Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study
Identifieur interne : 002348 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 002347; suivant : 002349Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study
Auteurs : Mohammed Taha ; Amare Deribew ; Fasil Tessema ; Sahilu Assegid ; Luc Duchateau ; Robert ColebundersSource :
- Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences [ 1029-1857 ] ; 2011.
Abstract
Determinants of active tuberculosis among People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) are not well elucidated in countries with limited resources. The objective of this study was to assess distal and proximate determinants of active tuberculosis among people living with HIV/AIDS in southwest Ethiopia.
A case-control study was conducted from January to March, 2009 in South West Ethiopia. The study population consisted of 162 cases and 647 controls. Cases were adult people living with HIV/AIDS who developed active pulmonary tuberculosis and controls were people living with HIV/AIDS without active tuberculosis. An interviewer administered structured questionnaire was used to collect information on potential risk factors.
After adjustment for potential confounders, male gender (OR=1.7; 95%CI: 1.1, 2.7), a low level of education (OR=2.8; 95% CI: 1.1, 7.1), a body mass index less than 18.5 kg/m2 (OR=4.1; 95% CI: 2.3, 7.4), hemoglobin level less than 10.0 g/dl (OR=2.8; 95%CI: 1.5, 5.2), a CD4 lymphocyte count less than 200 cells/µL (OR=9.8‘95% CI: 5.5, 17.5), a WHO clinical stage IV (OR=4.3; 95% CI: 2.6, 6.8), not taking antiretroviral treatment (OR=3.1; 95%CI: 1.9,4.9), an infection with helminthes (OR=2.2; 95% CI: 1.4, 3.4), a history of contact with a tuberculosis patient in the family (OR=2.0; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.3), and living in a house made of mud wall (OR=3.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 7.5) were independently associated with the development of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV/AIDS.
All people living with HIV/AIDS should be screened for tuberculosis but in the presence of the risk factors mentioned above, intensified screening is recommended.
Url:
PubMed: 22434992
PubMed Central: 3275862
Links to Exploration step
PMC:3275862Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study</title><author><name sortKey="Taha, Mohammed" sort="Taha, Mohammed" uniqKey="Taha M" first="Mohammed" last="Taha">Mohammed Taha</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Deribew, Amare" sort="Deribew, Amare" uniqKey="Deribew A" first="Amare" last="Deribew">Amare Deribew</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Tessema, Fasil" sort="Tessema, Fasil" uniqKey="Tessema F" first="Fasil" last="Tessema">Fasil Tessema</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Assegid, Sahilu" sort="Assegid, Sahilu" uniqKey="Assegid S" first="Sahilu" last="Assegid">Sahilu Assegid</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Duchateau, Luc" sort="Duchateau, Luc" uniqKey="Duchateau L" first="Luc" last="Duchateau">Luc Duchateau</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A3">Department of Physiology and Biometrics, Ghent University, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Colebunders, Robert" sort="Colebunders, Robert" uniqKey="Colebunders R" first="Robert" last="Colebunders">Robert Colebunders</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A4">Departments of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">22434992</idno><idno type="pmc">3275862</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3275862</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3275862</idno><date when="2011">2011</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002348</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">002348</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study</title><author><name sortKey="Taha, Mohammed" sort="Taha, Mohammed" uniqKey="Taha M" first="Mohammed" last="Taha">Mohammed Taha</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Deribew, Amare" sort="Deribew, Amare" uniqKey="Deribew A" first="Amare" last="Deribew">Amare Deribew</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Tessema, Fasil" sort="Tessema, Fasil" uniqKey="Tessema F" first="Fasil" last="Tessema">Fasil Tessema</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Assegid, Sahilu" sort="Assegid, Sahilu" uniqKey="Assegid S" first="Sahilu" last="Assegid">Sahilu Assegid</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A1">Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Duchateau, Luc" sort="Duchateau, Luc" uniqKey="Duchateau L" first="Luc" last="Duchateau">Luc Duchateau</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A3">Department of Physiology and Biometrics, Ghent University, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Colebunders, Robert" sort="Colebunders, Robert" uniqKey="Colebunders R" first="Robert" last="Colebunders">Robert Colebunders</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A2">Department of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="A4">Departments of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences</title><idno type="ISSN">1029-1857</idno><imprint><date when="2011">2011</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>Determinants of active tuberculosis among People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) are not well elucidated in countries with limited resources. The objective of this study was to assess distal and proximate determinants of active tuberculosis among people living with HIV/AIDS in southwest Ethiopia.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Methods</title><p>A case-control study was conducted from January to March, 2009 in South West Ethiopia. The study population consisted of 162 cases and 647 controls. Cases were adult people living with HIV/AIDS who developed active pulmonary tuberculosis and controls were people living with HIV/AIDS without active tuberculosis. An interviewer administered structured questionnaire was used to collect information on potential risk factors.</p></sec><sec sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><p>After adjustment for potential confounders, male gender (OR=1.7; 95%CI: 1.1, 2.7), a low level of education (OR=2.8; 95% CI: 1.1, 7.1), a body mass index less than 18.5 kg/m2 (OR=4.1; 95% CI: 2.3, 7.4), hemoglobin level less than 10.0 g/dl (OR=2.8; 95%CI: 1.5, 5.2), a CD4 lymphocyte count less than 200 cells/µL (OR=9.8‘95% CI: 5.5, 17.5), a WHO clinical stage IV (OR=4.3; 95% CI: 2.6, 6.8), not taking antiretroviral treatment (OR=3.1; 95%CI: 1.9,4.9), an infection with helminthes (OR=2.2; 95% CI: 1.4, 3.4), a history of contact with a tuberculosis patient in the family (OR=2.0; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.3), and living in a house made of mud wall (OR=3.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 7.5) were independently associated with the development of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV/AIDS.</p></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions"><title>Conclusion</title><p>All people living with HIV/AIDS should be screened for tuberculosis but in the presence of the risk factors mentioned above, intensified screening is recommended.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lonnroth, K" uniqKey="Lonnroth K">K Lonnroth</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jaramillo, E" uniqKey="Jaramillo E">E Jaramillo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, Bg" uniqKey="Williams B">BG Williams</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dye, C" uniqKey="Dye C">C Dye</name></author><author><name sortKey="Raviglione, M" uniqKey="Raviglione M">M Raviglione</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yim, Jj" uniqKey="Yim J">JJ Yim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Selvaraj, P" uniqKey="Selvaraj P">P Selvaraj</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dye, C" uniqKey="Dye C">C Dye</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, Bg" uniqKey="Williams B">BG Williams</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dye, C" uniqKey="Dye C">C Dye</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maher, D" uniqKey="Maher D">D Maher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weil, D" uniqKey="Weil D">D Weil</name></author><author><name sortKey="Espinal, M" uniqKey="Espinal M">M Espinal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Raviglione, M" uniqKey="Raviglione M">M Raviglione</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lienhardt, C" uniqKey="Lienhardt C">C Lienhardt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fielding, K" uniqKey="Fielding K">K Fielding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sillah, J" uniqKey="Sillah J">J Sillah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tunkara, A" uniqKey="Tunkara A">A Tunkara</name></author><author><name sortKey="Donkor, S" uniqKey="Donkor S">S Donkor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Manneh, K" uniqKey="Manneh K">K Manneh</name></author><author><name sortKey="Warndorff, D" uniqKey="Warndorff D">D Warndorff</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mcadam, Kp" uniqKey="Mcadam K">KP McAdam</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bennett, S" uniqKey="Bennett S">S Bennett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lienhardt, C" uniqKey="Lienhardt C">C Lienhardt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fielding, K" uniqKey="Fielding K">K Fielding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sillah, Js" uniqKey="Sillah J">JS Sillah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bah, B" uniqKey="Bah B">B Bah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gustafson, P" uniqKey="Gustafson P">P Gustafson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Warndorff, D" uniqKey="Warndorff D">D Warndorff</name></author><author><name sortKey="Palayew, M" uniqKey="Palayew M">M Palayew</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lisse, I" uniqKey="Lisse I">I Lisse</name></author><author><name sortKey="Donkor, S" uniqKey="Donkor S">S Donkor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Diallo, S" uniqKey="Diallo S">S Diallo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hill, Pc" uniqKey="Hill P">PC Hill</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jackson Sillah, D" uniqKey="Jackson Sillah D">D Jackson-Sillah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Donkor, Sa" uniqKey="Donkor S">SA Donkor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Otu, J" uniqKey="Otu J">J Otu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adegbola, Ra" uniqKey="Adegbola R">RA Adegbola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lienhardt, C" uniqKey="Lienhardt C">C Lienhardt</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gustafson, P" uniqKey="Gustafson P">P Gustafson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gomes, Vf" uniqKey="Gomes V">VF Gomes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vieira, Cs" uniqKey="Vieira C">CS Vieira</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rabna, P" uniqKey="Rabna P">P Rabna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Seng, R" uniqKey="Seng R">R Seng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Johansson, P" uniqKey="Johansson P">P Johansson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sandstrom, A" uniqKey="Sandstrom A">A Sandstrom</name></author><author><name sortKey="Norberg, R" uniqKey="Norberg R">R Norberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lisse, I" uniqKey="Lisse I">I Lisse</name></author><author><name sortKey="Samb, B" uniqKey="Samb B">B Samb</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fugnudo Mbeki, Ag" uniqKey="Fugnudo Mbeki A">AG Fugnudo Mbeki</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kuwala, Lube" uniqKey="Kuwala L">Lube Kuwala</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Allen, Av" uniqKey="Allen A">AV Allen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ridley, Ds" uniqKey="Ridley D">DS Ridley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hussain, H" uniqKey="Hussain H">H Hussain</name></author><author><name sortKey="Akhtar, S" uniqKey="Akhtar S">S Akhtar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nanan, D" uniqKey="Nanan D">D Nanan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shetty, N" uniqKey="Shetty N">N Shetty</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shemko, M" uniqKey="Shemko M">M Shemko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vaz, M" uniqKey="Vaz M">M Vaz</name></author><author><name sortKey="D Souza, G" uniqKey="D Souza G">G D'Souza</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lopez De Fede, A" uniqKey="Lopez De Fede A">A Lopez De Fede</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stewart, Je" uniqKey="Stewart J">JE Stewart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harris, Mj" uniqKey="Harris M">MJ Harris</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mayfield Smith, K" uniqKey="Mayfield Smith K">K Mayfield-Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Muniyandi, M" uniqKey="Muniyandi M">M Muniyandi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramachandran, R" uniqKey="Ramachandran R">R Ramachandran</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mackenbach, Jp" uniqKey="Mackenbach J">JP Mackenbach</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stirbu, I" uniqKey="Stirbu I">I Stirbu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roskam, Aj" uniqKey="Roskam A">AJ Roskam</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schaap, Mm" uniqKey="Schaap M">MM Schaap</name></author><author><name sortKey="Menvielle, G" uniqKey="Menvielle G">G Menvielle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Leinsalu, M" uniqKey="Leinsalu M">M Leinsalu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kunst, Ae" uniqKey="Kunst A">AE Kunst</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ariyothai, N" uniqKey="Ariyothai N">N Ariyothai</name></author><author><name sortKey="Podhipak, A" uniqKey="Podhipak A">A Podhipak</name></author><author><name sortKey="Akarasewi, P" uniqKey="Akarasewi P">P Akarasewi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tornee, S" uniqKey="Tornee S">S Tornee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smithtikarn, S" uniqKey="Smithtikarn S">S Smithtikarn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thongprathum, P" uniqKey="Thongprathum P">P Thongprathum</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lin, Hh" uniqKey="Lin H">HH Lin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ezzati, M" uniqKey="Ezzati M">M Ezzati</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chang, Hy" uniqKey="Chang H">HY Chang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Murray, M" uniqKey="Murray M">M Murray</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Colebunders, R" uniqKey="Colebunders R">R Colebunders</name></author><author><name sortKey="John, L" uniqKey="John L">L John</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huyst, V" uniqKey="Huyst V">V Huyst</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kambugu, A" uniqKey="Kambugu A">A Kambugu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Scano, F" uniqKey="Scano F">F Scano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lynen, L" uniqKey="Lynen L">L Lynen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lawn, Sd" uniqKey="Lawn S">SD Lawn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Myer, L" uniqKey="Myer L">L Myer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bekker, Lg" uniqKey="Bekker L">LG Bekker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wood, R" uniqKey="Wood R">R Wood</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Grant, Ad" uniqKey="Grant A">AD Grant</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bansi, L" uniqKey="Bansi L">L Bansi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ainsworth, J" uniqKey="Ainsworth J">J Ainsworth</name></author><author><name sortKey="Anderson, J" uniqKey="Anderson J">J Anderson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delpech, V" uniqKey="Delpech V">V Delpech</name></author><author><name sortKey="Easterbrook, P" uniqKey="Easterbrook P">P Easterbrook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fisher, M" uniqKey="Fisher M">M Fisher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gazzard, B" uniqKey="Gazzard B">B Gazzard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gilson, R" uniqKey="Gilson R">R Gilson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gompels, M" uniqKey="Gompels M">M Gompels</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Canaday, Dh" uniqKey="Canaday D">DH Canaday</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, M" uniqKey="Wu M">M Wu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lu, S" uniqKey="Lu S">S Lu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aung, H" uniqKey="Aung H">H Aung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Peters, P" uniqKey="Peters P">P Peters</name></author><author><name sortKey="Baseke, J" uniqKey="Baseke J">J Baseke</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mackay, W" uniqKey="Mackay W">W Mackay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mayanja Kizza, H" uniqKey="Mayanja Kizza H">H Mayanja-Kizza</name></author><author><name sortKey="Toossi, Z" uniqKey="Toossi Z">Z Toossi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Habib, Ag" uniqKey="Habib A">AG Habib</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vijayakumar, M" uniqKey="Vijayakumar M">M Vijayakumar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhaskaram, P" uniqKey="Bhaskaram P">P Bhaskaram</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hemalatha, P" uniqKey="Hemalatha P">P Hemalatha</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pakasi, Ta" uniqKey="Pakasi T">TA Pakasi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Karyadi, E" uniqKey="Karyadi E">E Karyadi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dolmans, Wm" uniqKey="Dolmans W">WM Dolmans</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Meer, Jw" uniqKey="Van Der Meer J">JW van der Meer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Velden, K" uniqKey="Van Der Velden K">K van der Velden</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Paton, Ni" uniqKey="Paton N">NI Paton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Castello Branco, Lr" uniqKey="Castello Branco L">LR Castello-Branco</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jennings, G" uniqKey="Jennings G">G Jennings</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ortigao De Sampaio, Mb" uniqKey="Ortigao De Sampaio M">MB Ortigao-de-Sampaio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Elia, M" uniqKey="Elia M">M Elia</name></author><author><name sortKey="Costa, S" uniqKey="Costa S">S Costa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Griffin, Ge" uniqKey="Griffin G">GE Griffin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Karyadi, E" uniqKey="Karyadi E">E Karyadi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schultink, W" uniqKey="Schultink W">W Schultink</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nelwan, Rh" uniqKey="Nelwan R">RH Nelwan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gross, R" uniqKey="Gross R">R Gross</name></author><author><name sortKey="Amin, Z" uniqKey="Amin Z">Z Amin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dolmans, Wm" uniqKey="Dolmans W">WM Dolmans</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Meer, Jw" uniqKey="Van Der Meer J">JW van der Meer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hautvast, Jg" uniqKey="Hautvast J">JG Hautvast</name></author><author><name sortKey="West, Ce" uniqKey="West C">CE West</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Elias, D" uniqKey="Elias D">D Elias</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mengistu, G" uniqKey="Mengistu G">G Mengistu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Akuffo, H" uniqKey="Akuffo H">H Akuffo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Britton, S" uniqKey="Britton S">S Britton</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fine, Pe" uniqKey="Fine P">PE Fine</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Singh, M" uniqKey="Singh M">M Singh</name></author><author><name sortKey="Balamurugan, A" uniqKey="Balamurugan A">A Balamurugan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Katoch, K" uniqKey="Katoch K">K Katoch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sharma, Sk" uniqKey="Sharma S">SK Sharma</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mehra, Nk" uniqKey="Mehra N">NK Mehra</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Ethiop J Health Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Ethiop J Health Sci</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1029-1857</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Research and Publications Office of Jimma University</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Jimma, Ethiopia</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22434992</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3275862</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">jEJHS.v21.i2.pg131</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Original Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Taha</surname><given-names>Mohammed</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Deribew</surname><given-names>Amare</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Tessema</surname><given-names>Fasil</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Assegid</surname><given-names>Sahilu</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Duchateau</surname><given-names>Luc</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Colebunders</surname><given-names>Robert</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A2">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="A4">4</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="A1"><label>1</label>Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia</aff><aff id="A2"><label>2</label>Department of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium</aff><aff id="A3"><label>3</label>Department of Physiology and Biometrics, Ghent University, Belgium</aff><aff id="A4"><label>4</label>Departments of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium</aff><author-notes><corresp>*Corresponding author: email- <email>amare_deribew@yahoo.com</email>/<email>amare.deribew@ju.edu.et</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>7</month><year>2011</year></pub-date><volume>21</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>131</fpage><lpage>139</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © Jimma University, Research & Publications Office 2011</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2011</copyright-year></permissions><abstract abstract-type="executive-summary"><sec><title>Background</title><p>Determinants of active tuberculosis among People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) are not well elucidated in countries with limited resources. The objective of this study was to assess distal and proximate determinants of active tuberculosis among people living with HIV/AIDS in southwest Ethiopia.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Methods</title><p>A case-control study was conducted from January to March, 2009 in South West Ethiopia. The study population consisted of 162 cases and 647 controls. Cases were adult people living with HIV/AIDS who developed active pulmonary tuberculosis and controls were people living with HIV/AIDS without active tuberculosis. An interviewer administered structured questionnaire was used to collect information on potential risk factors.</p></sec><sec sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><p>After adjustment for potential confounders, male gender (OR=1.7; 95%CI: 1.1, 2.7), a low level of education (OR=2.8; 95% CI: 1.1, 7.1), a body mass index less than 18.5 kg/m2 (OR=4.1; 95% CI: 2.3, 7.4), hemoglobin level less than 10.0 g/dl (OR=2.8; 95%CI: 1.5, 5.2), a CD4 lymphocyte count less than 200 cells/µL (OR=9.8‘95% CI: 5.5, 17.5), a WHO clinical stage IV (OR=4.3; 95% CI: 2.6, 6.8), not taking antiretroviral treatment (OR=3.1; 95%CI: 1.9,4.9), an infection with helminthes (OR=2.2; 95% CI: 1.4, 3.4), a history of contact with a tuberculosis patient in the family (OR=2.0; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.3), and living in a house made of mud wall (OR=3.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 7.5) were independently associated with the development of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV/AIDS.</p></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions"><title>Conclusion</title><p>All people living with HIV/AIDS should be screened for tuberculosis but in the presence of the risk factors mentioned above, intensified screening is recommended.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Active TB</kwd><kwd>HIV</kwd><kwd>risk factors</kwd><kwd>case control study</kwd><kwd>Southwest Ethiopia</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>Infection with Tuberculosis (TB) is the result of a complex interaction between the environment, the host and the pathogen(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>, <xref rid="R2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>). TB control strategies mainly focus on decreasing the transmission of mycobacterium tuberculosis through early detection and effective treatment of TB patients(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>, <xref rid="R3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>). There is evidence that it is impossible to eliminate TB (incidence less than 1 per million population) by 2050 using this strategy alone(<xref rid="R4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>). A comprehensive strategy focusing on major risk factors of TB is essential to achieve the ‘Stop TB’ partnership targets(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>, <xref rid="R5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>). Risk factors of TB can be categorized as distal or proximate(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>). Distal risk factors such as socio-economic status contribute to the development of TB indirectly whereas proximate determinants include those that increase exposure to the infectious agent such as crowding and that impair the host immune system(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>). Assessment of proximate determinants of TB which are amenable for interventions such as the host and environmental factors help to target strategies(<xref rid="R1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>). Several studies on risk factors of TB were done in the general population(<xref rid="R6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>–<xref rid="R9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>) but the proximate determinants of active TB among HIV patients are not well elucidated in countries with limited resources. In this study, the distal and proximate determinants of active TB among PLHA were assessed in south-west Ethiopia.</p></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods"><title>Materials and Methods</title><p>From January to March, 2009, a case control study was conducted in Jimma and Mettu Karl hospitals where the two hospitals serve as referral and treatment centers for HIV and TB in south-west Ethiopia. During the study period, a total of 1546 adults (1030 in Jimma & 516 in Mettu Karl) with HIV infection were registered for HIV related care, of which 324 (286 in Jimma & 38 in Mettu Karl) developed active pulmonary TB and diagnosis of TB was made by physicians based on the national TB guideline(<xref rid="R10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>). TB patients who were below 15 years were excluded. From the source population, a total of 162 PLHA with active pulmonary TB (cases) and 647 PLHA with no active TB (controls) were randomly selected to participate in the study. The sample size was calculated using Epi Info 6.04 software (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, 2005) using the following parameters: proportion of males among the controls of 22.3%, odds ratio (OR) of 1.8(<xref rid="R11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>), 5% significance level, power of 80%, a case to control ratio of 1:4, and a non- response rate of 10%. The distribution of cases and controls in the study hospitals is illustrated in <xref rid="T1" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>.</p><table-wrap id="T1" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Number of cases and controls selected in two hospitals in Southwest Ethiopia, 2009.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Hospital</td><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Total number PLHA<break></break><xref rid="TF1" ref-type="table-fn">*</xref>with no active TB<break></break>(source for controls)</td><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Total number PLHA with<break></break>active TB (source for cases)</td><td colspan="2" align="center" rowspan="1">Sample size</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cases</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Controls</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Metu hospital</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">478</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Jimma Hospital</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">744</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">286</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">142</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">567</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1222</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">324</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">162</td><td align="right" rowspan="1" colspan="1">647</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="TF1"><label>*</label><p>PLHA-People living with HIV/AIDS</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>Data were collected by trained nurses using a pretested structured questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of distal and proximate determinants of active TB (<xref rid="F1" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref>). The distal determinants contained information concerning residence, ownership of a house, marital status, educational status, employment and monthly income. The proximate determinants were categorized into host and environmental factors. The host factors included sex, age, past history of TB, use of substances such as smoking, alcohol and Khat (stimulant plant from <italic>Chata Edulis</italic>), infection with helminthes, presence of asthma or diabetes mellitus, body mass index (BMI), anemia, CD4 lymphocyte count and WHO clinical staging. The environmental factors consisted of a contact history with a TB patient in the family, type of wall and floor of a house, presence of a separate kitchen, availability of a waste disposal system, and finally crowding in the house.</p><fig id="F1" fig-type="illustration" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Determinants of active Tuberculosis in HIV patients</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="EJHS2102-0131Fig1"></graphic></fig><p>Individuals' duration of smoking of any type of tobacco was categorized as “never”, “less than six months” and “more than six months”. Duration of consumption of any type of alcohol and Khat chewing was similarly categorized as “never”, “less than six months and “more than six months”.</p><p>Stool samples were analyzed by formal-ether concentration method (<xref rid="R12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>) and examined by laboratory technician using microscopy. Hemoglobin level was determined using the Hemo Cue analyzer <italic>(HemoCue Hb 301, Sweden) and</italic> anemia was defined as a hemoglobin level of less than 10.0 g/dl. Presence of malnutrition was determined by a BMI of less than 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. Income was categorized into above and below the absolute poverty line of 330 Ethiopian Birr/month (about 30 USD). The adult crowding index was calculated by dividing the number of adults in a house by the number of rooms and three categories (<1, 1–2, >2) of crowding index were used. Data on CD4 lymphocyte count were extracted from the patients' record.</p><p>Data were cleaned for inconsistencies and missing values and analyzed using SPSS 16.0 statistical software. The Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel chi-square test was used to evaluate the association between distal, host and environmental risk factors with the occurrence of active TB. All variables with a significant association in the univariate analysis (P<0.05) were candidates to be included in the final multivariate logistic regression model. The final model was obtained by a forward and backward selection procedure.</p><p>Ethical clearance was obtained from the ethical committee of Jimma University and written consent was obtained from the study participants and confidentiality was assured for all the information provided.</p></sec><sec sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><p><bold>Univariate analysis of factors associates with TB:</bold> In the univariate analysis, there were no significant differences between cases and controls concerning most of the distal determinants such as area of residence, ownership of a house, occupation and income. However, a higher proportion of single (P=0.004) and illiterate individuals (P<0.001) had active TB compared to married and literate individuals (<xref rid="T2" ref-type="table">Table-2</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="T2" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Association of distal determinants and active tuberculosis in HIV patients, Southwest Ethiopia, 2009.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variables</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cases</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Controls</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">P-value</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">N (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">N (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Residence</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Urban</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">142</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(87.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">590</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(91.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rural</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(12.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">57</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(8.8)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ownership of a house</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(39.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">292</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(45.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">98</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(60.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">355</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(54.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Marital status</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Married</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">69</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(42.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">303</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(46.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.004</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Single</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">41</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(25.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">94</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(14.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Divorced/ Widowed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">52</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">250</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(38.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Educational status</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No Formal education</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(39.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">126</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(19.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Elementary(grade 1–6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(18.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">185</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(28.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Junior secondary(grade 7–8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(11.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">98</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(15.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">High school</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">35</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(21.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">187</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(28.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Above high school</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(8.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">51</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(7.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Employment status</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Employed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">37</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(22.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">176</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(27.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unemployed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">125</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(77.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">471</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(72.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Monthly income in USD</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><30</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(49.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">312</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(48.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥30</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">82</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(50.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">335</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(51.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><p>Males were more likely to have active TB than females (P=0.007). A higher proportion of cases had a history of smoking of more than 6 months compared to controls (P<0.001). Infection with helminthes was more common among cases than controls (P<0.001). Individuals who had anemia (hemoglobin <10.0g/dl) were more likely to have active TB than individuals who had a higher hemoglobin level (P<0.001). A higher proportion of cases had a CD4 lymphocyte count less than 200 cells/µL compared to controls (P<0.001). More cases (69.1%) were in clinical stage IV of WHO compared to controls (36.2%). A higher proportion of cases (54.7%) had a BMI less than 18.5kg/m<sup>2</sup> compared to controls (27.2%) (<xref rid="T3" ref-type="table">Table-3</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="T3" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Association of host factors and active tuberculosis in HIV patients, Southwest Ethiopia, 20009.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variables</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Cases, n (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Controls, n (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">P-value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Sex</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Male</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">79</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(48.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">241</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(37.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.007</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">83</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(51.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">406</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(62.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Age</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15–35 years</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">107</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(66.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">379</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(58.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.08</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥35 years</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">55</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(34.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">268</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(41.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Past history of TB</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">70</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(43.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">269</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(41.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">92</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(56.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">378</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(58.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Smoking</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Never</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">115</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(71.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">541</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(83.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Less than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(0.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(0.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">More than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">46</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(28.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(15.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Alcohol</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Never</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(61.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">433</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(66.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.3</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Less than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(6.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(3.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">More than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">52</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">190</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(29.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Khat chewing</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Never</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">94</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(58.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">420</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(64.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.09</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Less than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(6.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(3.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">More than 6 months</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">57</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(35.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">204</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(31.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Helminthes infection</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">65</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(40.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">175</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(27.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">97</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(59.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">472</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(73.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Bronchial Asthma</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(8.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(4.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.13</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">149</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(92.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">615</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(95.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>History of Diabetes Mellitus</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(0.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.13</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">160</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(98.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">645</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(99.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Haemoglobin(g/dl)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">41</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(25.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">59</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(9.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10–12.49</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">58</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(35.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">194</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(30.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥12.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">63</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(38.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">394</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(60.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Taking ART</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">83</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(51.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">502</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(77.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">79</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(48.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">145</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(22.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>CD4 lymphocyte count (cells/µL)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><200</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">82</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(50.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">116</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(17.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">200–499</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">53</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">207</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥500</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(16.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">324</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(50.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>WHO clinical staging</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stage III</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">50</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(30.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">413</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(63.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stage IV</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">112</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(69.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">234</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(36.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Isoniazide preventive therapy</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(4.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.07</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">160</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(98.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">620</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(95.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Body mass index (BMI)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><18.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">88</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(54.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">176</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(27.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥18.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">74</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(45.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">471</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(72.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><p>A higher proportion of cases had a contact history with a TB patient in their family (P<0.001) as well a larger proportion of them were living in a house made of a mud wall compared to the control (P< 0.001). In addition, controls were more likely to live in a house made of a cement floor (P<0.001) and to have a separate kitchen (P<0.001) than cases. However, there was no significance difference between cases and controls concerning crowding index, availability of a waste disposal system and a latrine (<xref rid="T4" ref-type="table">Table-4</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="T4" position="float"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Association of environmental factors and active tuberculosis in HIV patients, Southwest Ethiopia, 2009.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variables</td><td colspan="2" align="center" rowspan="1">Cases,<break></break> N (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="center" rowspan="1">Controls<break></break> N (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">P-value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Presence of TB patient in</bold><break></break><bold>the family</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">52</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">115</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(17.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">110</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(67.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">532</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(82.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Wall of house</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mud/mud brick</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">52</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(32.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">46</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(7.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0. 001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cement</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">110</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(67.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">601</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(92.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Floor of house</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mud</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">72</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(44.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">151</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(23.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0. 001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cement</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">90</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(55.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">496</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(76.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Availability of a separate</bold><break></break><bold>kitchen</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">117</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(72.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">534</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(82.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><0.001</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">45</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(27.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">113</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(17.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Crowding index</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(4.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(4.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1–2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">109</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(67.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">384</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(59.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">>2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">45</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(27.8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">231</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(35.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Availability of electricity</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">147</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(90.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">581</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(88.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(9.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">66</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(10.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Availability of latrine</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">143</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(88.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">575</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(89.9)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(11.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">72</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(11.1)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Waste system</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">In the compound</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(49.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">330</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(51.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Outside the campus</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">82</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(50.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">317</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(49.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Do animals in the house?</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">48</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(29.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">151</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(23.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.09</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">114</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(70.4)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">496</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(76.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><p><bold>Factors independently associated with active TB:</bold> After adjustment for potential confounders, male gender (OR=1.7; 95%CI: 1.1, 2.7), a low level of education (OR=2.8; 95% CI: 1.1, 7.1), a BMI less than 18.5 kg/m2 (OR=4.1; 95% CI: 2.3, 7.4), hemoglobin level less than 10.0 g/dl (OR=2.8; 95%CI: 1.5, 5.2), a CD4 lymphocyte count less than 200 cells/µL (OR=9.8; 95% CI: 5.5, 17.5), a WHO clinical stage IV (OR=4.3; 95% CI: 2.6, 6.8) , not taking ART (OR=3.1; 95%CI: 1.9,4.9), an infection with helminthes (OR=2.2; 95% CI: 1.4, 3.4), a history of contact with a TB patient in the family (OR=2.0; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.3), and living in a house made of mud wall (OR=3.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 7.5) were independently associated with the occurrence of active TB (<xref rid="T5" ref-type="table">Table-5</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="T5" position="float"><label>Table 5</label><caption><p>Factors independently associated with active tuberculosis in HIV patients, Southwest Ethiopia, 2009.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variables</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crude OR</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Adjusted OR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(95%CI)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(95%CI)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Sex</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Male</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.6 (1.1,2.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.7 (1.1,2.7)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Educational status</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No Formal education</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.9 (1.0,3.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.8 (1.1,7.1)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Elementary(grade 1–6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6 (0.3, 1.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.2 (0.5,3.1)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Junior secondary(grade 7–8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.7 (0.3,1.5)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.6 (0.6,4.6)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">High school</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6 (0.3,1.3)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1 (0.4,2.7)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Above high school</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>BMI(weight/height<sup>2</sup>)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><18.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.23 (2.26,4.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.1 (2.3, 7.4)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥18.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Haemoglobin(g/dl)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.1 (4.6,14.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.8 (1.5,5.2)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10–12.49</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.5 (2.14,5.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4 (0.8,2.4)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥12.5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Taking ART</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">NO</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3 (2.3,4.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.1 (1.9,4.9)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>CD4 lymphocyte count(cells/µL)</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><200</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.5 (5.2,13.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.8(5.5,17.5)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">200–499</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0 (1.8.5.0)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0 (1.7,5.5)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥500</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>WHO staging</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stage III</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stage IV</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.9 (2.7, 5.7)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.3 (2.6,6.8)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Helminths infection</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.8 (1.3,2.6)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2 (1.4,3.4)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Presence of TB patient in the family</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2 (1.5,3.2)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.0 (1.2, 3.2)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Wall of house</bold></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mud/mud brick</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.2 (3.96,9.65)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.7 (1.5, 7.5)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cement</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="discussion"><title>Discussion</title><p>In this study, several host and environmental risk factors of active pulmonary TB were investigated in an HIV-infected population in south-west Ethiopia. Among the distal determinants, educational status was significantly associated with active TB which is consistent with other reports in Pakistan and India (<xref rid="R13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>, <xref rid="R14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>). Several studies have shown that socio-economic status is a strong risk factor for occurrence of active TB (<xref rid="R15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>–<xref rid="R17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>). In our study a “low monthly income” was not associated active TB but in Ethiopia estimations of income based on salaries do not reflect the actual income of individuals. However, poor housing conditions which is a proxy of low socioeconomic status was associated with active TB. Previous reports also showed that a poor household and crowding were major risk factors for the development of TB (<xref rid="R7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>–<xref rid="R9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>). The association of male gender and active TB in this study is consistent with several previous reports(<xref rid="R6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>, <xref rid="R7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>, <xref rid="R9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>) and the effect could be a combination of behavioral, socioeconomic, and true biological/genetic factors (<xref rid="R2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>, <xref rid="R7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>). The role of smoking in the development of active TB is well established (<xref rid="R18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>, <xref rid="R19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>) but smoking was not associated with active TB in our study and this could be probably due to the low prevalence of smoking in our study population. There could also be a social desirability bias whereby smokers denied their smoking status.</p><p>A low CD4 lymphocyte count was strongly associated with the presence of active TB which is consistent with many other studies (<xref rid="R20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>–<xref rid="R22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>). The presence of TB can also decrease the CD4 lymphocyte count in patients with HIV (<xref rid="R23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>, <xref rid="R24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>). It has been documented that malnutrition is a major risk factor of TB (<xref rid="R25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>) and in this study, a low BMI (a proxy measure of malnutrition) and a low hemoglobin level were strongly associated with active TB which is similar to other reports (<xref rid="R14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>, <xref rid="R26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>–<xref rid="R28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>). There can be several explanations for the association between a low BMI and low hemoglobin with the development of TB. First, TB could lead to malnutrition and anemia through anorexia, an increased metabolic rate and malabsorption. On the other hand, malnutrition can aggravate the immune deficiency and increase the risk of active TB.</p><p>An infection with helminthes was more common among TB patients compared to controls and a similar finding was observed in a study done in north Ethiopia (<xref rid="R29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>). It is speculated that infection with helminthes can lead to the development of active TB through enhancing the helper T-cell type 2(Th-2) immune response(<xref rid="R30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>).</p><p>A contact history with a TB patient was one of the most important predictors of active TB which is consistent with previous findings (<xref rid="R6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>–<xref rid="R8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>) where frequent contact with TB patients in a rural household can lead to increased transmission of TB. Moreover, clustering of TB in families can also be explained by a genetic factor which predispose individuals to infection with TB(<xref rid="R30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>, <xref rid="R31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>).</p><p>This study has the following limitations: First, a case control study can only identify associations. Second, recall bias might have affected the accuracy of information related to substance use such as cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption.</p><p>In conclusion, all PLHA should be screened for TB but in the presence of the risk factors mentioned in this paper, intensified screening is recommended.</p></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>The authors acknowledge Jimma University for funding the study and the study participants for their cooperation.</p></ack><ref-list><ref id="R1"><label>1</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lonnroth</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Jaramillo</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>BG</given-names></name><name><surname>Dye</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Raviglione</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Drivers of tuberculosis epidemics: the role of risk factors and social determinants</article-title><source>Soc Sci Med</source><year>2009</year><volume>68</volume><issue>12</issue><fpage>2240</fpage><lpage>2246</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19394122</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R2"><label>2</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Yim</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Selvaraj</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Genetic susceptibility in tuberculosis</article-title><source>Respirology</source><year>2010</year><volume>15</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>241</fpage><lpage>256</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20199642</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R3"><label>3</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab collab-type="author">WHO</collab><source>The Stop TB Strategy-building on and enhancing DOTS to meet the Millenium Development Goals</source><year>2006</year><publisher-loc>Geneva</publisher-loc><publisher-name>WHO</publisher-name><comment>WHO/HTM/TB2006.368</comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="R4"><label>4</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dye</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>BG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Eliminating human tuberculosis in the twenty-first century</article-title><source>J R Soc Interface</source><year>2008</year><volume>5</volume><issue>23</issue><fpage>653</fpage><lpage>662</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17690054</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R5"><label>5</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dye</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Maher</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Weil</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Espinal</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Raviglione</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Targets for global tuberculosis control</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2006</year><volume>10</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>460</fpage><lpage>462</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16602414</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R6"><label>6</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lienhardt</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Fielding</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Sillah</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Tunkara</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Donkor</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Manneh</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Warndorff</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>McAdam</surname><given-names>KP</given-names></name><name><surname>Bennett</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Risk factors for tuberculosis infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a contact study in The Gambia</article-title><source>Am J Respir Crit Care Med</source><year>2003</year><volume>168</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>448</fpage><lpage>455</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12773322</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R7"><label>7</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lienhardt</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Fielding</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Sillah</surname><given-names>JS</given-names></name><name><surname>Bah</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Gustafson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Warndorff</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Palayew</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Lisse</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Donkor</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Diallo</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: a case-control study in three countries in West Africa</article-title><source>Int J Epidemiol</source><year>2005</year><volume>34</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>914</fpage><lpage>923</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15914505</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R8"><label>8</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hill</surname><given-names>PC</given-names></name><name><surname>Jackson-Sillah</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Donkor</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name><name><surname>Otu</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Adegbola</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name><name><surname>Lienhardt</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control study in The Gambia</article-title><source>BMC Public Health</source><year>2006</year><volume>6</volume><fpage>156</fpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16784521</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R9"><label>9</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gustafson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Gomes</surname><given-names>VF</given-names></name><name><surname>Vieira</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name><name><surname>Rabna</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Seng</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Johansson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Sandstrom</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Norberg</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Lisse</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Samb</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Tuberculosis in Bissau: incidence and risk factors in an urban community in sub-Saharan Africa</article-title><source>Int J Epidemiol</source><year>2004</year><volume>33</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>163</fpage><lpage>172</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15075165</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R10"><label>10</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab collab-type="author">MOH</collab><source>TB, leprosy and TB/HIV prevention and control program manual</source><year>2008</year><publisher-loc>Addis Ababa</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Ethiopia</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="R11"><label>11</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fugnudo Mbeki</surname><given-names>AG</given-names></name><name><surname>Kuwala</surname><given-names>Lube</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>HIV/TB co infection</article-title><source>Sout Afr J trop dis</source><year>2006</year><volume>13</volume><fpage>234</fpage><lpage>241</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="R12"><label>12</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Allen</surname><given-names>AV</given-names></name><name><surname>Ridley</surname><given-names>DS</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Further observations on the formol-ether concentration technique for faecal parasites</article-title><source>J Clin Pathol</source><year>1970</year><volume>23</volume><issue>6</issue><fpage>545</fpage><lpage>546</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">5529256</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R13"><label>13</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hussain</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Akhtar</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Nanan</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Prevalence of and risk factors associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in prisoners, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan</article-title><source>Int J Epidemiol</source><year>2003</year><volume>32</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>794</fpage><lpage>799</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14559752</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R14"><label>14</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Shetty</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Shemko</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Vaz</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>D'Souza</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>An epidemiological evaluation of risk factors for tuberculosis in South India: a matched case control study</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2006</year><volume>10</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>80</fpage><lpage>86</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16466042</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R15"><label>15</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lopez De Fede</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Stewart</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name><name><surname>Harris</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Mayfield-Smith</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Tuberculosis in socioeconomically deprived neighborhoods: missed opportunities for prevention</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2008</year><volume>12</volume><issue>12</issue><fpage>1425</fpage><lpage>1430</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19017452</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R16"><label>16</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Muniyandi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ramachandran</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Socioeconomic inequalities of tuberculosis in India</article-title><source>Expert Opin Pharmacother</source><year>2008</year><volume>9</volume><issue>10</issue><fpage>1623</fpage><lpage>1628</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18570596</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R17"><label>17</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mackenbach</surname><given-names>JP</given-names></name><name><surname>Stirbu</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Roskam</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Schaap</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name><name><surname>Menvielle</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Leinsalu</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Kunst</surname><given-names>AE</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries</article-title><source>N Engl J Med</source><year>2008</year><volume>358</volume><issue>23</issue><fpage>2468</fpage><lpage>2481</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18525043</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R18"><label>18</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ariyothai</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Podhipak</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Akarasewi</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Tornee</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Smithtikarn</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Thongprathum</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Cigarette smoking and its relation to pulmonary tuberculosis in adults</article-title><source>Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health</source><year>2004</year><volume>35</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>219</fpage><lpage>227</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15272772</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R19"><label>19</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lin</surname><given-names>HH</given-names></name><name><surname>Ezzati</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Chang</surname><given-names>HY</given-names></name><name><surname>Murray</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Association between tobacco smoking and active tuberculosis in Taiwan: prospective cohort study</article-title><source>Am J Respir Crit Care Med</source><year>2009</year><volume>180</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>475</fpage><lpage>480</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19542475</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R20"><label>20</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Colebunders</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>John</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Huyst</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Kambugu</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Scano</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Lynen</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in countries with limited resources</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2006</year><volume>10</volume><issue>9</issue><fpage>946</fpage><lpage>953</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16964782</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R21"><label>21</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lawn</surname><given-names>SD</given-names></name><name><surname>Myer</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Bekker</surname><given-names>LG</given-names></name><name><surname>Wood</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution disease: incidence, risk factors and impact in an antiretroviral treatment service in South Africa</article-title><source>Aids</source><year>2007</year><volume>21</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>335</fpage><lpage>341</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17255740</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R22"><label>22</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grant</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name><name><surname>Bansi</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Ainsworth</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Anderson</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Delpech</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Easterbrook</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Fisher</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Gazzard</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Gilson</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Gompels</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Tuberculosis among people with HIV infection in the United Kingdom: opportunities for prevention?</article-title><source>Aids</source><year>2009</year><volume>23</volume><issue>18</issue><fpage>2507</fpage><lpage>2515</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19770622</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R23"><label>23</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Canaday</surname><given-names>DH</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Lu</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Aung</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Peters</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Baseke</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Mackay</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Mayanja-Kizza</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Toossi</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Induction of HIV type 1 expression correlates with T cell responsiveness to mycobacteria in patients coinfected with HIV type 1 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis</article-title><source>AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses</source><year>2009</year><volume>25</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>213</fpage><lpage>216</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19239361</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R24"><label>24</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Habib</surname><given-names>AG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>A clinical and epidemiologic update on the interaction between tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus infection in adults</article-title><source>Ann Afr Med</source><year>2009</year><volume>8</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>147</fpage><lpage>155</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19884690</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R25"><label>25</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Vijayakumar</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhaskaram</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hemalatha</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Malnutrition and childhood tuberculosis</article-title><source>J Trop Pediatr</source><year>1990</year><volume>36</volume><issue>6</issue><fpage>294</fpage><lpage>298</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2280436</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R26"><label>26</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pakasi</surname><given-names>TA</given-names></name><name><surname>Karyadi</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Dolmans</surname><given-names>WM</given-names></name><name><surname>van der Meer</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name><name><surname>van der Velden</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Malnutrition and socio-demographic factors associated with pulmonary tuberculosis in Timor and Rote Islands, Indonesia</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2009</year><volume>13</volume><issue>6</issue><fpage>755</fpage><lpage>759</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19460253</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R27"><label>27</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Paton</surname><given-names>NI</given-names></name><name><surname>Castello-Branco</surname><given-names>LR</given-names></name><name><surname>Jennings</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Ortigao-de-Sampaio</surname><given-names>MB</given-names></name><name><surname>Elia</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Costa</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Griffin</surname><given-names>GE</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Impact of tuberculosis on the body composition of HIV-infected men in Brazil</article-title><source>J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol</source><year>1999</year><volume>20</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>265</fpage><lpage>271</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10077175</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R28"><label>28</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Karyadi</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Schultink</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Nelwan</surname><given-names>RH</given-names></name><name><surname>Gross</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Amin</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>Dolmans</surname><given-names>WM</given-names></name><name><surname>van der Meer</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name><name><surname>Hautvast</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name><name><surname>West</surname><given-names>CE</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Poor micronutrient status of active pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Indonesia</article-title><source>J Nutr</source><year>2000</year><volume>130</volume><issue>12</issue><fpage>2953</fpage><lpage>2958</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11110853</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R29"><label>29</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Elias</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Mengistu</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Akuffo</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Britton</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Are intestinal helminths risk factors for developing active tuberculosis?</article-title><source>Trop Med Int Health</source><year>2006</year><volume>11</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>551</fpage><lpage>558</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16553939</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R30"><label>30</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fine</surname><given-names>PE</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Immunogenetics of susceptibility to leprosy, tuberculosis, and leishmaniasis. An epidemiological perspective</article-title><source>Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis</source><year>1981</year><volume>49</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>437</fpage><lpage>454</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6804402</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="R31"><label>31</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Singh</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Balamurugan</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Katoch</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Sharma</surname><given-names>SK</given-names></name><name><surname>Mehra</surname><given-names>NK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Immunogenetics of mycobacterial infections in the North Indian population</article-title><source>Tissue Antigens</source><year>2007</year><issue>69 Suppl 1</issue><fpage>228</fpage><lpage>230</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17445206</pub-id></element-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/Sante/explor/SidaSubSaharaV1/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 002348 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 002348 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/Sante
|area= SidaSubSaharaV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:3275862
|texte= Risk Factors of Active Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Southwest Ethiopia: A Case Control Study
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:22434992" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a SidaSubSaharaV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.32. |  |