Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Biosensors for Highly Accurate Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Detection
Identifieur interne : 000031 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000030; suivant : 000032Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Biosensors for Highly Accurate Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Detection
Auteurs : Guangyu Qiu ; Zhibo Gai ; Yile Tao ; Jean Schmitt ; Gerd A. Kullak-Ublick ; Jing WangSource :
- ACS Nano [ 1936-0851 ] ; 2020.
Abstract
The ongoing outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has spread globally
and poses a threat to public health in more than 200 countries. Reliable laboratory
diagnosis of the disease has been one of the foremost priorities for promoting public
health interventions. The routinely used reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) is currently the reference method for COVID-19 diagnosis. However, it also
reported a number of false-positive or -negative cases, especially in the early stages
of the novel virus outbreak. In this work, a dual-functional plasmonic biosensor
combining the plasmonic photothermal (PPT) effect and localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) sensing transduction provides an alternative and promising solution for
the clinical COVID-19 diagnosis. The two-dimensional gold nanoislands (AuNIs)
functionalized with complementary DNA receptors can perform a sensitive detection of the
selected sequences from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
through nucleic acid hybridization. For better sensing performance, the thermoplasmonic
heat is generated on the same AuNIs chip when illuminated at their plasmonic resonance
frequency. The localized PPT heat is capable to elevate the
Url:
DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c02439
PubMed: 32281785
PubMed Central: 7158889
Links to Exploration step
PMC:7158889Le document en format XML
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Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Detection</title>
<author><name sortKey="Qiu, Guangyu" sort="Qiu, Guangyu" uniqKey="Qiu G" first="Guangyu" last="Qiu">Guangyu Qiu</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Gai, Zhibo" sort="Gai, Zhibo" uniqKey="Gai Z" first="Zhibo" last="Gai">Zhibo Gai</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,<institution>University Hospital Zurich, University of Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8091,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4">Experimental Center,<institution>Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine</institution>
, Jinan 250355,<country>PR China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Tao, Yile" sort="Tao, Yile" uniqKey="Tao Y" first="Yile" last="Tao">Yile Tao</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Schmitt, Jean" sort="Schmitt, Jean" uniqKey="Schmitt J" first="Jean" last="Schmitt">Jean Schmitt</name>
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<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Kullak Ublick, Gerd A" sort="Kullak Ublick, Gerd A" uniqKey="Kullak Ublick G" first="Gerd A." last="Kullak-Ublick">Gerd A. Kullak-Ublick</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,<institution>University Hospital Zurich, University of Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8091,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5">Mechanistic Safety, CMO & Patient Safety, Global Drug Development,<institution>Novartis Pharma</institution>
, Basel 4002,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Jing" sort="Wang, Jing" uniqKey="Wang J" first="Jing" last="Wang">Jing Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
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<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Biosensors for Highly Accurate Severe
Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Detection</title>
<author><name sortKey="Qiu, Guangyu" sort="Qiu, Guangyu" uniqKey="Qiu G" first="Guangyu" last="Qiu">Guangyu Qiu</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Gai, Zhibo" sort="Gai, Zhibo" uniqKey="Gai Z" first="Zhibo" last="Gai">Zhibo Gai</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,<institution>University Hospital Zurich, University of Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8091,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4">Experimental Center,<institution>Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine</institution>
, Jinan 250355,<country>PR China</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Tao, Yile" sort="Tao, Yile" uniqKey="Tao Y" first="Yile" last="Tao">Yile Tao</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Schmitt, Jean" sort="Schmitt, Jean" uniqKey="Schmitt J" first="Jean" last="Schmitt">Jean Schmitt</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Kullak Ublick, Gerd A" sort="Kullak Ublick, Gerd A" uniqKey="Kullak Ublick G" first="Gerd A." last="Kullak-Ublick">Gerd A. Kullak-Ublick</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3">Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,<institution>University Hospital Zurich, University of Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8091,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5">Mechanistic Safety, CMO & Patient Safety, Global Drug Development,<institution>Novartis Pharma</institution>
, Basel 4002,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Jing" sort="Wang, Jing" uniqKey="Wang J" first="Jing" last="Wang">Jing Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2">Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
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<series><title level="j">ACS Nano</title>
<idno type="ISSN">1936-0851</idno>
<idno type="eISSN">1936-086X</idno>
<imprint><date when="2020">2020</date>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p content-type="toc-graphic"><graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0006" id="ab-tgr1"></graphic>
</p>
<p>The ongoing outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has spread globally
and poses a threat to public health in more than 200 countries. Reliable laboratory
diagnosis of the disease has been one of the foremost priorities for promoting public
health interventions. The routinely used reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) is currently the reference method for COVID-19 diagnosis. However, it also
reported a number of false-positive or -negative cases, especially in the early stages
of the novel virus outbreak. In this work, a dual-functional plasmonic biosensor
combining the plasmonic photothermal (PPT) effect and localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) sensing transduction provides an alternative and promising solution for
the clinical COVID-19 diagnosis. The two-dimensional gold nanoislands (AuNIs)
functionalized with complementary DNA receptors can perform a sensitive detection of the
selected sequences from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
through nucleic acid hybridization. For better sensing performance, the thermoplasmonic
heat is generated on the same AuNIs chip when illuminated at their plasmonic resonance
frequency. The localized PPT heat is capable to elevate the <italic>in situ</italic>
hybridization temperature and facilitate the accurate discrimination of two similar gene
sequences. Our dual-functional LSPR biosensor exhibits a high sensitivity toward the
selected SARS-CoV-2 sequences with a lower detection limit down to the concentration of
0.22 pM and allows precise detection of the specific target in a multigene mixture. This
study gains insight into the thermoplasmonic enhancement and its applicability in the
nucleic acid tests and viral disease diagnosis.</p>
</div>
</front>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="research-article" xml:lang="EN"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">ACS Nano</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">ACS Nano</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nn</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="coden">ancac3</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>ACS Nano</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1936-0851</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1936-086X</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>American Chemical Society</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">32281785</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">7158889</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/acsnano.0c02439</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group><subject>Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Biosensors for Highly Accurate Severe
Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Detection</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath1"><name><surname>Qiu</surname>
<given-names>Guangyu</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath2"><name><surname>Gai</surname>
<given-names>Zhibo</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff3" ref-type="aff">§</xref>
<xref rid="aff4" ref-type="aff">∥</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath3"><name><surname>Tao</surname>
<given-names>Yile</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath4"><name><surname>Schmitt</surname>
<given-names>Jean</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" id="ath5"><name><surname>Kullak-Ublick</surname>
<given-names>Gerd A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="aff3" ref-type="aff">§</xref>
<xref rid="aff5" ref-type="aff">⊥</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes" id="ath6"><name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Jing</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="cor1" ref-type="other">*</xref>
<xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">†</xref>
<xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">‡</xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1"><label>†</label>
Institute of Environmental Engineering,<institution>ETH Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8093,<country>Switzerland</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2"><label>‡</label>
Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa,<institution>Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</institution>
, Dübendorf 8600,<country>Switzerland</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3"><label>§</label>
Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,<institution>University Hospital Zurich, University of Zürich</institution>
, Zürich 8091,<country>Switzerland</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4"><label>∥</label>
Experimental Center,<institution>Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine</institution>
, Jinan 250355,<country>PR China</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5"><label>⊥</label>
Mechanistic Safety, CMO & Patient Safety, Global Drug Development,<institution>Novartis Pharma</institution>
, Basel 4002,<country>Switzerland</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><label>*</label>
Email:
<email>jing.wang@ifu.baug.ethz.ch</email>
.</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>13</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2020</year>
</pub-date>
<elocation-id>acsnano.0c02439</elocation-id>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>21</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2020</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>08</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2020</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2020 American Chemical Society</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2020</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>American Chemical Society</copyright-holder>
<license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted RESEARCH
re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original
source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization
(WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p content-type="toc-graphic"><graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0006" id="ab-tgr1"></graphic>
</p>
<p>The ongoing outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has spread globally
and poses a threat to public health in more than 200 countries. Reliable laboratory
diagnosis of the disease has been one of the foremost priorities for promoting public
health interventions. The routinely used reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) is currently the reference method for COVID-19 diagnosis. However, it also
reported a number of false-positive or -negative cases, especially in the early stages
of the novel virus outbreak. In this work, a dual-functional plasmonic biosensor
combining the plasmonic photothermal (PPT) effect and localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) sensing transduction provides an alternative and promising solution for
the clinical COVID-19 diagnosis. The two-dimensional gold nanoislands (AuNIs)
functionalized with complementary DNA receptors can perform a sensitive detection of the
selected sequences from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
through nucleic acid hybridization. For better sensing performance, the thermoplasmonic
heat is generated on the same AuNIs chip when illuminated at their plasmonic resonance
frequency. The localized PPT heat is capable to elevate the <italic>in situ</italic>
hybridization temperature and facilitate the accurate discrimination of two similar gene
sequences. Our dual-functional LSPR biosensor exhibits a high sensitivity toward the
selected SARS-CoV-2 sequences with a lower detection limit down to the concentration of
0.22 pM and allows precise detection of the specific target in a multigene mixture. This
study gains insight into the thermoplasmonic enhancement and its applicability in the
nucleic acid tests and viral disease diagnosis.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd>plasmonic photothermal effect</kwd>
<kwd>severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</kwd>
<kwd>coronavirus disease</kwd>
<kwd>LSPR</kwd>
<kwd>biosensors</kwd>
<kwd>nuclei acids</kwd>
<kwd>RNA virus</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>document-id-old-9</meta-name>
<meta-value>nn0c02439</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
<custom-meta><meta-name>document-id-new-14</meta-name>
<meta-value>nn0c02439</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
<custom-meta><meta-name>ccc-price</meta-name>
<meta-value></meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
<notes id="notes-d1e21-autogenerated"><fn-group><fn fn-type="" id="d30e177"><p>This article is made available for a limited time sponsored by ACS under the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/page/policy/freetoread/index.html">ACS Free to Read
License</ext-link>
, which permits copying and redistribution of the article for
non-commercial scholarly purposes.</p>
</fn>
</fn-group>
</notes>
</front>
<body><p id="sec1">At the end of 2019, the first case of pneumonia of unknown origin was detected in Wuhan,
China.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>
</sup>
High-throughput sequencing revealed that this was a new severe
acute respiratory syndrome β-coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and a novel coronavirus disease
(COVID-19).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref>
</sup>
Through 1 April 2020, the rapid spread of COVID-19 has
impacted more than 200 countries with more than 900000 laboratory-confirmed cases and 45000
deaths (with high numbers in China, United States, Spain, and Italy).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref4">4</xref>
</sup>
COVID-19 is the third large-scale
pandemic caused by coronavirus in the last two decades after severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS) in 2003 and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in
2012.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>
</sup>
These two
coronaviruses have caused about 10000 cumulative cases, with mortality rates of 10% for
SARS-CoV and 37% for MERS-CoV. Regarding the SARS-CoV-2, the laboratory-confirmed COVID-19
cases have already been more than 90 times higher than the total confirmed cases of SARS and
MERS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref7">7</xref>
</sup>
There is no doubt that fast and accurate identification of a
novel virus can greatly contribute to the control of an emerging pandemic.</p>
<p>Reliable laboratory diagnosis has been one of the foremost priorities for promoting
epidemic prevention and control. In acute respiratory infection, the molecular method
reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is routinely used to detect
causative viruses using samples from respiratory secretions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref>
</sup>
According
to the latest version of “WHO interim guidance for laboratory testing for COVID-19 in
humans”, several molecular assays that detect the COVID-19 have been
developed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref>
</sup>
The gene targets for RT-PCR molecular assays selected by
different countries are genetically similar, including the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
(RdRp) sequence and the open reading frame 1ab (ORF1ab) sequence. Generally, RT-PCR is
currently the most sensitive method of viral RNA detection by rapidly making many copies of
a specific sequence. The sensitivity of a recent SARS-CoV-2 study has reached 3.7 RNA copies
on detecting the RdRp sequence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref>
</sup>
However, RT-PCR can also fail for
various reasons, such as its amplification of spurious nucleic acid contaminations. The
RT-PCR assays for SARS-CoV-2 detection have reported a number of false-negative results on
confirmed infection cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>
</sup>
In clinical diagnosis, a single negative PCR
result does not rule out COVID-19 infection as the reported positive rate was only
30–50% for laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases at the early stage of the
outbreak,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>
</sup>
particularly if the sample is from an upper respiratory
tract (URT) specimen. A recent study of 167 COVID-19 infection patients showed that five
(3%) patients had positive chest computed tomography (CT) findings but false-negative
results from the RT-PCR testing. These five patients were eventually confirmed with COVID-19
infection by repeated swab tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>
</sup>
In addition, the current RT-PCR-based
detection methods demand high manpower and long processing time, which may not be able to
provide the capacity to test all the suspected cases during full-scale outbreaks. Other
approaches such as CT scan and culture methods are apparently not suitable for fast-response
detection and real-time analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref12">12</xref>
</sup>
Therefore, it is advantageous to
thoroughly investigate suspected patients by another reliable diagnosis system.</p>
<p>Biosensors are ideal for providing an alternative and reliable solution to clinical
diagnosis, real-time detection, and continuous monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref13">13</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref14">14</xref>
</sup>
Among the different biosensing techniques,
localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) biosensing systems are applicable to different
classes of analytes of clinical interests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref>
</sup>
LSPR is a strong
photon-driven coherent oscillation of the surface conduction electrons, which can be
modulated when coupling occurs at the surface of the plasmonic materials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref16">16</xref>
</sup>
Owing to the enhanced plasmonic field in the vicinity of the nanostructures, LSPR sensing
systems demonstrate high sensitivity to local variation, including the refractive index
change and molecular binding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref17">17</xref>
</sup>
Thus, LSPR is an ideal candidate for
real-time and label-free detection of micro- and nanoscale analytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref18">18</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>
</sup>
A latest research has utilized SPR to
test the biophysical properties of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and found that the SARS-CoV-2
spike glycoprotein bound angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) with much higher affinity
than SARS-CoV spike protein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>
</sup>
In addition, several SARS-CoV
receptor-binding domains (RBDs)-specific monoclinal antibodies were also tested in this
study and demonstrated that these antibodies did not have appreciable binding to the spike
protein of SARS-CoV-2. The key property of nucleic acids that renders them so useful for
clinical diagnosis, therapy and bionanotechnology is the predictable and specific
hybridization of complementary bases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>
</sup>
Thus, the LSPR technique for
genetic testing and nucleic acid detection in clinical practices could be an interesting
alternative for SARS-CoV-2 detection and COVID-19 diagnosis.</p>
<p>The novel SARS-CoV-2 virus is a positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus. The
DNA–RNA hybridization has been widely used in RT-PCR as well as various biomedical
sensors. The criteria for hybridization are based on nucleic acid strand
melting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref22">22</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>
</sup>
Two
complementary strands can specifically hybridize with each other when the temperature is
slightly lower than their melting temperature, while a single mismatch can cause the melting
temperature to decrease significantly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>
</sup>
It is worth noting that the
plasmonic nanoparticles normally exhibit large optical cross sections and the absorbed light
can be nonradiatively relaxed resulting in a significant heating
energy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>
</sup>
The
converted plasmonic photothermal (PPT) heat energy, also known as the thermoplasmonic effect
is highly localized near the nanoparticles, which can be used as a stable <italic>in
situ</italic>
heat source for controllable and uniform thermal
processing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>
−<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref29">29</xref>
</sup>
In this work, we developed a dual-functional LSPR biosensor
through combining the photothermal effect and plasmonic sensing transduction for SARS-CoV-2
viral nucleic acid detection. The plasmonic chip with the two-dimensional distribution of
nanoabsorbers (AuNIs) is capable to generate the local PPT heat and transduce the <italic>in
situ</italic>
hybridization for highly sensitive and accurate SARS-CoV-2 detection.</p>
<sec id="sec2"><title>Results and Discussion</title>
<p>The dual-functional plasmonic performances were systematically studied in the aspects of
LSPR sensing transduction and PPT heating. The common-path differential phase-sensitive LSPR
system, as shown in <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
a, was adopted to
measure the local refractive index changes or the binding events. In the LSPR sensing
transduction unit, the sensing beam was generated by a wide spectrum LED source and operated
in the ATR (attenuated total reflection) mode at the interface between the glass substrate
and liquid environment. When reaching the two-dimensional AuNI sensing layer, the measured
optical power of the beam was found to be 32.58 μW. The local plasmonic responses were
retrieved from the ATR spectral interferograms by using the windowed Fourier transform phase
extraction method, as described elsewhere.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>
</sup>
This phase response,
reported in radian units, is more prominent than the conventional spectral and angular
responses. Therefore, it has been utilized for improving the sensitivity of plasmonic
sensors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>
</sup>
In order to generate a stable and intense thermoplasmonic
field, an excitation laser with 532 nm peak wavelength and 40 mW maximum optical power was
applied onto the AuNI chip in the normal incident angle (<xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
b). In addition, optimizing the AuNI chip so that its peak absorbance
wavelength was exactly at 532 nm can significantly improve the conversion efficiency of
thermoplasmonic. By adjusting the Au nanofilm thickness before dewetting, the absorption
peak (under normal incident angle) can be accurately controlled within a wavelength range
from 523.4 to 539.7 nm as shown in <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
c,d and
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S1</ext-link>
. In this work, the AuNIs that matched the laser excitation
wavelength at 532.2 nm (±0.2 nm) were utilized for the PPT heating.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref>
</sup>
It is worth noting that under the ATR conditions with a 72° inclined incident angle
the plasmonic resonance wavelength for LSPR sensing transduction red-shifted to 580 nm due
to the prism coupling and the inclined angle of incidence (<xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>
</xref>
e).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>
</sup>
The phase changes caused by a local
variation of LSPR conditions were confined in a narrow wavelength region from 578 to 582 nm.
Moreover, after addition of a long-pass filter (LPF) with a cut-on wavelength at 552 nm, the
532 nm photothermal excitation laser from the PPT unit did not influence the stability of
the real-time LSPR sensing transduction.</p>
<fig id="fig1" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>Experimental setup and system optimization. (a) Schematic and (b) experimental setup of
the dual-functional PPT enhanced LSPR biosensing system. In the LSPR sensing path, the
collimated wide spectrum beam passed through the aperture-iris (I1/I2), the linear
polarizers (P1/P2), the birefringent crystal (BC), and totally reflected at the
interface of AuNI-dielectric for LSPR detection. In the excitation unit, a laser diode
(LD) was used to generate the PPT effect on AuNIs in the normal incident angle. (c, d)
Normalized absorbances of the AuNI sensor chips showing a fine-tune peak absorption from
523.4 to 539.7 nm (±0.2 nm). (e) Plasmonic resonance wavelength at about 580 nm
under the ATR (attenuated total reflection) configuration for LSPR sensing
transduction.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0001" id="gr1" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>In the thermoplasmonic testing, the direct absorption of laser irradiation at 532 nm
decayed nonradiatively by generating more hot electrons in AuNIs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref>
</sup>
The
photoexcited highly energetic electrons quickly dissipated and released thermal energies to
heat the ambient environments. Conversely, the PPT-induced temperature increase was also
responsible for a refractive index variation of the surrounding environment, which can be
<italic>in situ</italic>
detected by the LSPR detection system as shown in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
a. Specifically, the AuNI chip was exposed to
laser excitation for 50 s, as indicated by the shaded region. Then the laser was switched
off to reattain the baseline. The generation and equilibrium of local photothermal heating
were relatively fast. According to the laser switching tests as shown in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S2</ext-link>
, the rapid heating process was completed within 1 s after turning on
the laser excitation. Subsequently, the dynamic equilibrium process took another 11 s before
finally entering the steady state. In our experiments, we calibrated the LSPR phase response
under different ambient temperatures. The <italic>in situ</italic>
temperature arising from
the PPT effect was characterized based on the measurement of the thermal-induced refractive
index variation in the vicinity of AuNIs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref34">34</xref>
</sup>
During the ambient temperature variation, the real-time
LSPR phase responses and temperature values were recorded in parallel (<xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
b), and the correlation was established as shown in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
c. Based on this calibrated LSPR-temperature
regression, the localized photothermal temperatures under different laser powers were
retrieved as shown in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
d.</p>
<fig id="fig2" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><p><italic>In situ</italic>
characterization of local PPT heating on AuNIs. (a) Periodic
laser excitation and the PPT-induced plasmonic phase response. (b) Temperature
variations and real-time LSPR responses. (c) Calibration curve illustrating the
relationship between the temperature and LSPR phase response. (d) Real-time LSPR
responses caused by the laser-induced PPT effect under different laser powers. (e)
Scanned local LSPR responses around the PPT heat source on AuNIs. (d) Mapping the
temperature distribution around the PPT heat source.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0002" id="gr2" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>To further evaluate the laser-induced PPT effect and the local temperature profile, we
utilized the spectrometer to scan the heating area for mapping the LSPR phase responses and
actual temperature distribution on the AuNI sensor chips. In the experimental setup as shown
in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S3</ext-link>
, the excitation laser with 32 mW power was applied to the optimal
AuNI absorbers with a peak absorption at 532.2 nm (±0.2 nm). At each point of interest,
we used the LSPR transducing unit to record two interferometric spectra: one reference
without PPT heating and one spectrum with PPT heating. By scanning the laser spot and
surrounding area with a 0.5 mm step interval, the spatial distribution of LSPR phase changes
was retrieved as shown in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
e. At each
scanning pixel, the retrieved phase response was subsequently converted to the local
temperature based on the calibration curve in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
c. Therefore, the corresponding temperature distribution around the PPT heating
was obtained and illustrated in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
f. The
local temperature was significantly elevated from 21.47 °C (room temperature) to 41.08
°C at the center of the laser spot.</p>
<p>We shall now present the sensing results of the SARS-CoV-2 by the proposed dual-functional
plasmonic biosensors. The full genome sequence data of the viruses, <italic>i.e.</italic>
,
SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, have been retrieved from the GISAID platform. The selected
oligonucleotides for specific SARS-CoV-2 detection and their relative positions were given
in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
a and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Table S1</ext-link>
. These viral oligonucleotides refer to sequences used in different
countries for COVID-19 diagnosis, and some of them have been published in the latest
research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref35">35</xref>
</sup>
The basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) was used to compare these
viral sequences with the library of SARS-CoV-2 to confirm their representativeness and
specificity. In the present case of COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 isolates or samples from infected
patients are challenging to obtain and handle. Thus, the corresponding DNA sequences were
artificially synthesized for representative LSPR sensing demonstration of SARS-CoV-2 and
SARS-CoV. According to the WHO guideline and local alignment searching results, two specific
sequences from SARS-CoV-2 were selected, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, the RdRp and the ORF1ab as
shown in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
a. Validation and proof of
selectivity were demonstrated by choosing the closely related nucleic acid sequence from
RdRp of SARS-CoV. In addition, an oligonucleotide sequence from the coronaviral envelope
protein gene (E) was also synthesized and tested to aid the virus identification.</p>
<fig id="fig3" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>Selected viral sequences for SARS-CoV-2 detection. (a) Selected sequences and their
relative positions used for SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV detection. M: membrane protein gene;
N: nucleocapsid protein gene; S: spike protein gene. The numbers below the sequences are
genome positions according to GenBank, SARS-CoV-2 NC_045512. (b) Schematic illustration
of AuNI functionalization based on the reaction with thiol-cDNA ligands. (c). Real-time
monitoring of AuNI functionalization dynamics. Ten microliter solution containing 0.1
nmol of cDNA was injected in each step. (d) Calibrated surface functionalization
efficiency to retrieve the optimal cDNA amount.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0003" id="gr3" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>Based on the synthetic oligonucleotide receptors with a thiol group (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Table S2</ext-link>
), the LSPR sensing chips were directly functionalized by forming the
Au–S bond between the thiol-cDNA receptor and AuNIs as illustrated in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
b. The surface functionalization process was
initially optimized on its amount and concentration in order to achieve proper surface
coverage and high sensitivity. During the real-time surface functionalization as shown in
<xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
c, step-by-step injections of 0.1 nmol of
thiol-cDNA of RdRp-COVID, (RdRp-COVID-C) caused continuous phase jumps due to the covalent
binding between AuNIs and thiol-cDNA. After a total immobilization of 1 nmol (10 × 0.1
nmol) of RdRp-COVID-C as shown in <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>
</xref>
c,d, the
LSPR response stopped growing and indicated the appropriate amount of cDNA receptors for
AuNI functionalization. Hereafter, the solution containing 1 nmol of thiol-cDNA was utilized
to functionalize the AuNI microfluidic sensor chips for SARS-CoV-2 sequence detection
(<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S4</ext-link>
). The proper surface functionalization that is sufficient to
functionalize the entire AuNI sensing surface can increase the sensitivity and suppress the
nonspecific binding events. In contrast, the AuNI sensor chip was oversaturated when
functionalized with 10 nmol of cDNA and insufficiently covered by using 0.1 nmol of cDNA
(<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S5</ext-link>
).</p>
<p>The surface-functionalized AuNI chips were subsequently installed in the LSPR systems for
specific viral sequence detection (<xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
a). The
impacts of the localized thermoplasmonic heating on nucleic acids hybridization and LSPR
detection were systematically studied. According to the temperature profile shown in <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>
</xref>
f, the excited PPT heat with approximately 41
°C nominal temperature was generated on the AuNI sensor. Before the injection of the
RdRp sequence, nuclease-free water was flown across the microfluidic sensing chamber and the
thermoplasmonic laser (32 mW) was turned on to establish a steady phase reference and
baseline. According to the phase-sensing diagram in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
b and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">S6a</ext-link>
, the LSPR response of the dual-functional AuNI biosensor started to
increase when the RdRp-COVID genes were injected into the microfluidic chamber at about 200
s and attained the maximum phase value after about 800 s hybridization. The dual-functional
AuNI sensing chip was further flushed with nuclease-free water to remove the nonspecific
binding items and to check the final LSPR phase response. In the comparison with and without
the PPT effect, the hybridization rate and the LSPR sensing response level were obviously
suppressed when the PPT unit was shut down as shown in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
b. It proved that the localized photothermal effect can significantly
improve the hybridization kinetics of the RdRp-COVID and its cDNA. Thus, the response-slope
of the photothermal enhanced LSPR was much steeper than that without the photothermal
assistance. Due to the faster hybridization kinetics, the differential phase response levels
were also elevated for the RdRp-COVID sequence at different concentrations as shown in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
c and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S6</ext-link>
. The PPT effect and its derived local heat can effectively promote
the fast and sensitive detection of nucleic acids by improving the hybridization kinetics of
fully matching strands.</p>
<fig id="fig4" position="float"><label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><p>PPT enhancement in LSPR biosensing. (a) Schematic illustration of the hybridization of
two complementary strands. (b) Real-time hybridization of RdRp-COVID and its cDNA
sequence (RdRp-COVID-C) with or without the thermoplasmonic enhancement. (c) PPT
enhancement on RdRp-COVID sequence detection at different concentrations. The error bars
refer to the standard deviations of LSPR responses after reaching the steady conditions
following the buffer flushing. (d) Schematic illustration of inhibited hybridization of
two partially matched sequences. The red arrows indicated the mismatch bases of
RdRp-SARS and functionalized cDNA of RdRp-COVID. (e) Discrimination of two similar
sequences with PPT heat. The laser was applied at 200 s and switched off at 700 s. (f)
RdRp-SARS sequence dissociation from the immobilized RdRp-COVID-C sequence. The original
phase responses (red dots) and the corresponding smoothed means (black curve) are
shown.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0004" id="gr4" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>More importantly, the PPT heating was capable of inhibiting the spurious binding of
nonmatching sequences by elevating the local temperature at the vicinity of AuNIs. SARS-CoV
and SARS-CoV-2 viruses are similar β-coronavirus, and their genetic similarities are
high. The specific SARS-CoV-2 genetic target recommended by the WHO, <italic>i.e.</italic>
,
the RdRp-COVID sequence as shown in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Table S1</ext-link>
, is very closely related to that of SARS-CoV. Specifically, in the
selected gene sequences, only three fixed nucleotide bases were different between RdRp-COVID
and RdRp-SARS. A real-time LSPR detection was conducted on the two closely related
sequences. The LSPR sensor without the aid of photothermal unit reported a false positive
response signal when detecting the RdRp-SARS sequence (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S7</ext-link>
), which indicated that a similar but not fully complement sequence
was also able to interact and partially hybridize with the cDNA receptors at room
temperature. Although the hybridization kinetics of RdRp-SARS sequence from SARS-CoV was
clearly slower than that of SARS-CoV-2, the nonmatching spurious binding of any closely
related sequence can affect the accurate virus detection and discrimination. Therefore, the
local heat based on the proposed PPT effect was employed to improve the specificity of
hybridization. At the elevated temperature of 41 °C as illustrated in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
d, the standard free energy of hybridization was weaker
due to the mismatched base-pairs. Thus, the similar but not fully matched sequences of
SARS-CoV can be distinguished. In detail, the calculated association rate constant
<italic>k</italic>
<sub>a</sub>
of RdRp-COVID with PPT heating enhancement was found to be
1.11 × 10<sup>6</sup>
M<sup>–1</sup>
s<sup>–1</sup>
. A detailed
discussion and calculations are given in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S6c</ext-link>
. For a typical biological sensing system,
<italic>k</italic>
<sub>a</sub>
ranges between 10<sup>3</sup>
and 10<sup>7</sup>
M<sup>–1</sup>
s<sup>–1</sup>
and a higher associate rate indicates a
stronger binding affinity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref36">36</xref>
,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref37">37</xref>
</sup>
In a comparison experiment including the PPT heat with 32 mW optical
power, the 532 nm laser was applied onto the surface of the AuNI sensor from 200 to 700 s as
shown in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
e. The local PPT heat was
generated immediately to make the LSPR phase jump to about 1.76 rad. After turning off the
laser at 700 s, the LSPR phase response of the mismatching RdRp-SARS gene was fully
suppressed to the ground state of blank measurement (<italic>i.e.</italic>
, the responses
from 0 to 200 s) as shown by the black curve in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
e. Since the RdRp-SARS sequences reported a weak response of 0.002 rad, we
determined that its association rate constant was lower than 10<sup>3</sup>
M<sup>–1</sup>
s<sup>–1</sup>
under the PPT heating. At the same time, the
fully matching RdRp-COVID sequence from SARS-CoV-2, showed an apparent phase difference
before and after the laser excitation (orange curve in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
e). Thus, we believed that a similar but not fully matched sequence
could be distinguished based on their different binding affinity and the PPT heating.</p>
<p>In another set of verification experiments, the RdRp-SARS genes were initially bound to the
RdRp-COVID-C receptors at room temperature. Then the 532 nm laser (32 mW) was applied on the
AuNI surface to stimulate the local thermoplasmonic effect. In the real-time LSPR sensorgram
shown in <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref>
</xref>
f, we observed the dissociation of
the RdRp-SARS genes from the RdRp-COVID-C receptors after the temperature rise. The
calculated dissociation rate constant was 8.287 × 10<sup>–3</sup>
s<sup>–1</sup>
as shown in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S8</ext-link>
. The dissociation half-life <italic>t</italic>
<sub>1/2</sub>
, which
indicated the time to dissociate half of the hybridized sequences, was 83.3 s. In contrast,
the complementary sequence of RdRp-COVID showed a much lower dissociation rate constant at
3.5 × 10<sup>–6</sup>
s<sup>–1</sup>
and a long dissociation half-life
time of 1.97 × 10<sup>5</sup>
s. These results further verified that the
thermoplasmonic effect can eliminate the nonmatching hybridization quickly and promote the
selective detection of the target sequence, so as to achieve highly accurate nucleic acid
detection and virus differentiation. Compared with the conventional plasmonic biosensing
system, we demonstrated how this proposed dual-functional plasmonic sensing system can be
the basis of a reliable and easy-to-implement thermoplasmonic biosensing technique: it can
significantly reduce the false-positive-rate and enhance the reliability in genetic
diagnosis.</p>
<p>To quantify the sensing performance, the dual-functional plasmonic detections of RdRp-COVID
were further investigated over the concentration range from 0.01 pM to 50 μM as shown
in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
a. The AuNI sensing system started to
attain the saturation condition when the concentration of the RdRp-COVID sequence reached 1
μM. In contrast, the low RdRp-COVID concentration, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, 0.1 pM, only
resulted in a weak phase response by 2.90 × 10<sup>–3</sup>
radian (<xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
b), which was close to the system blank
measurement of 2.92 × 10<sup>–3</sup>
radian. Thus, as illustrated in the
sensing calibration curve in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
b, the
dual-functional LSPR sensing system exhibited a limit of the range from 0.1 pM to 1 μM
for detecting oligonucleotides, covering 7 orders of magnitude. The calibrated regression
curve was further used to estimate the limit of detection (LoD), which is defined by IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) as the sum of the blank measures,
<italic>i.e.</italic>
, 2.92 × 10<sup>–3</sup>
radian with the nuclease-free
water buffer and triple of its standard deviation (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S9</ext-link>
). Thus, the LoD of the photothermal enhanced LSPR sensing system was
found to be (2.92 × 10<sup>–3</sup>
) + 3 × (3.12 ×
10<sup>–3</sup>
) = 0.0123 rad as shown by the dashed line in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
b. Therefore, the detectable RdRp-COVID sequence
concentration corresponding to the systematic LoD was about 0.22 ± 0.08 pM (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">Figure S9</ext-link>
). A 200 μL analyte solution at this LoD concentration
contained about 2.26 × 10<sup>7</sup>
copies of the RdRp-COVID sequence. The actual
size of SARS-CoV-2 is about 29.9 kilobases in length, which is 1000 times longer than the
RdRp-COVID sequence used in this study. Thus, based on the LSPR signal–target size
relationship, the estimated LoD for detecting the entire RNA strands from SARS-CoV-2 could
be approximately 2.26 × 10<sup>4</sup>
copies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref38">38</xref>
</sup>
A recent study
reported the viral loads of SARS-CoV-2 from different respiratory trace samples including
the throat/nasal swabs and the sputum. Based on these clinical specimens collected from 82
infected individuals, the overall viral load soon after onset was higher than 1 ×
10<sup>6</sup>
copies/mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref39">39</xref>
</sup>
This indicated that our proposed
dual-functional LSPR system has the potential for direct analysis of SARS-CoV-2 sequences in
respiratory samples.</p>
<fig id="fig5" position="float"><label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><p>Evaluation of the dual-functional LSPR biosensor performance on detecting viral nucleic
acids. (a) Plot of LSPR phase responses <italic>versus</italic>
RdRp-COVID oligos
concentrations using the PPT enhanced LSPR biosensor. (b) Zoom-in view of the low
concentration range for LoD identification. (c) Concentrations of various viral oligos
measured using the dual-functional LSPR biosensors. (d) Detection comparison of single
analyte RdRp-COVID and mixture of multiple sequences. The error bars refer to the
standard deviations of LSPR responses after reaching the steady conditions following the
buffer flushing.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nn0c02439_0005" id="gr5" position="float"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>In addition to the RdRp-COVID sequence, we also validated our dual-functional LSPR sensing
system by performing the selective hybridization detection on several different genome
sequences from both SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, the ORF1ab-COVID
sequence and the E sequence from SARS-CoV-2, the RdRp-SARS sequence from SARS-CoV. The
corresponding LSPR phase sensing responses with the <italic>in situ</italic>
PPT enhancement
are illustrated in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
c. The complementary
cDNA sequences, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, ORF1ab-COVID-C, E-C, and RdRp-SARS-C, were
functionalized onto the AuNI chips, respectively, for the detection of specific viral
sequence. Since the physical length and molecular weight were roughly same, the
hybridization of these target sequences reported a similar LSPR phase response (<xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
c). As the concentration increased from 1 pM to
1 nM, the mean LSPR response levels of each sequence also climbed in a proportional manner,
which further proved the feasibility of this dual-functional LSPR sensing system for
quantitative analysis of viral nucleic acids. Among them, the ORF1ab-COVID sequence produced
the strongest responses due to its high molecular weight (8715.6 g/mol) and long length (28
bases), while the responses for E sequence were slightly lower.</p>
<p>In clinical diagnosis, the respiratory trace samples after viral lysis and RNA extraction
may contain multiple nucleic acid sequences from the same viral source of SARS-CoV-2. Thus,
detecting the accurate concentration of a specific sequence under the interference of
multiple nonspecific sequences was beneficial to demonstrate its potential for real clinical
applications. In experiments as shown in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
d,
the multisequence mixture containing RdRp-COVID sequences (100 pM), E sequences (100 pM),
and ORF1ab-COVID sequences (100 pM) was prepared to simulate an actual sample after virus
lysis. The ORF1ab-COVID and E sequences in the mixture showed extremely low spurious binding
with the immobilized RdRp-COVID-C receptors. Compared with the standard detection of 100 pM
RdRp-COVID as shown in <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">Figure <xref rid="fig5" ref-type="fig">5</xref>
</xref>
d, the calculated
recovery rate based on the dual-functional LSPR biosensors was found to be 96% in the
mixture sample. This experimental result further demonstrated that the dual-functional LSPR
system with the <italic>in situ</italic>
PPT enhancement can perform accurate detection of
the target sequence and facilitate the highly accurate SARS-CoV-2 detection.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec3"><title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Our developed dual-functional plasmonic system has successfully demonstrated a highly
sensitive, fast, and reliable diagnostic capability for SARS-CoV-2 virus detection. This
dual-functional plasmonic biosensing concept integrated the PPT effect and the LSPR sensing
transduction on a single cost-effective AuNI chip. By using two different angles of
incidence, the plasmonic resonances of PPT and LSPR can be excited at two different
wavelengths, which significantly enhanced the sensing stability, sensitivity, and
reliability. With this configuration, the LSPR sensing unit attained a real-time and
label-free detection of viral sequences including RdRp-COVID, ORF1ab-COVID, and E genes from
SARS-Cov-2. More importantly, the <italic>in situ</italic>
PPT enhancement on the AuNI chips
dramatically improved the hybridization kinetics and the specificity of nucleic acid
detection. Similar sequences such as RdRp genes from SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 can be
accurately discriminated with the <italic>in situ</italic>
PPT enhancement. Under the
outbreak background of COVID-19, this proposed dual-functional LSPR biosensor can provide a
reliable and easy-to-implement diagnosis platform to improve the diagnostic accuracy in
clinical tests and relieve the pressure on PCR-based tests.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4"><title>Materials and Methods</title>
<sec id="sec4.1"><title>Materials</title>
<p>All chemicals were purchased from commercial suppliers and used without further
purification. Nuclease-free water was purchased from ThermoFisher and used as the buffer
for oligonucleotide dilution and LSPR detection. All selected oligonucleotides, including
the RdRp-COVID, RdRp-SARS, ORF1ab-COVID, E sequence, and their thiol-cDNA receptors,
including the RdRp-COVID-C, RdRp-SARS-C, and ORF1ab-COVID-C, E-C, were synthesized and
provided by Microsynth (Balgach, Switzerland). All AuNI sensor chips and fluidic sensing
chambers were cleaned using absolute ethanol followed by rinsing with Milli-Q water before
testing.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.2"><title>Synthesis of Dual-Functional AuNI Chip</title>
<p>The AuNI sensor chips were synthesized based on the self-assembly process of thermal
dewetted Au nanofilm. The original magnetron-sputtered Au nanofilms were optimized in a
thickness range from 5.0 to 5.2 nm. Then the Au nanofilm was thermally annealed at 550
°C for 3 h. The AuNIs were self-assembled on the BK7 glass surface. The visible light
absorption of each AuNI sensor chip was measured to retrieve the optimal plasmonic
resonance condition.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.3"><title>Dual-Functional LSPR System</title>
<p>In our interferometric LSPR phase sensing system, a white light sensing beam was
generated by an LED source and subsequently linearly polarized by a polarizer (P1). The
thin birefringent crystal (BC) added sufficient retardation into the two orthogonal
components of the linearly polarized light, <italic>i.e.</italic>
, the <italic>s-</italic>
and <italic>p-</italic>
components, to create the spectral interferogram. The BK7 prism was
able to couple the incident light into the AuNI–dielectric interface at an inclined
nominal incident angle of 72° and excited the local electromagnetic fields in the
vicinity of the AuNIs by the Kretschmann configuration. The plasmonic resonance wavelength
for LSPR sensing transduction was found to be 580 nm. The interferometric spectra were
screened by an aperture-iris (I1/I2, Thorlabs) with a hole diameter of 0.5 mm and finally
recorded by the spectrometer (AvaSpec, Avantes). In addition to this plasmonic transducing
unit, a high-power 532 nm laser diode (LD, 532 nm peak wavelength, DJ532–40
Thorlabs) was used for PPT heating by illuminating the AuNI chips in the normal incident
angle. A long-wavelength pass filter (LPF, 552 nm cut-on wavelength) was used to block the
excitation signal before the spectrometer. The ambient temperature was measured and
recorded with digital temperature sensors (SHTC1, Sensirion) for LSPR-temperature
calibration.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.4"><title>Surface Functionalization with Thiol-cDNA</title>
<p>The AuNI surface functionalization was investigated based on the step-by-step injection
of 0.1 nmol thiol-cDNA. In the sensing chamber, 90 μL of nuclease-free water was
initially injected to build the phase reference baseline for 400 s. Then, each time a 10
μL solution which contained 0.1 nmol thiol-cDNA, <italic>e.g.</italic>
, the
RdRp-COVID-C sequence was injected into the sensor chamber in every 200 s, until no
further phase changes were recorded. Based on the optimal result, the solution containing
1 nmol cDNA was utilized to functionalize the AuNI chips for the following SARS-CoV-2
sequences detection.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4.5"><title>Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Viral Sequences</title>
<p>After the probe immobilization, the desired concentration of target DNA in nuclease-free
water (200 μL) was introduced into the AuNI microfluidic chamber for 800 s, and the
hybridization reaction was allowed under the PPT heat (32 mW optical power at 532 nm). In
the LSPR sensing path, an aperture-iris with a hole diameter of 0.5 mm was used to screen
the sensing beam entering the spectrometer, which corresponded to the ATR light from the
center of the PPT heat. Experiments on the mismatched nucleic acids and multisequence
mixtures were also conducted based on the dual-functional LSPR biosensors as described
above. A stringent buffer flushing with nuclease-free water was conducted after the
hybridization. The whole testing process was real-time recorded by the spectrometer for
plasmonic phase detection.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back><notes id="notes1" notes-type="si"><title>Supporting Information Available</title>
<p>The Supporting Information is available free of charge at <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439?goto=supporting-info">https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439</ext-link>
.<list id="silist" list-type="simple"><list-item><p>Absorbance spectra of AuNIs; temperature profile of PPT
heating; PPT heating system for characterizing the temperature distribution; selected
target sequences from SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV; complementary thiol-cDNA for LSPR
functionalization; microfluidic detection system; comparison of AuNI surface
functionalization; PPT effect on real-time LSPR detection; discrimination of two
similar sequences without PPT heat; dissociation rate constant of RdRp-SARS; blank
measurement for LoD (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439/suppl_file/nn0c02439_si_001.pdf">PDF</ext-link>
)</p>
</list-item>
</list>
</p>
</notes>
<sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title>
<supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="sifile1"><media xlink:href="nn0c02439_si_001.pdf"><caption><p>nn0c02439_si_001.pdf</p>
</caption>
</media>
</supplementary-material>
</sec>
<notes notes-type="" id="notes2"><title>Author Contributions</title>
<p>G.Q., Z.G., and J.W. conceived the research ideas. G.Q. constructed the dual-functional
plasmonic system for SARS-CoV-2 detection in J.W.’s group. Z.G., G.K.-U. and Y.T.
contributed to the design and analysis of oligonucleotides. J.S. and G.Q. contributed to the
thermoplasmonic measurement. G.Q. conducted the experiments and data analysis. G.Q. and J.W.
wrote the manuscript. All authors have discussed the results and have given approval to the
final version of the manuscripts.</p>
</notes>
<notes notes-type="COI-statement" id="NOTES-d7e825-autogenerated"><p>The authors declare no competing financial interest.</p>
</notes>
<ack><title>Acknowledgments</title>
<p>The authors acknowledge support from the FIRST Micro & Nanoscience Center in ETH
Zürich and the China Scholarship Council. We also thank Dr. Ying Du for providing the
microfluidic chip.</p>
</ack>
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