Towards Universal Voluntary HIV Testing and Counselling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Approaches
Identifieur interne : 002844 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 002843; suivant : 002845Towards Universal Voluntary HIV Testing and Counselling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Approaches
Auteurs : Amitabh B. Suthar ; Nathan Ford ; Pamela J. Bachanas ; Vincent J. Wong ; Jay S. Rajan ; Alex K. Saltzman ; Olawale Ajose ; Ade O. Fakoya ; Reuben M. Granich ; Eyerusalem K. Negussie ; Rachel C. BaggaleySource :
- PLoS Medicine [ 1549-1277 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Amitabh Suthar and colleagues describe the evidence base for different HIV testing and counseling services provided outside of health facilities.
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496
PubMed: 23966838
PubMed Central: 3742447
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PMC:3742447Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Towards Universal Voluntary HIV Testing and Counselling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Approaches</title><author><name sortKey="Suthar, Amitabh B" sort="Suthar, Amitabh B" uniqKey="Suthar A" first="Amitabh B." last="Suthar">Amitabh B. Suthar</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ford, Nathan" sort="Ford, Nathan" uniqKey="Ford N" first="Nathan" last="Ford">Nathan Ford</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bachanas, Pamela J" sort="Bachanas, Pamela J" uniqKey="Bachanas P" first="Pamela J." last="Bachanas">Pamela J. Bachanas</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Global AIDS Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Wong, Vincent J" sort="Wong, Vincent J" uniqKey="Wong V" first="Vincent J." last="Wong">Vincent J. Wong</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Office of HIV/AIDS, United States Agency for International Development, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rajan, Jay S" sort="Rajan, Jay S" uniqKey="Rajan J" first="Jay S." last="Rajan">Jay S. Rajan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4"><addr-line>School of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Saltzman, Alex K" sort="Saltzman, Alex K" uniqKey="Saltzman A" first="Alex K." last="Saltzman">Alex K. Saltzman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5"><addr-line>School of Medicine, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ajose, Olawale" sort="Ajose, Olawale" uniqKey="Ajose O" first="Olawale" last="Ajose">Olawale Ajose</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff6"><addr-line>Clinton Health Access Initiative, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fakoya, Ade O" sort="Fakoya, Ade O" uniqKey="Fakoya A" first="Ade O." last="Fakoya">Ade O. Fakoya</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff7"><addr-line>The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Granich, Reuben M" sort="Granich, Reuben M" uniqKey="Granich R" first="Reuben M." last="Granich">Reuben M. Granich</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff8"><addr-line>Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Negussie, Eyerusalem K" sort="Negussie, Eyerusalem K" uniqKey="Negussie E" first="Eyerusalem K." last="Negussie">Eyerusalem K. Negussie</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Baggaley, Rachel C" sort="Baggaley, Rachel C" uniqKey="Baggaley R" first="Rachel C." last="Baggaley">Rachel C. Baggaley</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">23966838</idno><idno type="pmc">3742447</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3742447</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3742447</idno><idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002844</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">002844</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Towards Universal Voluntary HIV Testing and Counselling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Approaches</title><author><name sortKey="Suthar, Amitabh B" sort="Suthar, Amitabh B" uniqKey="Suthar A" first="Amitabh B." last="Suthar">Amitabh B. Suthar</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ford, Nathan" sort="Ford, Nathan" uniqKey="Ford N" first="Nathan" last="Ford">Nathan Ford</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bachanas, Pamela J" sort="Bachanas, Pamela J" uniqKey="Bachanas P" first="Pamela J." last="Bachanas">Pamela J. Bachanas</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Global AIDS Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Wong, Vincent J" sort="Wong, Vincent J" uniqKey="Wong V" first="Vincent J." last="Wong">Vincent J. Wong</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Office of HIV/AIDS, United States Agency for International Development, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rajan, Jay S" sort="Rajan, Jay S" uniqKey="Rajan J" first="Jay S." last="Rajan">Jay S. Rajan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff4"><addr-line>School of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Saltzman, Alex K" sort="Saltzman, Alex K" uniqKey="Saltzman A" first="Alex K." last="Saltzman">Alex K. Saltzman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff5"><addr-line>School of Medicine, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ajose, Olawale" sort="Ajose, Olawale" uniqKey="Ajose O" first="Olawale" last="Ajose">Olawale Ajose</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff6"><addr-line>Clinton Health Access Initiative, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fakoya, Ade O" sort="Fakoya, Ade O" uniqKey="Fakoya A" first="Ade O." last="Fakoya">Ade O. Fakoya</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff7"><addr-line>The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Granich, Reuben M" sort="Granich, Reuben M" uniqKey="Granich R" first="Reuben M." last="Granich">Reuben M. Granich</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff8"><addr-line>Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Negussie, Eyerusalem K" sort="Negussie, Eyerusalem K" uniqKey="Negussie E" first="Eyerusalem K." last="Negussie">Eyerusalem K. Negussie</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Baggaley, Rachel C" sort="Baggaley, Rachel C" uniqKey="Baggaley R" first="Rachel C." last="Baggaley">Rachel C. Baggaley</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">PLoS Medicine</title><idno type="ISSN">1549-1277</idno><idno type="eISSN">1549-1676</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Amitabh Suthar and colleagues describe the evidence base for different HIV testing and counseling services provided outside of health facilities.</p><p><italic>Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary</italic></p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Murray, Cj" uniqKey="Murray C">CJ Murray</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vos, T" uniqKey="Vos T">T 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS Med</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS Med</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">PLoS</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosmed</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS Medicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1549-1277</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1549-1676</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name><publisher-loc>San Francisco, USA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">23966838</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3742447</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PMEDICINE-D-12-03612</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Medicine</subject><subj-group><subject>Diagnostic Medicine</subject><subj-group><subject>Test Evaluation</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Drugs and Devices</subject></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Epidemiology</subject></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Global Health</subject></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Infectious Diseases</subject><subj-group><subject>Viral Diseases</subject><subj-group><subject>HIV</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Non-Clinical Medicine</subject><subj-group><subject>Health Care Policy</subject><subj-group><subject>Screening Guidelines</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Public Health</subject><subj-group><subject>Health Screening</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Towards Universal Voluntary HIV Testing and Counselling: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Community-Based Approaches</article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Community-based HIV Testing and Counselling</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Suthar</surname><given-names>Amitabh B.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ford</surname><given-names>Nathan</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bachanas</surname><given-names>Pamela J.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Wong</surname><given-names>Vincent J.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rajan</surname><given-names>Jay S.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Saltzman</surname><given-names>Alex K.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ajose</surname><given-names>Olawale</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Fakoya</surname><given-names>Ade O.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>7</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Granich</surname><given-names>Reuben M.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>8</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Negussie</surname><given-names>Eyerusalem K.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Baggaley</surname><given-names>Rachel C.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><label>1</label><addr-line>Department of HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff2"><label>2</label><addr-line>Global AIDS Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff3"><label>3</label><addr-line>Office of HIV/AIDS, United States Agency for International Development, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff4"><label>4</label><addr-line>School of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff5"><label>5</label><addr-line>School of Medicine, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff6"><label>6</label><addr-line>Clinton Health Access Initiative, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff7"><label>7</label><addr-line>The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff8"><label>8</label><addr-line>Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, Geneva, Switzerland</addr-line></aff><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Sansom</surname><given-names>Stephanie L.</given-names></name><role>Academic Editor</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="edit1"><addr-line>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States of America</addr-line></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email>amitabh.suthar@gmail.com</email></corresp><fn fn-type="COI-statement"><p>The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. The opinions and statements in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official policy, endorsement, or views of their organisations.</p></fn><fn fn-type="con"><p>Conceived and designed the experiments: ABS NF EKN RCB. Performed the experiments: ABS NF JSR AKS OA. Analyzed the data: ABS NF. Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: ABS. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: ABS NF PJB VJW JSR AKS OA AOF RMG EKN RCB. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.icmje.org/">ICMJE</ext-link> criteria for authorship read and met: ABS NF PJB VJW JSR AKS OA AOF RMG EKN RCB. Agree with manuscript results and conclusions: ABS NF PJB VJW JSR AKS OA AOF RMG EKN RCB.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>8</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>13</day><month>8</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>10</volume><issue>8</issue><elocation-id>e1001496</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>5</day><month>12</month><year>2012</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>27</day><month>6</month><year>2013</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2013 Suthar et al</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Suthar et al</copyright-holder><license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly credited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract abstract-type="toc"><p>In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Amitabh Suthar and colleagues describe the evidence base for different HIV testing and counseling services provided outside of health facilities.</p><p><italic>Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary</italic></p></abstract><abstract><sec><title>Background</title><p>Effective national and global HIV responses require a significant expansion of HIV testing and counselling (HTC) to expand access to prevention and care. Facility-based HTC, while essential, is unlikely to meet national and global targets on its own. This article systematically reviews the evidence for community-based HTC.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods and Findings</title><p>PubMed was searched on 4 March 2013, clinical trial registries were searched on 3 September 2012, and Embase and the World Health Organization Global Index Medicus were searched on 10 April 2012 for studies including community-based HTC (i.e., HTC outside of health facilities). Randomised controlled trials, and observational studies were eligible if they included a community-based testing approach and reported one or more of the following outcomes: uptake, proportion receiving their first HIV test, CD4 value at diagnosis, linkage to care, HIV positivity rate, HTC coverage, HIV incidence, or cost per person tested (outcomes are defined fully in the text). The following community-based HTC approaches were reviewed: (1) door-to-door testing (systematically offering HTC to homes in a catchment area), (2) mobile testing for the general population (offering HTC via a mobile HTC service), (3) index testing (offering HTC to household members of people with HIV and persons who may have been exposed to HIV), (4) mobile testing for men who have sex with men, (5) mobile testing for people who inject drugs, (6) mobile testing for female sex workers, (7) mobile testing for adolescents, (8) self-testing, (9) workplace HTC, (10) church-based HTC, and (11) school-based HTC. The Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale and the Cochrane Collaboration's “risk of bias” tool were used to assess the risk of bias in studies with a comparator arm included in pooled estimates.</p><p> 117 studies, including 864,651 participants completing HTC, met the inclusion criteria. The percentage of people offered community-based HTC who accepted HTC was as follows: index testing, 88% of 12,052 participants; self-testing, 87% of 1,839 participants; mobile testing, 87% of 79,475 participants; door-to-door testing, 80% of 555,267 participants; workplace testing, 67% of 62,406 participants; and school-based testing, 62% of 2,593 participants. Mobile HTC uptake among key populations (men who have sex with men, people who inject drugs, female sex workers, and adolescents) ranged from 9% to 100% (among 41,110 participants across studies), with heterogeneity related to how testing was offered. Community-based approaches increased HTC uptake (relative risk [RR] 10.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.27–18.08), the proportion of first-time testers (RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.06–1.42), and the proportion of participants with CD4 counts above 350 cells/µl (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.16–1.74), and obtained a lower positivity rate (RR 0.59, 95% CI 0.37–0.96), relative to facility-based approaches. 80% (95% CI 75%–85%) of 5,832 community-based HTC participants obtained a CD4 measurement following HIV diagnosis, and 73% (95% CI 61%–85%) of 527 community-based HTC participants initiated antiretroviral therapy following a CD4 measurement indicating eligibility. The data on linking participants without HIV to prevention services were limited. In low- and middle-income countries, the cost per person tested ranged from US$2–US$126. At the population level, community-based HTC increased HTC coverage (RR 7.07, 95% CI 3.52–14.22) and reduced HIV incidence (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.73–1.02), although the incidence reduction lacked statistical significance. No studies reported any harm arising as a result of having been tested.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Community-based HTC achieved high rates of HTC uptake, reached people with high CD4 counts, and linked people to care. It also obtained a lower HIV positivity rate relative to facility-based approaches. Further research is needed to further improve acceptability of community-based HTC for key populations. HIV programmes should offer community-based HTC linked to prevention and care, in addition to facility-based HTC, to support increased access to HIV prevention, care, and treatment.</p></sec><sec><title>Review Registration</title><p>International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/NIHR_PROSPERO/display_record.asp?ID=CRD42012002554#.UdG2L5wvksA">CRD42012002554</ext-link></p><p><italic>Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary</italic></p></sec></abstract><abstract abstract-type="editors-summary"><title>Editors' Summary</title><sec><title>Background</title><p>Three decades into the AIDS epidemic, about 34 million people (most living in resource-limited countries) are infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Every year another 2.2 million people become infected with HIV, usually through unprotected sex with an infected partner, and about 1.7 million people die. Infection with HIV, which gradually destroys the CD4 lymphocytes and other immune system cells that provide protection from life-threatening infections, is usually diagnosed by looking for antibodies to HIV in the blood or saliva. Disease progression is subsequently monitored in HIV-positive individuals by counting the CD4 cells in their blood. Initiation of antiretroviral drug therapy—a combination of drugs that keeps HIV replication in check but that does not cure the infection—is recommended when an individual's CD4 count falls below 500 cells/µl of blood or when he or she develops signs of severe or advanced disease, such as unusual infections.</p></sec><sec><title>Why Was This Study Done?</title><p>As part of intensified efforts to eliminate HIV/AIDS, United Nations member states recently set several HIV-related targets to be achieved by 2015, including reduced transmission of HIV and increased delivery of antiretroviral therapy. These targets can only be achieved if there is a large expansion in HIV testing and counseling (HTC) and increased access to HIV prevention and care services. The World Health Organization currently recommends that everyone attending a healthcare facility in regions where there is a generalized HIV epidemic (defined as when 1% or more of the general population is HIV-positive) should be offered HTC. However, many people rarely visit healthcare facilities, and others refuse “facility-based” HTC because they fear stigmatization and discrimination. Thus, facility-based HTC alone is unlikely to be sufficient to enable national and global HIV targets to be reached. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, the researchers evaluate the performance of community-based HTC approaches such as index testing (offering HTC to the sexual and injecting partners and household members of people with HIV), mobile testing (offering HTC through a service that visits shopping centers and other public facilities), and door-to-door testing (systematically offering HTC to homes in a catchment area). A systematic review uses predefined criteria to identify all the research on a given topic; meta-analysis combines the results of several studies.</p></sec><sec><title>What Did the Researchers Do and Find?</title><p>The researchers identified 117 studies (most undertaken in Africa and North America) involving 864,651 participants that evaluated community-based HTC approaches. Among these studies, the percentage of people offered community-based HTC who accepted it (HTC uptake) was 88% for index testing, 87% for self-testing, 80% for door-to-door testing, 67% for workplace testing, and 62% for school-based testing. Compared to facility-based approaches, community-based approaches increased the chances of an individual's CD4 count being above 350 cells/µl at diagnosis (an important observation because early diagnosis improves subsequent outcomes) but had a lower positivity rate, possibly because people with symptoms of HIV are more likely to visit healthcare facilities than healthy individuals. Importantly, 80% of participants in the community-based HTC studies had their CD4 count measured after HIV diagnosis, and 73% of the participants initiated antiretroviral therapy after their CD4 count fell below national eligibility criteria; both these observations suggest that community-based HTC successfully linked people to care. Finally, offering community-based HTC approaches in addition to facility-based approaches increased HTC coverage seven-fold at the population level.</p></sec><sec><title>What Do These Findings Mean?</title><p>These findings show that community-based HTC can achieve high HTC uptake rates and can reach HIV-positive individuals earlier, when they still have high CD4 counts. Importantly, they also suggest that the level of linkage to care of community-based HTC is similar to that of facility-based HTC. Although the lower positivity rate of community-based HTC approaches means that more people need to be tested with these approaches than with facility-based HTC to identify the same number of HIV-positive individuals, this downside of community-based HTC is likely to be offset by the earlier identification of HIV-positive individuals, which should improve life expectancy and reduce HIV transmission at the population level. Although further studies are needed to evaluate community-based HTC in other regions of the world, these findings suggest that offering community-based HTC in HIV programs in addition to facility-based testing should support the increased access to HIV prevention and care that is required for the intensification of HIV/AIDS elimination efforts.</p></sec><sec><title>Additional Information</title><p>Please access these websites via the online version of this summary at <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496">http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496</ext-link>.</p><list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>The World Health Organization provides information on all aspects of <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/hiv/en/">HIV/AIDS</ext-link>, including information on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/vct/en/index.html">counseling and testing</ext-link> (in several languages)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Information is available from the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/hivaids/Pages/Default.aspx">HIV infection and AIDS</ext-link></p></list-item><list-item><p><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.aidsmap.com/">NAM/aidsmap</ext-link> provides basic information about HIV/AIDS and summaries of recent research findings on HIV care and treatment</p></list-item><list-item><p>Information is available from <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.avert.org">Avert</ext-link>, an international AIDS charity, on many aspects of HIV/AIDS, including information on the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.avert.org/aids-hiv-epidemic.htm">global HIV/AIDS epidemic</ext-link>, on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.avert.org/testing.htm">HIV testing</ext-link>, and on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.avert.org/transmission.htm">HIV transmission and testing</ext-link> (in English and Spanish)</p></list-item><list-item><p>The UK National Health Service Choices website provides information (including personal stories) about <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/HIV/Pages/Introduction.aspx">HIV and AIDS</ext-link></p></list-item><list-item><p>The <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.un.org/en/events/aidsday/2012/pdf/JC2434_WorldAIDSday_results_en.pdf"><italic>World AIDS Day Report 2012</italic></ext-link> provides up-to-date information about the AIDS epidemic and efforts to halt it</p></list-item><list-item><p>Patient stories about living with HIV/AIDS are available through <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.avert.org/stories.htm">Avert</ext-link>; the nonprofit website <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.healthtalkonline.org/chronichealthissues/HIV">Healthtalkonline</ext-link> also provides personal stories about living with HIV, including stories about <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.healthtalkonline.org/chronichealthissues/HIV/Topic/1362/">getting a diagnosis</ext-link></p></list-item></list></sec></abstract><funding-group><funding-statement>The authors were personally salaried by their institutions during the period of writing. No specific funding was received for this study. No funding bodies had any role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.</funding-statement></funding-group><counts><page-count count="23"></page-count></counts></article-meta></front><body><sec id="s2"><title>Introduction</title><p>HIV is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Murray1" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref>. Despite considerable progress in controlling the epidemic, there were approximately 2.2 million new HIV infections, 1.7 million HIV-related deaths, and 34.2 million people with HIV worldwide in 2011; 1.5 million of these new HIV infections, 1.2 million of the HIV deaths, and 23.5 million of the people living with HIV were in Africa <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Joint1" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref>. Given the urgency to act on the epidemic, all United Nations member states agreed to achieve the following HIV targets by 2015: (1) reduce sexual and parenteral HIV transmission by 50%, (2) eliminate vertical HIV transmission, (3) reduce tuberculosis deaths among people with HIV by 50%, and (4) deliver antiretroviral therapy (ART) to 15 million people <xref rid="pmed.1001496-United1" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref>. Achieving these targets will require people at risk of HIV to learn their status and link to prevention and care services.</p><p>In an effort to expand access to prevention and care services, World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines recommend provider-initiated HIV testing and counselling (HTC) for all people seen in all health facilities in generalised epidemics (i.e., antenatal HIV prevalence ≥1%) and in specific facilities in concentrated epidemics <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World1" ref-type="bibr">[4]</xref>. While provider-initiated HTC programmes have been successful in identifying previously undiagnosed individuals in generalised epidemics, they may not reach all people at risk of HIV acquisition <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Roura1" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hensen1" ref-type="bibr">[6]</xref>. Indeed, the latest Demographic and Health Surveys from 29 sub-Saharan African countries, representing approximately half of the global burden of HIV, indicate that only 15% of adults received results from an HIV test in the previous year <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Staveteig1" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>. This low coverage is recognised as a critical barrier to scaling up HIV prevention and care interventions. Furthermore, people living with HIV are often diagnosed late in the course of their disease, resulting in avoidable morbidity, mortality, and transmission of the virus. <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Egger1" ref-type="bibr">[8]</xref>.</p><p>The reasons for the current low coverage of HTC are various and include service, patient, and demographic barriers <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Matovu1" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-World2" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>. For example, in generalised epidemics women have higher rates of testing than men and adolescents, perhaps because of their contact with reproductive and antenatal health services <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Staveteig1" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref>. Implementation of provider-initiated HTC guidance remains a priority for countries. However, because many people have limited contact with healthcare providers, HTC provision in health facilities alone is insufficient to achieve national and global targets. Although previous research has reviewed home-based HTC <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bateganya1" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sabapathy1" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>, the impact of all community-based HTC approaches has not been systematically reviewed. The objective of this study was to systematically review all community-based HTC approaches to inform global and national HIV programming.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods" id="s3"><title>Methods</title><sec id="s3a"><title>Conduct of Systematic Review</title><p>This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement using a pre-defined protocol (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews identification number: CRD42012002554; <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s006">Text S1</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s001">Protocol S1</xref>) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Liberati1" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Suthar1" ref-type="bibr">[14]</xref>. The PubMed database was searched on 4 March 2013, and Embase and WHO Global Index Medicus were systematically searched on 10 April 2012, without language, geographic, publication, date, or any other restrictions. In addition, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number Register, and ClinicalTrials.gov were systematically searched without language, publication, or date restrictions on 3 September 2012. Experts in the field were contacted to identify unpublished research and ongoing studies, and bibliographies of relevant studies were screened.</p></sec><sec id="s3b"><title>Study Definitions</title><p>Community-based HTC was defined as HTC outside of health facilities. Facility-based HTC approaches were defined as those in healthcare sites (e.g., health facilities, hospitals, and fixed, stand-alone voluntary counselling and testing sites). Eleven different community-based HTC approaches were reviewed in this study: (1) door-to-door testing (systematically offering HTC to homes in a catchment area), (2) mobile testing for the general population (offering HTC via a mobile HTC service in areas visited by the general public, such as shopping centres, transport hubs, or roadside restaurants), (3) index testing (offering HTC to household members of people with HIV and persons who may have been exposed to HIV such as spouses, sexual partners, or children of people with HIV); (4) mobile testing for men who have sex with men (MSM), (5) mobile testing for people who inject drugs (PWID), (6) mobile testing for female sex workers (FSW), (7) mobile testing for adolescents, (8) self-testing, (9) workplace HTC, (10) church-based HTC, and (11) school-based HTC.</p><p>Several outcomes were analysed in this study. Uptake was calculated by dividing the number of individuals accepting HTC by the number of individuals offered HTC. The proportion of first-time testers was calculated by dividing the number of people reporting receiving their first HIV test by the total number of people tested. The proportion of participants with a CD4 count greater than 350 cells/µl was calculated among participants with HIV who had their CD4 count measured. Two steps of the retention continuum were assessed: (1) CD4 measurement (among all participants found to have HIV) and (2) initiation of ART (among participants eligible per national guidelines). In studies with a comparator arm, the HIV positivity rate was calculated by dividing the number of individuals found to be HIV positive by the number of individuals tested. HTC coverage was calculated by dividing the number of people tested by the total number of people living in the catchment area for the community-based HTC approach. HIV incidence was calculated by dividing the risk of infection in communities with access to community- and facility-based HTC by the risk of infection in communities with access to only facility-based HTC. Some of the outcomes were not independent. For example, the number of people tested was the denominator for the HIV positivity rate and first-time testers and also the numerator for HTC coverage. Moreover, the number of people living with HIV was the numerator for the HIV positivity rate and also the denominator for calculating the first step of the retention continuum (CD4 measurement). The cost per person tested was approximated by dividing the economic costs incurred during HTC in studies by the total number of people tested. Costs were adjusted for inflation from the year the costs were estimated to 2012 United States dollars using the US Bureau of Labor Statistics' inflation calculator <xref rid="pmed.1001496-United2" ref-type="bibr">[15]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s3c"><title>Search Strategy and Selection Criteria</title><p>The search strategies (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s002">Table S1</xref>) were designed with the assistance of a librarian to identify studies including community-based HTC. Following recommendations from PRISMA, eligibility criteria were based on key study characteristics: population, intervention, comparator, outcome, and design <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Liberati1" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>. Specifically, studies were included when (1) the study population included people in generalised, concentrated, or low-level HIV epidemics; (2) the intervention was community-based HTC offered in combination with a background of facility-based HTC; (3) the comparator was facility-based HTC; (4) the outcome(s) included uptake, proportion of people reporting receiving their first HIV test, CD4 value at diagnosis, rates of linkage to care, HIV positivity rate, HTC coverage, HIV incidence, or cost per person tested; and (5) the study design was a randomised trial or observational cohort study. Given the lack of comparative studies for community-based HTC, studies without a comparator arm were also included if they met the remaining eligibility criteria.</p><p>A. B. S., N. F., and O. A. independently screened the abstracts of all articles identified via the literature database searches and then compared the full texts of all articles selected during screening against the inclusion criteria. Disagreements were resolved by discussion. J. S. R. and A. K. S. repeated the same process for the clinical trial registries.</p></sec><sec id="s3d"><title>Data Extraction</title><p>A. B. S., J. S. R., and A. K. S. completed the data extraction of characteristics of study participants, community-based testing approaches, outcomes, and quality assessment using a standardised extraction form.</p></sec><sec id="s3e"><title>Quality Assessment</title><p>The Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale was used to assess bias in studies with a comparator arm included in pooled analyses <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wells1" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>. This scale rates studies based on eight criteria in three sources of bias. We modified this scale to remove one criterion, demonstration that the outcome of interest was not present at the start of study, since a previous HIV test may not affect all the outcomes analysed in this article. The Cochrane Collaboration's “risk of bias” tool was used to assess bias in randomised trials with a comparator arm <xref rid="pmed.1001496-The1" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s3f"><title>Statistical Analyses</title><p>Outcome proportions from studies meeting inclusion criteria were stabilised using the Freeman-Tukey-type arcsine square-root transformation and then pooled to summarise the proportion of participants who (1) accepted different community-based HTC approaches, (2) reported receiving their first HIV test, (3) had CD4 counts measured after diagnosis, (4) were diagnosed with HIV with a CD4 count above 350 cells/µl, and (5) initiated ART after their CD4 count indicated they were eligible for treatment <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Freeman1" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Newcombe1" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref>. Pooled relative risks (RRs) were used to compare participants of community- and facility-based HTC with respect to uptake, proportion of first-time testers, the HIV positivity rate, proportion with CD4 counts above 350 cells/µl, and HTC coverage. Random-effects models were used for all analyses. Given the differences in HIV epidemiology, sexual mixing patterns, transmission factors, and healthcare utilisation rates for key populations, key population outcome data were reported individually and not pooled. <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistics were used to measure heterogeneity <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Higgins1" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>. <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistics near 25% indicate low heterogeneity, values near 50% indicate moderate heterogeneity, and those above 75% indicate high heterogeneity <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Higgins2" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref>. All analyses were completed in STATA version 12.0.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s4"><title>Results</title><sec id="s4a"><title>Search Results</title><p>108 articles, describing studies conducted from 1987 to 2012 and including 864,651 participants completing HTC, met the eligibility criteria (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t001">Table 1</xref>; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g001">Figure 1</xref>). Two articles were randomised trials <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>, and the rest were observational in design. Data from one multi-centre cluster-randomised trial were stratified into three studies (based on the country where the testing was offered) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>, data from three articles were stratified based on the year community-based HTC was offered <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Angotti1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Slesak1" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>, and data from four articles were stratified based on the community-based HTC approach used <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>. Given that 108 articles provided data from 108 studies and there were nine additional studies after stratification, there were a total of 117 studies included (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s005">Table S4</xref>). 76 studies were from Africa, 28 were from North America (excluding Central America), six were from Asia, four were from Central and South America, three were from Europe, and one was from Australia. The clinical trial registers identified ten ongoing trials: one on index testing <xref rid="pmed.1001496-University1" ref-type="bibr">[31]</xref>, one on mobile testing <xref rid="pmed.1001496-National1" ref-type="bibr">[32]</xref>, five on door-to-door testing <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Liverpool1" ref-type="bibr">[33]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-London1" ref-type="bibr">[37]</xref>, one on self-testing <xref rid="pmed.1001496-University3" ref-type="bibr">[38]</xref>, and two on community-based testing for key populations <xref rid="pmed.1001496-New1" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-University4" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>.</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g001</object-id><label>Figure 1</label><caption><title>Flow of information through different phases of the review.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g001"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t001</object-id><label>Table 1</label><caption><title>Summary of study participants and methods.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t001-1" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t001"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing Model</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Studies</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Median Year Study Conducted (IQR)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt101">a</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Males (Percent)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt102">b</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Studies with a Demand Creation Component (Percent)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Studies Providing Incentives (Percent)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Studies with a Multi-Disease Component (Percent)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of Studies Linking People with HIV to Care (Percent)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Index</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12,400</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2005 (2004 to 2006)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,556 (45.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (12.5)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (25.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (62.5)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Door-to-door</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">595,389</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008 (2004 to 2009)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">247,439 (45.9)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 (33.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (6.1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (24.2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19 (57.6)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mobile</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">193,602</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008 (2005 to 2009)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86,989 (44.9)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20 (60.6)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7 (20.6)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (44.1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16 (47.1)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Key populations</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">41,451</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2005 (2002 to 2008)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12,866 (61.9)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10 (34.5)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (51.7)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9 (31.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16 (55.2)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Self</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,779</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2006 (2002 to 2008)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,113 (62.6)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (33.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (66.7)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (33.3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Workplace</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17,352</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2004 (2003 to 2009)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9,817 (67.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (33.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (16.7)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (66.7)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (50.0)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">School</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,678</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2009 (2005 to 2009)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">957 (42.2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (50.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (50.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (75.0)</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt101"><label>a</label><p>The midpoint was used for studies that took place over several years.</p></fn><fn id="nt102"><label>b</label><p>Among studies that included gender data.</p></fn><fn id="nt103"><label></label><p>IQR, interquartile range.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>The percentage of participants who were male was 45.3% for index testing, 45.9% for door-to-door testing, 44.9% for mobile testing, 62.6% for self-testing, 67.0% for workplace testing, and 42.2% for school-based testing (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t001">Table 1</xref>). Excluding studies including only MSM or only FSW, 62.9% of testers were male in mobile testing for key populations (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t001">Table 1</xref>). Population-level HTC efforts found that implementation of community-based HTC increases the number of couples receiving testing (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t002">Table 2</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t002</object-id><label>Table 2</label><caption><title>Percentage of clients received as couples in community-wide testing efforts.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t002-2" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t002"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Study (Testing Approach)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Country</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested as a Couple</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Percent Tested as a Couple</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,472</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,721</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">54.1%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,574</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10,464</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24.6%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tumwesigye (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35,634</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">264,966</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.4%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">61</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">610</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.0%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Naik (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Naik1" ref-type="bibr">[70]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Africa</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">458</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,086</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.1%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lugada (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada2" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,296</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">47,173</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.0%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tanzania</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">685</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.5%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">223</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,579</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.4%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tanzania</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">54</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,832</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.9%</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s4b"><title>Uptake</title><p>61 studies reported uptake of different community-based testing approaches among 713,632 participants: seven studies evaluated index testing among 12,052 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Armbruster1" ref-type="bibr">[41]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nelson1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>, three evaluated self-testing among 1,839 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Choko1" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg1" ref-type="bibr">[49]</xref>, 14 evaluated mobile HTC among 79,475 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Slesak1" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Maheswaran1" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bahwere1" ref-type="bibr">[50]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanRooyen1" ref-type="bibr">[59]</xref>, 28 evaluated door-to-door testing among 555,267 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Angotti1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Helleringer1" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Maheswaran1" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Cherutich1" ref-type="bibr">[60]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>, six evaluated workplace HTC among 62,406 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-VanderBorght1" ref-type="bibr">[86]</xref>, and three evaluated school-based HTC among 2,593 participants <xref rid="pmed.1001496-HenryReid1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Patel1" ref-type="bibr">[89]</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g002">Figure 2</xref>). The percentage of participants accepting HTC was 88.2% for index testing (95% confidence interval [CI] 80.5%–95.9%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.7%, 95% CI 99.7%–99.8%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g003">Figure 3</xref>), 87.1% for self-testing (95% CI 85.1%–89.0%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 28.8%, 95% CI 0%–92.6%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g004">Figure 4</xref>), 86.8% for mobile HTC (95% CI 85.6%–88.1%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.9%, 95% CI 99.9%–99.9%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g005">Figure 5</xref>), 80.0% for door-to-door HTC (95% CI 76.9%–83.1%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.9%, 95% CI 99.9%–99.9%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g006">Figure 6</xref>), 67.4% for workplace HTC (95% CI 32.8%–100.0%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 100%, 100.0%–100.0%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g007">Figure 7</xref>), and 62.1% for school-based HTC (95% CI 39.6%–84.5%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.0%, 95% CI 98.5%–99.4%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g008">Figure 8</xref>). Uptake was higher in community-based HTC compared to providing vouchers to participants for facility-based HTC (RR 10.65, 95% CI 6.27–18.08; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 96.1%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>.</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g002</object-id><label>Figure 2</label><caption><title>Pooled uptake of community-based HTC approaches.</title><p>Bars indicate 95% CIs.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g002"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g003</object-id><label>Figure 3</label><caption><title>Uptake of index HTC.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g003"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g004</object-id><label>Figure 4</label><caption><title>Uptake of self-testing.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g004"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g005" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g005</object-id><label>Figure 5</label><caption><title>Uptake of mobile HTC.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g005"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g006" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g006</object-id><label>Figure 6</label><caption><title>Uptake of door-to-door HTC.</title><p>Asterisk: data reported were exclusively from children aged 18 mo.–13 y.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g006"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g007" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g007</object-id><label>Figure 7</label><caption><title>Uptake of workplace HTC.</title><p>Asterisk: data reported were from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, and Nigeria.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g007"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g008" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g008</object-id><label>Figure 8</label><caption><title>Uptake of school-based HTC.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g008"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g009" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g009</object-id><label>Figure 9</label><caption><title>Pooled relative risks of community-based HTC versus facility-based HTC.</title><p>The numerator for all RRs was the risk of an outcome in community-based testing, while the denominator was the risk of an outcome in facility-based testing.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g009"></graphic></fig><p>19 studies reported uptake among 41,110 participants in key populations, including 16,725 MSM <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lister1" ref-type="bibr">[90]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sy1" ref-type="bibr">[97]</xref>, 4,681 PWID <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg2" ref-type="bibr">[92]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Centers2" ref-type="bibr">[98]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-OConnor1" ref-type="bibr">[100]</xref>, 81 FSW <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nhurod1" ref-type="bibr">[101]</xref>, 13,240 adolescents <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bell1" ref-type="bibr">[102]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Robbins1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref>, and 6,383 individuals from combinations of key populations. The percentage accepting HTC was 99.7% among FSW, ranged from 13.7% to 94.5% among PWID, ranged from 9.4% to 95.0% among MSM, and ranged from 33.9% to 96.6% among adolescents (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g010">Figure 10</xref>). One study reported an uptake percentage of 95.2% among PWID and FSW <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Liang1" ref-type="bibr">[104]</xref>, another reported an uptake percentage of 75.1% among PWID, FSW, and MSM <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bucher1" ref-type="bibr">[105]</xref>, and another reported an uptake percentage of 60.0% among PWID and MSM <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bowles1" ref-type="bibr">[106]</xref>. Uptake was higher for community-based testing than for facility-based testing among FSW (RR 1.10, 95% CI 1.03–1.17) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nhurod1" ref-type="bibr">[101]</xref> and MSM (RR 1.53, 95% CI 1.42–1.65) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Smith1" ref-type="bibr">[96]</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g011">Figure 11</xref>).</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g010" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g010</object-id><label>Figure 10</label><caption><title>Uptake of community-based HTC approaches among key populations.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g010"></graphic></fig><fig id="pmed-1001496-g011" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g011</object-id><label>Figure 11</label><caption><title>Relative risks of community-based HTC versus facility-based HTC among key populations.</title><p>The numerator for all RRs was the risk of an outcome in community-based testing, while the denominator was the risk of an outcome in facility-based testing.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g011"></graphic></fig></sec><sec id="s4c"><title>First-Time Testers</title><p>33 studies reported the HTC history among 597,016 participants in community-based HTC approaches <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Helleringer1" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Were1" ref-type="bibr">[44]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Choko1" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Darling1" ref-type="bibr">[53]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ostermann1" ref-type="bibr">[58]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Dalal1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kimaiyo1" ref-type="bibr">[63]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer2" ref-type="bibr">[64]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Mutale1" ref-type="bibr">[69]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Naik1" ref-type="bibr">[70]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sekandi1" ref-type="bibr">[72]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kwena1" ref-type="bibr">[83]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Truong1" ref-type="bibr">[112]</xref>. 62.2% (95% CI 58.0%–66.4%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.9%, 95% CI 99.9%–99.9%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g012">Figure 12</xref>) of participants at community-based HTC sites reported receiving their first HIV test. In the nine studies with a facility-based comparator arm, a larger proportion of participants reported receiving their first HIV test at community-based HTC than at facility-based HTC (RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.06–1.42; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.8%, 95% CI 99.8%–99.9%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg3" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref>.</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g012" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g012</object-id><label>Figure 12</label><caption><title>First-time testers in community-based testing approaches.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g012"></graphic></fig><p>17 studies reported the HTC history of 25,311 participants from key populations receiving community-based HTC <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lister1" ref-type="bibr">[90]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg2" ref-type="bibr">[92]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Balaji1" ref-type="bibr">[94]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Smith1" ref-type="bibr">[96]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Centers2" ref-type="bibr">[98]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bucher1" ref-type="bibr">[105]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bingham1" ref-type="bibr">[113]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Stein1" ref-type="bibr">[118]</xref>. 9% to 79% of participants reported receiving their first HIV test (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g013">Figure 13</xref>). Five of these studies included a facility-based comparator arm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g011">Figure 11</xref>). There were more first-time testers in community-based HTC than facility-based HTC for two study populations of MSM (RR 2.24, 95% CI 1.27–3.93 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bingham1" ref-type="bibr">[113]</xref> and RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.18–1.59 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>); however, there were fewer first-time testers in community-based HTC for a different study population of MSM (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.26–0.43 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Smith1" ref-type="bibr">[96]</xref>). There were more first-time testers in community-based HTC than facility-based HTC for a study population including PWID and MSM (RR 1.10, 95% CI 1.08–1.13 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-DiFranceisco1" ref-type="bibr">[116]</xref>); however, there was no difference in the proportion of first-time testers for a study population of FSW (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.72–1.30 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>).</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g013" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g013</object-id><label>Figure 13</label><caption><title>First time testers in community-based testing approaches for key populations.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g013"></graphic></fig></sec><sec id="s4d"><title>HIV Positivity Rate</title><p>14 studies included data on the HIV positivity rate among people testing in community-based approaches relative to people testing in facility-based approaches <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Gonzalez1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-HenryReid1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hood1" ref-type="bibr">[119]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref>. Overall, the HIV positivity rate was lower in community-based approaches relative to facility-based approaches (RR 0.59, 95% CI 0.37–0.96; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.6%, 95% CI 99.6%–99.7%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>). The median number needed to screen to identify one person with HIV in community- and facility-based HTC was 17 (range 3–86) and 6 (range 4–154), respectively (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t003">Table 3</xref>). The number needed to screen with community-based testing was highest in settings with a low national HIV prevalence: 54 in Thailand and 86 in Guatemala <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>.</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t003</object-id><label>Table 3</label><caption><title>Number needed to screen to identify a person with HIV in studies offering community- and facility-based HTC.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t003-3" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t003"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Study (Testing Approach)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Country</td><td colspan="4" align="left" rowspan="1">Community-Based HTC</td><td colspan="4" align="left" rowspan="1">Facility-Based HTC</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Positive</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Positivity Rate</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Needed to Screen</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Positive</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Positivity Rate</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Needed to Screen</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ahmed (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nigeria</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,049</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9,409</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.11</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,104</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16,587</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.13</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Corbett (workplace) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">673</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,395</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.20</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">560</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3045</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.18</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gonzalez (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Gonzalez1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mozambique</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">270</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">718</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.38</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">155</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">660</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.23</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hood (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hood1" ref-type="bibr">[119]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Botswana</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,493</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21,237</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.12</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,743</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26,653</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.14</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lahuerta (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Guatemala</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">513</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">91</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,233</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.07</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lugada (index) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">189</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,678</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.07</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">260</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.17</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">McCoy (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-McCoy1" ref-type="bibr">[120]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">243</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,471</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">154</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (index) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">121</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,011</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.06</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,834</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9,579</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.19</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,502</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">49,470</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.05</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,108</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22,482</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.27</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tanzania</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,341</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">579</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.07</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">693</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,437</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.13</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">132</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">602</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.22</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">173</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9,361</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">54</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">92</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,721</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">van Schaik (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Africa</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">147</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,499</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.06</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">273</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,321</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.21</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt104"><label></label><p>The Henry-Reid et al. <xref rid="pmed.1001496-HenryReid1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref> study was excluded since it did not find any people with HIV among the 20 school participants screened.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>Six community-based testing studies for key populations included a facility-based comparator arm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g011">Figure 11</xref>). Studies including FSW and a combination of PWID and MSM found no difference in the positivity rate for community- versus facility-based approaches (FSW, RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.29–1.34 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref> and RR 1.39, 95% CI 0.85–2.29 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nhurod1" ref-type="bibr">[101]</xref>; PWID and MSM, RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.91–1.39 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-DiFranceisco1" ref-type="bibr">[116]</xref>). There was a lower positivity rate among a study population of MSM (RR 0.09, 95% CI 0.03–0.33 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>) and among a study population including PWID, FSW, and MSM (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.28–0.94 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha1" ref-type="bibr">[122]</xref>). There was also a higher positivity rate among a study population of MSM (RR 2.37, 95% CI 1.35–4.15 <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Yin1" ref-type="bibr">[123]</xref>). The number needed to screen to identify one person with HIV varied depending on the key population and study setting (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t004">Table 4</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t004</object-id><label>Table 4</label><caption><title>Number needed to screen to identify a person with HIV in studies offering community- and facility-based HTC to key populations.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t004-4" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t004"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Study</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Key Population(s)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Country</td><td colspan="4" align="left" rowspan="1">Community-Based HTC</td><td colspan="4" align="left" rowspan="1">Facility-Based HTC</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Positive</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Positivity Rate</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Needed to Screen</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Positive</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Positivity Rate</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Needed to Screen</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lahuerta <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MSM</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Guatemala</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">385</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">144</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.08</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yin <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Yin1" ref-type="bibr">[123]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MSM</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">China</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">421</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.05</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,041</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lahuerta <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FSW</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Guatemala</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">438</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">161</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.06</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nhurod <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nhurod1" ref-type="bibr">[101]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FSW</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">81</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.21</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">48</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">319</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.15</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">DiFranceisco <xref rid="pmed.1001496-DiFranceisco1" ref-type="bibr">[116]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MSM and PWID</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">110</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12,171</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">111</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">401</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50,128</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">125</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrestha <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha1" ref-type="bibr">[122]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MSM, PWID, and FSW</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,679</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">84</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">855</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s4e"><title>CD4 Counts</title><p>18 studies reported the CD4 counts of 8,993 participants found to be HIV-positive using point-of-care or standard lab diagnostics <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada2" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Cherutich1" ref-type="bibr">[60]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Dalal1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanRooyen2" ref-type="bibr">[76]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nglazi1" ref-type="bibr">[110]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Govindasamy1" ref-type="bibr">[124]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wachira1" ref-type="bibr">[127]</xref>. 56.7% (95% CI 49.6%–63.9%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 97.6%, 95% CI 97.0%–98.1%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g014">Figure 14</xref>) of participants testing positive had CD4 counts above 350 cells/µl. In the five studies with a facility-based HTC comparator arm, more participants in community-based HTC approaches had CD4 counts above 350 cells/µl than in facility-based approaches (RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.16–1.74; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 94.8%, 95% CI 90.5%–97.1%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Granich1" ref-type="bibr">[125]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wachira1" ref-type="bibr">[127]</xref>.</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g014" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g014</object-id><label>Figure 14</label><caption><title>Pooled percentage of community-based HTC participants with CD4 counts above 350 cells/µl.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g014"></graphic></fig><p>Two studies reported the CD4 counts of participants found to be HIV-positive in a key population. Using standard lab diagnostics these studies reported a median CD4 count of 550 cells/µl among MSM <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Champenois1" ref-type="bibr">[115]</xref> and 385 cells/µl among MSM, PWID, and FSW <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bucher1" ref-type="bibr">[105]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s4f"><title>Linkage to Care</title><p>17 studies, including 5,852 participants with HIV, reported linkage to care from HIV diagnosis to CD4 measurement <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Cherutich1" ref-type="bibr">[60]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Dalal1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanRooyen2" ref-type="bibr">[76]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-VanderBorght1" ref-type="bibr">[86]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Patel1" ref-type="bibr">[89]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nglazi1" ref-type="bibr">[110]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Govindasamy1" ref-type="bibr">[124]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Larson1" ref-type="bibr">[126]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Naughton1" ref-type="bibr">[128]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wringe1" ref-type="bibr">[129]</xref>. Overall, 80.1% of participants had their CD4 count measured after HIV diagnosis (95% CI 74.8%–85.4%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.5%, 95% CI 99.4%–99.5%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g015">Figure 15</xref>). Nine studies with 527 participants reported linkage to care from being eligible to ART to initiating ART <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Dalal1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanRooyen2" ref-type="bibr">[76]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Patel1" ref-type="bibr">[89]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Govindasamy1" ref-type="bibr">[124]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wringe1" ref-type="bibr">[129]</xref>. Overall, 73.1% of participants initiated ART after their CD4 count indicated that they were eligible (95% CI 61.3%–84.9%; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 96.9%, 95% CI 95.6%–97.9%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g015">Figure 15</xref>).</p><fig id="pmed-1001496-g015" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.g015</object-id><label>Figure 15</label><caption><title>Linkage to care with community-based approaches to HTC.</title><p>Asterisk: study included 14 workplace sites in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, and Nigeria.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pmed.1001496.g015"></graphic></fig><p>Two studies, including 52 participants with HIV, reported linkage to care from HIV diagnosis to CD4 measurement in key populations. 12 of 15 MSM had their CD4 count measured after HIV diagnosis <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Champenois1" ref-type="bibr">[115]</xref>. 26 of 37 MSM and/or PWID had their CD4 count measured after HIV diagnosis <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bucher1" ref-type="bibr">[105]</xref>. No studies reported linkage to care from being eligible for ART to initiating ART in key populations.</p></sec><sec id="s4g"><title>Coverage</title><p>14 studies summarised HTC coverage among all people living in the testing site's catchment area <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada2" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kimaiyo1" ref-type="bibr">[63]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Naik1" ref-type="bibr">[70]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>. Coverage of HTC ranged from 5% to 93% depending on the type of approach used (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t005">Table 5</xref>). Mobile HTC available as part of multi-disease health campaigns achieved high coverage in the shortest period of time. Community-based HTC increased coverage of HTC relative to facility-based approaches (RR 7.07, 95% CI 3.52–14.22; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> 99.7%, 95% CI 99.7%–99.8%; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t005" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t005</object-id><label>Table 5</label><caption><title>Community coverage of voluntary HTC.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t005-5" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t005"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Study (Testing Approach)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Duration (Months)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Country</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Eligible</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Percent Coverage</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10,464</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11,290</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">93%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lugada (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada2" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.23</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">47,173</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">51,178</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">92%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chamie (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.16</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4,343</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,300</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">69%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wolff (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2001</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,078</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,591</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">68%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Naik (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Naik1" ref-type="bibr">[70]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Africa</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,086</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7,614</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kimaiyo (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kimaiyo1" ref-type="bibr">[63]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2009</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90,062</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">143,284</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">63%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Negin (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,984</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,180</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">62%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,579</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10,700</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">61%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tumwesigye (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">264,966</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">52%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tanzania</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,832</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,250</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thailand</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,721</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10,033</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tanzania</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">685</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6,733</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sweat (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zimbabwe</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">610</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12,150</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wolff (facility-based) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2000</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">79</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,591</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5%</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt105"><label></label><p>—, data not reported.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s4h"><title>HIV Incidence</title><p>One study reported HIV incidence <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Coates1" ref-type="bibr">[130]</xref>. There was a decreased risk of HIV infection in communities randomised to community-based testing relative to communities randomised to facility-based testing, although this estimate lacked statistical significance (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.73–1.02; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pmed-1001496-g009">Figure 9</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="s4i"><title>Cost per Person Tested</title><p>The cost per person tested ranged from US$2.45 to US$881.63 using different community-based testing approaches (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t006">Table 6</xref>) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wykoff1" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Keenan1" ref-type="bibr">[117]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha1" ref-type="bibr">[122]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kahn1" ref-type="bibr">[131]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Edgil1" ref-type="bibr">[136]</xref>. The cost per person tested was US$2.45 to US$14.37 for door-to-door testing, US$3.26 to US$33.54 for mobile testing, US$12.91 for hospital testing, US$15.30 to US$203.04 for index testing, US$21.28 to US$29.56 for testing at a fixed HTC site, US$126.48 for church-based testing, US$92.83 to US$881.63 for community-based testing for key populations, and US$93.73 for testing at an HIV clinic. Due to the heterogeneity in health systems and HIV prevalence within and between countries, the cost per person identified with HIV was not included.</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t006" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t006</object-id><label>Table 6</label><caption><title>Cost per person tested using different community-based testing approaches.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t006-6" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t006"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Study (Testing Approach)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Country</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Components Included</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number Tested</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total Costs (US Dollars)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cost per Person Tested (US Dollars)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cost per Person Tested (2012 US Dollars)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Molesworth (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Molesworth1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Malawi</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11,172</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$26,019</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$2.33</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$2.45</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Edgil (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Edgil1" ref-type="bibr">[136]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Swaziland</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">152,000</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$486,834</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$3.20</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$3.26</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tumwesigye (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tumwesigye1" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, and transportation</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">52,342</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$367,792</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$7.03</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$7.77</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chamie (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chamie1" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, and buildings</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2012</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$8.27</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$8.27</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, transportation, vehicles, buildings, utilities, training, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$8.29</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$9.16</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Negin (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, and transportation</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,984</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$17,569</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$8.86</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$9.43</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kahn (mobile)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt106">a</xref><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kahn1" ref-type="bibr">[131]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, training, and contingency expenses</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$9.91</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$10.55</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Helleringer (door-to-door) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Helleringer1" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Malawi</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, transportation, buildings, utilities, and training</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,183</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$15,181</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$12.83</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$14.37</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (hospital) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, transportation, vehicles, buildings, utilities, training, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$11.68</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$12.91</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (index) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, transportation, vehicles, buildings, utilities, training, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$13.85</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$15.30</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Grabbe (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, vehicles, buildings, utilities, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$14.91</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$16.47</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menzies (fixed HTC site) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, transportation, vehicles, buildings, utilities, training, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$19.26</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$21.28</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Grabbe (fixed HTC site) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kenya</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, vehicles, buildings, utilities, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">—</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$26.75</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$29.56</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Terris-Prestholt (mobile) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-TerrisPrestholt1" ref-type="bibr">[135]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uganda</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, vehicles, buildings, and equipment</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2001</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4,425</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$114,761</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$25.93</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$33.54</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">McConnel (church) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-McConnel1" ref-type="bibr">[132]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Africa</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, utilities, training, buildings, office equipment, and publicity materials</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2003</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">662</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$67,248</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$101.58</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$126.48</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Keenan (mobile for MSM, PWID, and FSW) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Keenan1" ref-type="bibr">[117]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, and transportation</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2001</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">735</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$52,744</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$71.76</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$92.83</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrestha (HIV clinic) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha1" ref-type="bibr">[122]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing and office supplies, personnel, transportation, utilities, building, vehicles, and recruitment costs</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2005</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">855</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$68,318</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$79.90</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$93.73</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrestha (mobile for MSM, PWID, and FSW) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha1" ref-type="bibr">[122]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing and office supplies, personnel, transportation, utilities, building, vehicles, and recruitment costs</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2005</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,679</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$276,218</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$164.51</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$192.98</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wykoff (index) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wykoff1" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing supplies, personnel, and transportation</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1988</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">62</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$6,500</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$104.84</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$203.04</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrestha (mobile for transgender individuals and PWID) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha3" ref-type="bibr">[134]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing and office supplies, personnel, transportation, building, utilities, and incentives</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">301</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$190,202</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$631.90</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$698.22</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrestha (mobile for MSM and PWID) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha2" ref-type="bibr">[133]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">US</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Testing and office supplies, personnel, transportation, and incentives</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">817</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$651,873</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$797.89</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">$881.63</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt106"><label>a</label><p>Cost included CD4 measurement and 60 condoms.</p></fn><fn id="nt107"><label></label><p>—, data not reported.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s4j"><title>Potential Harms</title><p>No studies reported harm arising as a result of having been tested. 18 studies gave a description of the testers' experiences or listed reasons for tester refusal <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Choko1" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg1" ref-type="bibr">[49]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chirawu1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ostermann1" ref-type="bibr">[58]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer2" ref-type="bibr">[64]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Outlaw1" ref-type="bibr">[91]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bell1" ref-type="bibr">[102]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Morin1" ref-type="bibr">[109]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bingham1" ref-type="bibr">[113]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Champenois1" ref-type="bibr">[115]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Jurgensen1" ref-type="bibr">[137]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nuwaha1" ref-type="bibr">[139]</xref>. The studies discussed both the clients' positive testing experiences and their fears. Eight studies (including one targeting key populations) reported instances where participants refused HTC because of fear of status disclosure or stigma <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chirawu1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ostermann1" ref-type="bibr">[58]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer2" ref-type="bibr">[64]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Negin1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bell1" ref-type="bibr">[102]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Morin1" ref-type="bibr">[109]</xref>. In contrast, 12 studies (including three studies targeting key populations) specifically reported either no evidence of harm <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Choko1" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg1" ref-type="bibr">[49]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kranzer1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Outlaw1" ref-type="bibr">[91]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bingham1" ref-type="bibr">[113]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Champenois1" ref-type="bibr">[115]</xref> or benefit through improved privacy or reduced stigma and fear <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chirawu1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Jurgensen1" ref-type="bibr">[137]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nuwaha1" ref-type="bibr">[139]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s4k"><title>Quality Assessment</title><p>There was concern of selection bias in nine of the studies included in pooled analyses <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Gonzalez1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg3" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hood1" ref-type="bibr">[119]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Granich1" ref-type="bibr">[125]</xref>, concern of confounding in five studies <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Gonzalez1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg3" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hood1" ref-type="bibr">[119]</xref>, and concern of measurement bias in five studies <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg3" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wachira1" ref-type="bibr">[127]</xref> (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s003">Table S2</xref>). The randomised trials appeared to have limited selection, attrition, and reporting bias; however, their lack of blinding made them susceptible to performance and detection bias <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Corbett1" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref> (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s004">Table S3</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="s4l"><title>Sensitivity Analyses</title><p>While there was high uptake for community-based approaches in most studies, there were several outliers with low uptake. To gauge whether these outliers influenced pooled uptake estimates and increased heterogeneity we conducted sensitivity analyses without them (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t007">Table 7</xref>). Although the pooled estimates increased and the CIs tightened without the outliers, there was still high heterogeneity using the <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistic. There was potential for selection bias, confounding, and measurement bias in several of the observational studies identified (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pmed.1001496.s003">Table S2</xref>). To determine whether these studies introduced bias into our results we ran sensitivity analyses without them and found the results to be similar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t008">Table 8</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t007" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t007</object-id><label>Table 7</label><caption><title>Pooled relative risks of community- versus facility-based HTC sensitivity analyses.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t007-7" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t007"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Outcome</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pooled RR (95% CI)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> Statistic</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Observational Studies Removed</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Revised Pooled Estimate (95% CI)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Revised <italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> Statistic</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Uptake</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.65 (6.27–18.08)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">96.1%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.99 (11.75–16.68)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proportion of first-time testers</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.23 (1.06–1.42)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.8%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Grabbe1" ref-type="bibr">[107]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg3" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.12 (0.91–1.38)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.9%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HIV positivity rate</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.59 (0.37–0.96)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.6%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ahmed1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Menzies1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Gonzalez1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-HenryReid1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lahuerta1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hood1" ref-type="bibr">[119]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-vanSchaik1" ref-type="bibr">[121]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.47 (0.22–1.02)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.6%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Coverage</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.07 (3.52–14.22)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.7%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.71 (2.63–12.40)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.8%</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt108"><label></label><p>N/A, not applicable.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="pmed-1001496-t008" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001496.t008</object-id><label>Table 8</label><caption><title>Pooled uptake proportion sensitivity analyses.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pmed-1001496-t008-8" xlink:href="pmed.1001496.t008"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HTC Approach</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pooled Estimate (95% CI)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> Statistic</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Outliers Removed</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Revised Pooled Estimate (95% CI)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Revised <italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> Statistic</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Index</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">88.2 (80.5–95.9)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.7%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">93.5 (89.1–97.9)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.0%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mobile</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86.8 (85.6–88.1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.9%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Slesak1" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chirawu1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Darling1" ref-type="bibr">[53]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.9 (97.6–98.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.5%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Door-to-door</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80.0 (76.9–83.1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.9%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shapiro1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Molesworth1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Vreeman1" ref-type="bibr">[77]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Welz1" ref-type="bibr">[79]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Wolff1" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">84.2 (81.8–86.6)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.9%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Workplace</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67.4 (32.8–100.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-VanderBorght1" ref-type="bibr">[86]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.9 (61.8–92.0)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.8%</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">School</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">62.1 (39.6–84.5)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.0%</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><xref rid="pmed.1001496-HenryReid1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">71.9 (46.4–97.3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.4%</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt109"><label></label><p>Outliers were defined as study estimates more than one standard deviation away from the pooled estimate.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></sec></sec><sec id="s5"><title>Discussion</title><p>This systematic review found that community-based HTC approaches were successful in reaching populations early in the course of HIV infection. The studies with facility-based comparator arms further suggest that community-based HTC reached populations earlier in the course of HIV infection than facility-based HTC. Earlier HIV diagnosis supports timely access to ART, which could improve life expectancy and reduce HIV transmission <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tanser1" ref-type="bibr">140</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bor1" ref-type="bibr">142</xref>. Earlier HIV diagnosis linked to ART may also have important socioeconomic effects at the population level, including (1) reducing the number of orphans <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Anema1" ref-type="bibr">[143]</xref>, (2) improving education and employment outcomes <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Thirumurthy1" ref-type="bibr">[144]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Bor2" ref-type="bibr">[145]</xref>, and (3) increasing the size of workforces <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Risley1" ref-type="bibr">[146]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ventelou1" ref-type="bibr">[147]</xref>.</p><p>The HIV positivity rate among participants in community-based HTC approaches was generally lower than that among participants in facility-based HTC. This could be because (1) symptomatic people with HIV are more likely to visit health facilities, (2) healthcare workers are more likely to offer HTC to patients with symptoms that might be associated with HIV, and (3) the positivity rate of participants in community-based HTC is more likely to be representative of the general population. While obtaining a lower positivity rate may immediately be associated with increased numbers needing to be tested to identify people with HIV, community-based HTC increased the number of newly diagnosed people with HIV 4-fold in a randomised controlled trial, has the potential to decrease HIV stigma by normalising HIV testing, and is an opportunity to provide prevention interventions for HIV and other diseases to asymptomatic populations <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Sweat1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Chirawu1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Feeley1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Jurgensen1" ref-type="bibr">[137]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Nuwaha1" ref-type="bibr">[139]</xref>. The HIV positivity rate among key populations utilising community-based testing varied relative to the HIV positivity rate among key populations utilising facility-based HTC and requires further examination within different epidemiological contexts. Although few comparative cost data exist on the various HTC approaches, the reported estimates indicate that several community-based testing approaches are cheaper or similarly priced compared to facility-based HTC (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t006">Table 6</xref>).</p><p>Because many settings lack universal health coverage, other disease control strategies—such as the guinea worm eradication campaign <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Hopkins1" ref-type="bibr">[148]</xref>, eradication campaigns against polio and measles <xref rid="pmed.1001496-deQuadros1" ref-type="bibr">[149]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-deQuadros2" ref-type="bibr">[150]</xref>, and efforts to eliminate preventable blindness <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Natchiar1" ref-type="bibr">[151]</xref>—are built upon community-based elements for broader reach. Since community outreach efforts for these disease control strategies have largely been vertical in nature, some have suggested leveraging community-based HTC as a conduit for delivering other public health activities based on national burden of disease <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Suthar2" ref-type="bibr">[152]</xref>. Multi-disease approaches may include the provision of vaccines, water filters, and malaria bed nets and screening for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and pulmonary disease <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World3" ref-type="bibr">[153]</xref>. Settings implementing recent WHO guidance on community-based screening for tuberculosis and malaria could also consider multi-disease frameworks to improve efficiency <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World4" ref-type="bibr">[154]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-World5" ref-type="bibr">[155]</xref>. Including other public health activities based on national epidemiology, such as family planning and viral hepatitis screening and treatment, may also be appropriate. Indeed, 40 of the 117 studies meeting this review's eligibility criteria (34%) had a multi-disease component. Broadening community-based HTC to include preventive interventions and screening for other diseases could further improve cost-effectiveness <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kahn2" ref-type="bibr">[156]</xref>.</p><p>In the studies reviewed, HTC uptake exceeded 80% in the mobile, index, self, and door-to-door testing approaches. While workplace and school-based testing could be an important approach in some settings, the uptake of these approaches was lower than that of other community-based approaches. Further research may improve their acceptability and could evaluate their impact on employment and education outcomes. Although there was no evidence of any harm resulting from being tested in community-based HTC approaches, there were reports of fear of status disclosure or stigma. Moreover, a recent report highlights the possibility of false positive diagnoses in settings (1) lacking a confirmation HIV test, (2) with poor training and supervision of community health workers, and (3) with insufficient quality control procedures <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shanks1" ref-type="bibr">[157]</xref>. These findings highlight the continuing need to adhere to validated testing algorithms and to address legal and human rights issues, and for the 5 Cs of good testing practices—informed consent, confidentiality, counselling, correct test results, and connection to prevention and care—to always be present <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World2" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>.</p><p>There was variable uptake for community-based testing among key populations. The heterogeneity between studies likely relates to differences in the way HTC was offered. For example, the studies with the lowest uptake among key populations offered HTC only in combination with extensive behavioural surveys <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Spielberg2" ref-type="bibr">[92]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Galvan1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref>. The findings from this small number of studies cannot be generalised widely. Moreover, there were limited CD4 count and ART linkage data from these studies, indicating that caution may be needed when providing HTC to key populations in settings where they remain marginalised and stigmatised and where there are inadequate linkages to prevention and care services. It is also important to safeguard confidentiality and prevent possible coercion, discrimination, and other adverse consequences for key populations being offered HTC in community settings. Further operational research on community-based testing for key populations, including mobile peer-based models <xref rid="pmed.1001496-McCoy1" ref-type="bibr">[120]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Shrestha2" ref-type="bibr">[133]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Kimbrough1" ref-type="bibr">[158]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Ti1" ref-type="bibr">[159]</xref>, within this human rights framework is needed.</p><p>One of the benefits of community-based testing, especially door-to-door testing, is allowing couples and families to be counselled about their HIV status, behaviour change, ART, and prevention interventions together <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World6" ref-type="bibr">[160]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-World7" ref-type="bibr">[161]</xref>. Review of population-level HTC efforts suggest that implementation of community-based HTC could increase the number of couples receiving testing (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pmed-1001496-t002">Table 2</xref>). There were relatively limited data on HTC approaches for infants, children and adolescents. The door-to-door, mobile, school, and index community-based approaches have promise for these young populations, but further research could improve their operationalisation <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Lugada1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>,. In addition to implementing provider-initiated HTC in all health facilities in generalised epidemics, introducing HIV testing at scheduled immunisation visits may facilitate earlier diagnosis linked to care <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Binagwaho1" ref-type="bibr">[162]</xref>.</p><p>Offering community-based HTC in addition to facility-based HTC increased knowledge of HIV status approximately 7-fold at the population level. Providing near universal knowledge of HIV status linked to prevention and care may impact HIV transmission networks through increased coverage of ART, increased male circumcision prevalence, increased utilisation of needle exchange programmes, increased utilisation of condoms, increased utilisation of pre-exposure prophylaxis, behavioural change, and increased coverage of opiate substitution therapy. A cluster-randomised trial detected a statistically non-significant 14% reduction in population incidence in communities where community-based HTC was available <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Coates1" ref-type="bibr">[130]</xref>. Since community-based HTC wasn't directly linked to prevention and care services in this trial, achieving and maintaining high levels of HTC coverage and maximising linkage to ART and other components of combination prevention could lead to more substantial reductions in population incidence <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Granich2" ref-type="bibr">[163]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Granich3" ref-type="bibr">[165]</xref>.</p><p>Incidence reductions depend on high coverage of repeat testing among people at risk of HIV infection. WHO recommends that HIV-negative individuals with ongoing sexual behaviour and/or who inject drugs with partners of positive or unknown HIV status should be tested at least annually <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World8" ref-type="bibr">[166]</xref>. A high percentage of people reported being first-time testers with community-based approaches, and overall there was a higher proportion of first-time testers in community-based approaches than in facility-based approaches. In effective HTC programmes, the proportion of people reporting receiving their first test should decrease over time as a result of implementing WHO repeat testing recommendations <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Helleringer1" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>. Several studies assessed uptake in the context of repeat testing. In several generalised epidemic settings, uptake remained high among the general population <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Angotti1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Helleringer1" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>. Conversely, uptake decreased among the general population in a concentrated epidemic, suggesting that HTC may need to be targeted to key populations on an ongoing basis in these settings <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Slesak1" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>.</p><p>This review found that 80% of participants in the community-based HTC studies where CD4 measurement was offered had their CD4 count measured after HIV diagnosis. CD4 measurement was facilitated by (1) point-of-care CD4 diagnostics, (2) collection of blood samples at the time of diagnosis, and (3) workplace programmes that had regular contact with participants because of their work schedules. This percentage was similar to the percentages reported in two systematic reviews evaluating CD4 measurement from facility-based testing (59%–72%) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Mugglin1" ref-type="bibr">[167]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Rosen1" ref-type="bibr">[168]</xref>, and supports the notion that high uptake of CD4 measurement can be achieved outside of health facilities when it is offered in combination with testing results. This review also found that 73% of participants initiated ART after their CD4 counts indicated that they were eligible. This proportion was comparable to previous estimates from two systematic reviews evaluating ART initiation rates from healthcare facilities (62%–68%) <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Mugglin1" ref-type="bibr">[167]</xref>,<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Rosen1" ref-type="bibr">[168]</xref>. Linkage from community-based HTC approaches to community-based treatment programmes could improve ART access and uptake and merits further exploration <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Jaffar1" ref-type="bibr">[169]</xref>–<xref rid="pmed.1001496-Selke1" ref-type="bibr">[171]</xref>. The data on linkage to prevention services, including linking men with negative results to male circumcision <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Mahler1" ref-type="bibr">[57]</xref>, were very limited. These linkages will be required to maximise the population benefits of community-based testing. Additional data on linkage to prevention services are urgently needed. Because self-testing achieves anonymous knowledge of status, no studies have been able to provide data on rates of linkage to care or prevention for people using this testing approach <xref rid="pmed.1001496-PantPai1" ref-type="bibr">[172]</xref>. Nonetheless, self-testing may provide programmatic advantages in some settings and requires further research <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World9" ref-type="bibr">[173]</xref>.</p><p>There are some methodological limitations that need to be considered when evaluating the impact of community-based HTC. One of the outcomes, first-time tester proportion, has potential for recall bias since it relies on participants to recall their history of HIV testing. Since all of the studies that included a facility-based HTC comparator arm did not indicate whether HTC was provider- or client-initiated, comparisons were made to facility-based HTC approaches irrespective of who initiated the interaction. Therefore, this review may not provide conclusive evidence of community-based HTC relative to provider-initiated HTC. While 73% of participants initiated ART after their CD4 count indicated they were eligible, all of the studies providing these data did not provide information on the timing of this outcome. Understanding how soon after diagnosis participants were able to initiate ART could help establish the efficiency of linkage systems. While this review summarises information from different community-based testing approaches globally, only six of the 117 studies identified were from Asia, indicating a need to expand community-based HTC research efforts in this region. Finally, given the complexity and expense of conducting cluster-randomised controlled trials, most of the studies meeting the eligibility criteria were observational. Although our analyses included data from randomised controlled trials, the potential for unmeasured confounding in observational studies makes attempts to establish causal effect more difficult.</p><p>The meta-analyses may have limitations in the statistical methodology used. Using the <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistic, there was high heterogeneity for most meta-analyses. All analyses should be interpreted with respect to local epidemiology, social and cultural context, and the health systems organisation of the studies contributing data. Publication bias was not formally assessed, as analytical methods to test for publication bias, such as funnel plots and funnel plot asymmetry tests, may not be appropriate for observational data <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Tang1" ref-type="bibr">[174]</xref>. Multiple study estimates and standardised variable definitions are required to explore the contributors of heterogeneity for pooled estimates. Given that the same variables were not collected systematically in all studies, this assessment was not undertaken for this review.</p><p>In conclusion, many community-based approaches achieved high uptake of HTC. Costs and linkage to care appeared similar to those of facility-based HTC approaches. The lower yield of people with HIV relative to facility-based HTC approaches appears to be offset by increasing knowledge of status at the population level, which, combined with timely linkage to treatment and prevention services, could have population effects on life expectancy and HIV transmission. As countries develop their new national strategic plans and investment cases based on WHO and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS strategic guidance <xref rid="pmed.1001496-Schwartlander1" ref-type="bibr">[175]</xref>, consideration should be given to increasing the proportion of people with HIV who know their status, with linkages to prevention and care, by offering community-based testing in addition to facility-based testing <xref rid="pmed.1001496-World10" ref-type="bibr">[176]</xref>.</p></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="s6"><title>Supporting Information</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s001"><label>Protocol S1</label><caption><p><bold>Systematic review protocol.</bold></p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s001.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s002"><label>Table S1</label><caption><p><bold>Search strategy for all databases.</bold></p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s002.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s003"><label>Table S2</label><caption><p><bold>Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale.</bold> *Given that the distribution of possible confounders in randomised controlled trials is related to chance alone, randomised controlled trials were not assessed for confounding.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s003.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s004"><label>Table S3</label><caption><p><bold>Bias assessment for randomised controlled trials.</bold></p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s004.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s005"><label>Table S4</label><caption><p><bold>Characteristics of studies meeting inclusion criteria.</bold> CE model, cost-effectiveness model; N/A, not applicable (e.g., gender data was not calculated for community-based testing only for MSM or FSW); N/R, not reported; OS, observational study; RCT, randomised controlled trial; STD, sexually transmitted disease; TB, tuberculosis; VCT, voluntary counselling and testing.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s005.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pmed.1001496.s006"><label>Text S1</label><caption><p><bold>PRISMA checklist.</bold></p><p>(DOC)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pmed.1001496.s006.doc"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><p>We thank Elizabeth Marum for helpful advice, investigators from several studies for providing additional data, and members of the Operational and Service Delivery Guideline Development Group for discussing critical issues.</p></ack><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="pmed.1001496-Murray1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Murray</surname><given-names>CJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Vos</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lozano</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Naghavi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Flaxman</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010</article-title>. <source>Lancet</source><volume>380</volume>: <fpage>2197</fpage>–<lpage>2223</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23245608</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pmed.1001496-Joint1"><label>2</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2012) UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic. 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Available: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/">http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/</ext-link>. Accessed 1 July 2013.</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list><glossary><title>Abbreviations</title><def-list><def-item><term>ART</term><def><p>antiretroviral therapy: CI, confidence interval</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>FSW</term><def><p>female sex workers</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>HTC</term><def><p>HIV testing and counselling</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>MSM</term><def><p>men who have sex with men</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>PWID</term><def><p>people who inject drugs</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>RR</term><def><p>relative risk</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>WHO</term><def><p>World Health Organization</p></def></def-item></def-list></glossary></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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