www.pandemicflu.gov/</ext-link>). The tourism
sector is constantly faced with the decision as to what information should be made
available to tourists but also has a duty to inform guests and the public of the
associated risks of the crisis.</p><p>Third, management should review the strategic plan frequently to see if there is a need
to change any strategic directions or decisions. A strategic plan with a horizon of five
years or less ensure that the organization is up to date with both potential threats and
the developed response. Finally, a process of acculturation and training for handling
crises both formally and informally and throughout all levels of the organization is vital
for the crisis management plan to be effective in the event of a crisis (<xref rid="b42" ref-type="bibr">Yu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>).</p></sec><sec><title>The acute crisis stage</title><p>This refers to the point‐in‐time when the effects of the crisis are felt and cannot be
reversed. It is necessary for tourism organizations to take the appropriate action to
protect employees, customers, and property. During this stage the emphasis is on
management responses, mobilization, and action which includes establishing a crisis
management command centre and securing facilities. The strategy is to implement crisis
contingency plans, including:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>• </label><p>identifying likely impacts and risks to the organization given the nature of the
crisis;</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>informing managers and employees on how to handle the specific crisis;</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>ready availability and familiarity with emergency and crisis response equipment and
information. The main objective would be to have a central information point
plan;</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>using media as communication vehicle focusing on restoring consumer confidence to
the hotel product and service (<xref rid="b5" ref-type="bibr">Braun‐LaTour
<italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>; <xref rid="b10" ref-type="bibr">Faulkner,
2001</xref>);</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>re‐directing marketing and sales efforts For example, focusing on local and
adjacent areas, forming strategic marketing alliance, and working with local
organizations such as the DMO or convention and tourism bureau; and</p></list-item><list-item><label>• </label><p>implementing cost cutting strategies.</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec><title>The chronicle stage</title><p>This is a period of self‐analysis and recovery. The emphasis during this stage is on
recovery and reconstruction. The main responses during the chronicle stage are conducting
a damage audit, monitoring various systems, cleaning, repair, and restoration of damaged
property, counseling victims including employees, restoring consumer confidence, and
developing investment plans.</p></sec><sec><title>The review stage</title><p>This is when the organization reflects on the crisis as a whole including what went right
in terms of planning and where improvements can be made. The review stage does not occur
until routine is restored. In some cases a new, improved state established. The goal of
the organization and the destination during the review stage is one of reflection and
attempting to convert the lessons learned into an opportunity (<xref rid="b42" ref-type="bibr">Yu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>).</p><p>Crisis management will not help an organization or country avoid the crisis but, rather,
will enable those who have a plan to manage the crisis (<xref rid="b11" ref-type="bibr">Flynn and Lenaghan, 2007</xref>). The World Health Organization suggests that every
nation should develop a pandemic plan. “Organizational preparedness is essential in
successfully minimizing or avoiding the peril altogether” (<xref rid="b11" ref-type="bibr">Flynn and Lenaghan, 2007</xref>, p. 506). Indeed, there can be unintentional system
breakdowns from the overwhelming complexity of the tourism product itself.</p></sec></sec><sec><title>Strategic tips</title><p>There are a number of strategic tips for hotels and destinations that can be offered based
on a review of the SARS epidemic in Toronto. In this case, ideas and actions are offered
that make sense and are a matter of fact for dealing with crises. However, what makes sense
might not be easy to implement or achieve. The strategic tips offered here include:
collaboration and cooperation within an organization through established plans that permit
speed in communication processes and control of public concerns.</p><p>As a case in point, perhaps one of the single most important factors necessary in combating
the next epidemic is global collaboration and cooperation (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.globalization101.org/index.php?file=news1&id=37">www.globalization101.org/index.php?file=news1&id=37</ext-link>). SARS spread quickly
throughout the world aided by ease of international travel and in part because SARS, as a
disease, was essentially unknown in 2003. In conjunction with global collaboration is the
need for transparency when dealing with crises. <xref rid="b11" ref-type="bibr">Flynn and
Lenaghan (2007</xref>, p. 506) suggest that “when a crisis is dealt with behind a veil of
secrecy, it leaves all beyond the hem to question management's effectiveness” as is what
happened in the case of China's handling of SARS. SARS was detected in November, 2002, in
Guangdong province but news of the new disease did not surface until February, 2003. Thus,
collaboration in dealing with the outbreak was delayed by months.</p><p>Global collaboration between health organizations and governments is essential in the event
of another epidemic or pandemic. However, collaboration must also take place on a national
and local level. The Ontario government was criticised for its slow response to the SARS
crisis. For example the Ontario legislature, which had been on break since December 2002,
was not recalled until late April, 2003. The recall corresponded with the World Health
Organization's travel advisory in April and the outcry from the tourism industry. Despite
its slow response, government involvement, at all levels, was key in both managing the
outbreak and the recovery. This collaborative strategy began to build trust and camaraderie
with inclusive concerns of all stakeholder levels being involved in the recovery planning
between government and industry.</p><p>The city of Toronto and the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) collaborated with a series of
advertisements encouraging Torontonians to become tourists in their own city. The campaign
consisted of using well‐known figures from Toronto encouraging Torontonians to take
advantage of the city sights, restaurants, and accommodations. The 20‐second broadcasts were
aired on the subway system every ten minutes. Such collaboration could be done with relative
ease in any jurisdiction and builds upon the interdependency between different industries
and societies within.</p><p>Inherent in the “tourist in your own city” strategy is the need to increase or at least
maintain the marketing budget of an organization and destination. Communication is a key in
the fight against bad publicity and negative press is communication. It has been suggested
by some that the SARS epidemic was “more about psychology than epidemiology” (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-seeman042503.asp">www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment‐seeman042503.asp</ext-link>). Seeman suggests, for
example, the probable cases of SARS were combined with suspected cases in the media thus
amplifying the severity of the disease.</p><p>Community action is a key strategy in dealing with the impact of a crisis on a destination.
Implicit in community action is the need for various stakeholders to join forces to
minimize, if not alleviate, the impact of a crisis on their own organization and on the
destination (e.g. Toronto, Niagara region) as a whole. In the case of Toronto, the Toronto
Tourism Industry Coalition was formed and included leaders from industry, labor, and
government. Its mandate was to develop plans and solutions to promote Toronto as a viable
option for travel. Critical thinking uses problem‐solving analysis.</p><p>The Coalition concentrated on four areas including: raising the profile of the city and
promoting it as a safe destination; organizing familiarisation trips and site tours;
portraying the merits of the city and identifying new markets; and alleviating fears of
travelers (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.meetingscanada.com/newsletters/June_2003.html">www.meetingscanada.com/newsletters/June_2003.html</ext-link>). This collaborative
strategic handling embraced the fundamental normal and ethical position of an industry.
Giving particular attention to crisis situation planning allows for the analysis of possible
consequences and impact containment strategies.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Getting started with a crisis management plan can be a difficult, albeit very necessary,
task. A starting point for crisis management planning is outline below and incorporates both
the strategic and practical tips for the tourism industry. Organizations must develop a
crisis management and preparedness plan in order to minimize the negative impacts of a
crisis or disaster. A well‐developed plan will enable organizations to react quickly and
effectively should a crisis occur. In acting effectively, organizations must be aware of
public brand management and internal management while working with the industry and
community as a whole to minimize or alleviate the impact of a crisis or disaster (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_0410200308001">Figure 1</xref>).</p><p>The Niagara region relies very heavily on the tourism and hospitality industry as a major
contributor it the region's economy. Recent significant capital improvements, such as the
casino and the Butterfly Conservatory, have reflected the importance of tourism to the
region. The Niagara region is uniquely positioned as a tourist destination due in part to
natural environment and related infrastructure but also because of its physical location.
Over 50 percent of all travelers enter the province of Ontario through Niagara. The region
is often referred to as the Gateway to Ontario, Canada. Indeed, the major of visitors to the
region are international.</p><p>With such a large emphasis on tourism, international visitors in particular, it is
important that the Niagara region not be caught unprepared for a crisis or disaster. To be
unprepared and unable to handle the fallout from an event such as SARS would have a
devastating effect on the local economy and tourism industry, particularly as its focus is
on international visitors. A well‐developed and integrated preparedness plan and management
plan are vitally important if the tourism industry is to survive a crisis or disaster with
minimal impact to visitors, businesses, and locals.</p><p>It is not a question of if another epidemic, or worse pandemic, will hit Canada and
globally but rather, when. It is vital that tourism operators in the Niagara region, and
around the world, learn from the SARS epidemic and implement a plan for dealing with the
next crisis. The key is to start planning now. The next major crisis, be it an epidemic,
pandemic, or natural or human made disaster, cannot be averted however, its impact on an
organization or destination can be minimized with well thought out planning.</p></sec><sec><fig id="F_0410200308001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1<x xml:space="preserve"> </x></label><caption><p>Proposed model of crisis management planning and implementation</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="09596110810866145-0410200308001"></graphic></fig></sec><sec><fig id="F_0410200308002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table I<x xml:space="preserve"> </x></label><caption><p>Tourism revenue losses in Toronto – 6 April to 1 June 2003</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="09596110810866145-0410200308002"></graphic></fig></sec><sec><fig id="F_0410200308003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table II<x xml:space="preserve"> </x></label><caption><p>Comparison of change in tourism expenditures in Niagara Falls and Toronto for 2 March
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