The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013
Identifieur interne : 000823 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000822; suivant : 000824The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013
Auteurs : Nafisa Halim ; Kathryn Spielman ; Bruce LarsonSource :
- BMC Women's Health [ 1472-6874 ] ; 2015.
Abstract
Globally, 25% of children aged 0 to 4 years and more than 10% of women aged 15 to 49 years suffer from malnutrition. A range of interventions, promising for improving maternal and child nutrition, may also improve physical and intellectual capacity, and, thereby, future productivity and earnings.
We conducted a systematic literature review and summarized economic impacts of 23 reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) interventions, published in 29 empirical studies between 2000 and 2013, using data from 13 low- and middle-income countries.
We find that, in low- and middle-income countries, RMNCH interventions were rarely evaluated using rigorous evaluation methods for economic consequences. Nonetheless, based on limited studies, maternal and childhood participation in nutrition interventions was shown to increase individuals’ income as adults by up to 46%, depending on the intervention, demography and country. This effect is sizeable considering that poverty reduction interventions, including microfinance and conditional cash transfer programs, have helped increase income by up to 18%, depending on the context. We also found, compared to females, males appeared to have higher economic returns from childhood participation in RMNCH interventions.
Countries with pervasive malnutrition should prioritize investments in RMNCH interventions for their public health benefits. The existing literature is currently too limited, and restricted to a few selected countries, to warrant any major reforms in RMNCH policies based on expected future income impacts. Longitudinal and intergenerational databases remain needed for countries to be better positioned to evaluate maternal and early childhood nutrition intervention programs for future economic consequences.
Url:
DOI: 10.1186/s12905-015-0189-y
PubMed: 25887257
PubMed Central: 4407878
Links to Exploration step
PMC:4407878Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013</title><author><name sortKey="Halim, Nafisa" sort="Halim, Nafisa" uniqKey="Halim N" first="Nafisa" last="Halim">Nafisa Halim</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Crosstown Center, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118 USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Spielman, Kathryn" sort="Spielman, Kathryn" uniqKey="Spielman K" first="Kathryn" last="Spielman">Kathryn Spielman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, Bruce" sort="Larson, Bruce" uniqKey="Larson B" first="Bruce" last="Larson">Bruce Larson</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Crosstown Center, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118 USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">25887257</idno><idno type="pmc">4407878</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4407878</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4407878</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s12905-015-0189-y</idno><date when="2015">2015</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000823</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000823</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013</title><author><name sortKey="Halim, Nafisa" sort="Halim, Nafisa" uniqKey="Halim N" first="Nafisa" last="Halim">Nafisa Halim</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Crosstown Center, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118 USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Spielman, Kathryn" sort="Spielman, Kathryn" uniqKey="Spielman K" first="Kathryn" last="Spielman">Kathryn Spielman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, Bruce" sort="Larson, Bruce" uniqKey="Larson B" first="Bruce" last="Larson">Bruce Larson</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Crosstown Center, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118 USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">BMC Women's Health</title><idno type="eISSN">1472-6874</idno><imprint><date when="2015">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>Globally, 25% of children aged 0 to 4 years and more than 10% of women aged 15 to 49 years suffer from malnutrition. A range of interventions, promising for improving maternal and child nutrition, may also improve physical and intellectual capacity, and, thereby, future productivity and earnings.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>We conducted a systematic literature review and summarized economic impacts of 23 reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) interventions, published in 29 empirical studies between 2000 and 2013, using data from 13 low- and middle-income countries.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>We find that, in low- and middle-income countries, RMNCH interventions were rarely evaluated using rigorous evaluation methods for economic consequences. Nonetheless, based on limited studies, maternal and childhood participation in nutrition interventions was shown to increase individuals’ income as adults by up to 46%, depending on the intervention, demography and country. This effect is sizeable considering that poverty reduction interventions, including microfinance and conditional cash transfer programs, have helped increase income by up to 18%, depending on the context. We also found, compared to females, males appeared to have higher economic returns from childhood participation in RMNCH interventions.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Countries with pervasive malnutrition should prioritize investments in RMNCH interventions for their public health benefits. The existing literature is currently too limited, and restricted to a few selected countries, to warrant any major reforms in RMNCH policies based on expected future income impacts. Longitudinal and intergenerational databases remain needed for countries to be better positioned to evaluate maternal and early childhood nutrition intervention programs for future economic consequences.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Black, Re" uniqKey="Black R">RE Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Victora, Cg" uniqKey="Victora C">CG Victora</name></author><author><name sortKey="Walker, Sp" uniqKey="Walker S">SP Walker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhutta, Za" uniqKey="Bhutta Z">ZA Bhutta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Christian, P" uniqKey="Christian P">P Christian</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Onis, M" uniqKey="De Onis M">M de Onis</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Halim, N" uniqKey="Halim N">N Halim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, B" uniqKey="Larson B">B Larson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bryant, M" uniqKey="Bryant M">M Bryant</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dorji, G" uniqKey="Dorji G">G Dorji</name></author><author><name sortKey="Spielman, K" uniqKey="Spielman K">K Spielman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chen Yuyu, Zl" uniqKey="Chen Yuyu Z">ZL Chen Yuyu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cutler, D" uniqKey="Cutler D">D Cutler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fung, W" uniqKey="Fung W">W Fung</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kremer, M" uniqKey="Kremer M">M Kremer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Singhal, M" uniqKey="Singhal M">M Singhal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vogl, T" uniqKey="Vogl T">T Vogl</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Venkataramani, A" uniqKey="Venkataramani A">A Venkataramani</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Allen, L" uniqKey="Allen L">L Allen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gillespie, S" uniqKey="Gillespie S">S Gillespie</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Verhoeff, Fh" uniqKey="Verhoeff F">FH Verhoeff</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brabin, Bj" uniqKey="Brabin B">BJ Brabin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Buuren, S" uniqKey="Van Buuren S">S Van Buuren</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chimsuku, L" uniqKey="Chimsuku L">L Chimsuku</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kazembe, P" uniqKey="Kazembe P">P Kazembe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wit, Jm" uniqKey="Wit J">JM Wit</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Alderman, H" uniqKey="Alderman H">H Alderman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Behrman, Jr" uniqKey="Behrman J">JR Behrman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Black, Re" uniqKey="Black R">RE Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Allen, Lh" uniqKey="Allen L">LH Allen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhutta, Za" uniqKey="Bhutta Z">ZA Bhutta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Caulfield, Le" uniqKey="Caulfield L">LE Caulfield</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Onis, M" uniqKey="De Onis M">M de Onis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ezzati, M" uniqKey="Ezzati M">M Ezzati</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Canning, D" uniqKey="Canning D">D Canning</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schultz, Tp" uniqKey="Schultz T">TP Schultz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Barker, Dj" uniqKey="Barker D">DJ Barker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Barker, Dj" uniqKey="Barker D">DJ Barker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Currie, J" uniqKey="Currie J">J Currie</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Miller, G" uniqKey="Miller G">G Miller</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schultz, T" uniqKey="Schultz T">T Schultz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Joshi, S" uniqKey="Joshi S">S Joshi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schultz, T" uniqKey="Schultz T">T Schultz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hoddinott, J" uniqKey="Hoddinott J">J Hoddinott</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maluccio, Ja" uniqKey="Maluccio J">JA Maluccio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Behrman, Jr" uniqKey="Behrman J">JR Behrman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flores, R" uniqKey="Flores R">R Flores</name></author><author><name sortKey="Martorell, R" uniqKey="Martorell R">R Martorell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stein, A" uniqKey="Stein A">A Stein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, M" uniqKey="Wang M">M Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Digirolamo, A" uniqKey="Digirolamo A">A DiGirolamo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grajeda, R" uniqKey="Grajeda R">R Grajeda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramakrishnan, U" uniqKey="Ramakrishnan U">U Ramakrishnan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramirez Zea, M" uniqKey="Ramirez Zea M">M Ramirez-Zea</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Li, H" uniqKey="Li H">H Li</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barnhart, Hx" uniqKey="Barnhart H">HX Barnhart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stein, Ad" uniqKey="Stein A">AD Stein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Martorell, R" uniqKey="Martorell R">R Martorell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stein, Ad" uniqKey="Stein A">AD Stein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, M" uniqKey="Wang M">M Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramirez Zea, M" uniqKey="Ramirez Zea M">M Ramirez-Zea</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flores, R" uniqKey="Flores R">R Flores</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grajeda, R" uniqKey="Grajeda R">R Grajeda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Melgar, P" uniqKey="Melgar P">P Melgar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Thomas, D" uniqKey="Thomas D">D Thomas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frankenberg, E" uniqKey="Frankenberg E">E Frankenberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Friedman, J" uniqKey="Friedman J">J Friedman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Habicht, J P" uniqKey="Habicht J">J-P Habicht</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hakimi, M" uniqKey="Hakimi M">M Hakimi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jones, N" uniqKey="Jones N">N Jones</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bobonis, G" uniqKey="Bobonis G">G Bobonis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miguel, E" uniqKey="Miguel E">E Miguel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Puri Sharma, C" uniqKey="Puri Sharma C">C Puri-Sharma</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stolzfus, R" uniqKey="Stolzfus R">R Stolzfus</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kvalsvig, J" uniqKey="Kvalsvig J">J Kvalsvig</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chwaya, H" uniqKey="Chwaya H">H Chwaya</name></author><author><name sortKey="Montresor, A" uniqKey="Montresor A">A Montresor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Albonico, M" uniqKey="Albonico M">M Albonico</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tielsch, J" uniqKey="Tielsch J">J Tielsch</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Black, M" uniqKey="Black M">M Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Baqui, Ah" uniqKey="Baqui A">AH Baqui</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zaman, K" uniqKey="Zaman K">K Zaman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ake Persson, L" uniqKey="Ake Persson L">L Ake Persson</name></author><author><name sortKey="El Arifeen, S" uniqKey="El Arifeen S">S El Arifeen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Le, K" uniqKey="Le K">K Le</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Field, E" uniqKey="Field E">E Field</name></author><author><name sortKey="Robles, O" uniqKey="Robles O">O Robles</name></author><author><name sortKey="Torero, M" uniqKey="Torero M">M Torero</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="O Donnell, Kj" uniqKey="O Donnell K">KJ O'Donnell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rakeman, Ma" uniqKey="Rakeman M">MA Rakeman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhi Hong, D" uniqKey="Zhi Hong D">D Zhi-Hong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Xue Yi, C" uniqKey="Xue Yi C">C Xue-Yi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mei, Zy" uniqKey="Mei Z">ZY Mei</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delong, N" uniqKey="Delong N">N DeLong</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schmidt, M" uniqKey="Schmidt M">M Schmidt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Muslimatun, S" uniqKey="Muslimatun S">S Muslimatun</name></author><author><name sortKey="West, Ce" uniqKey="West C">CE West</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schultink, W" uniqKey="Schultink W">W Schultink</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hautvast, Jg" uniqKey="Hautvast J">JG Hautvast</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tofail, F" uniqKey="Tofail F">F Tofail</name></author><author><name sortKey="Persson, La" uniqKey="Persson L">LA Persson</name></author><author><name sortKey="El Arifeen, S" uniqKey="El Arifeen S">S El Arifeen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hamadani, Jd" uniqKey="Hamadani J">JD Hamadani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mehrin, F" uniqKey="Mehrin F">F Mehrin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ridout, D" uniqKey="Ridout D">D Ridout</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Prado, El" uniqKey="Prado E">EL Prado</name></author><author><name sortKey="Alcock, Kj" uniqKey="Alcock K">KJ Alcock</name></author><author><name sortKey="Muadz, H" uniqKey="Muadz H">H Muadz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ullman, Mt" uniqKey="Ullman M">MT Ullman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shankar, Ah" uniqKey="Shankar A">AH Shankar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Group, Ss" uniqKey="Group S">SS Group</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pongcharoen, T" uniqKey="Pongcharoen T">T Pongcharoen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Digirolamo, Am" uniqKey="Digirolamo A">AM DiGirolamo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramakrishnan, U" uniqKey="Ramakrishnan U">U Ramakrishnan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Winichagoon, P" uniqKey="Winichagoon P">P Winichagoon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flores, R" uniqKey="Flores R">R Flores</name></author><author><name sortKey="Martorell, R" uniqKey="Martorell R">R Martorell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lozoff, B" uniqKey="Lozoff B">B Lozoff</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jimenez, E" uniqKey="Jimenez E">E Jimenez</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hagen, J" uniqKey="Hagen J">J Hagen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mollen, E" uniqKey="Mollen E">E Mollen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wolf, Aw" uniqKey="Wolf A">AW Wolf</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Black, M" uniqKey="Black M">M Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sazawal, S" uniqKey="Sazawal S">S Sazawal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Black, R" uniqKey="Black R">R Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Khosla, S" uniqKey="Khosla S">S Khosla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kumar, J" uniqKey="Kumar J">J Kumar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Venugopal, M" uniqKey="Venugopal M">M Venugopal</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baird, S" uniqKey="Baird S">S Baird</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hicks, Jh" uniqKey="Hicks J">JH Hicks</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kremer, M" uniqKey="Kremer M">M Kremer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miguel, E" uniqKey="Miguel E">E Miguel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Miguel, E" uniqKey="Miguel E">E Miguel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kremer, M" uniqKey="Kremer M">M Kremer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gilgen, Dd" uniqKey="Gilgen D">DD Gilgen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mascie Taylor, Cgncgn" uniqKey="Mascie Taylor C">CGNCGN Mascie-Taylor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rosetta, Ll" uniqKey="Rosetta L">LL Rosetta</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Thirumurthy, H" uniqKey="Thirumurthy H">H Thirumurthy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zivin, Jg" uniqKey="Zivin J">JG Zivin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Goldstein, M" uniqKey="Goldstein M">M Goldstein</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Larson, Ba" uniqKey="Larson B">BA Larson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fox, Mp" uniqKey="Fox M">MP Fox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bii, M" uniqKey="Bii M">M Bii</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rosen, S" uniqKey="Rosen S">S Rosen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rohr, J" uniqKey="Rohr J">J Rohr</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shaffer, D" uniqKey="Shaffer D">D Shaffer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Habyarimana, J" uniqKey="Habyarimana J">J Habyarimana</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mbakile, B" uniqKey="Mbakile B">B Mbakile</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pop Eleches, C" uniqKey="Pop Eleches C">C Pop-Eleches</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Coetzee, C" uniqKey="Coetzee C">C Coetzee</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Behrman, Jr" uniqKey="Behrman J">JR Behrman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Strauss, J" uniqKey="Strauss J">J Strauss</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thomas, D" uniqKey="Thomas D">D Thomas</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stenberg, K" uniqKey="Stenberg K">K Stenberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Axelson, H" uniqKey="Axelson H">H Axelson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sheehan, P" uniqKey="Sheehan P">P Sheehan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Anderson, I" uniqKey="Anderson I">I Anderson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gulmezoglu, Am" uniqKey="Gulmezoglu A">AM Gulmezoglu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Temmerman, M" uniqKey="Temmerman M">M Temmerman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kabeer, N" uniqKey="Kabeer N">N Kabeer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mahmud, S" uniqKey="Mahmud S">S Mahmud</name></author><author><name sortKey="Castro, Jgi" uniqKey="Castro J">JGI Castro</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Crepon, B" uniqKey="Crepon B">B Crépon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Devoto, F" uniqKey="Devoto F">F Devoto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Duflo, E" uniqKey="Duflo E">E Duflo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pariente, W" uniqKey="Pariente W">W Pariente</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Augsburg, B" uniqKey="Augsburg B">B Augsburg</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Haas, R" uniqKey="De Haas R">R de Haas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmgart, H" uniqKey="Harmgart H">H Harmgart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Meghir, C" uniqKey="Meghir C">C Meghir</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Angelucci, M" uniqKey="Angelucci M">M Angelucci</name></author><author><name sortKey="Karlan, D" uniqKey="Karlan D">D Karlan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zinman, J" uniqKey="Zinman J">J Zinman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Attanasio, O" uniqKey="Attanasio O">O Attanasio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Augsburg, B" uniqKey="Augsburg B">B Augsburg</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Haas, R" uniqKey="De Haas R">R de Haas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fitzsimons, E" uniqKey="Fitzsimons E">E Fitzsimons</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmgart, H" uniqKey="Harmgart H">H Harmgart</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tarozzi, A" uniqKey="Tarozzi A">A Tarozzi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Desai, J" uniqKey="Desai J">J Desai</name></author><author><name sortKey="Johnson, K" uniqKey="Johnson K">K Johnson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pitt, M" uniqKey="Pitt M">M Pitt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Khandker, Sr" uniqKey="Khandker S">SR Khandker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Case, A" uniqKey="Case A">A Case</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fertig, A" uniqKey="Fertig A">A Fertig</name></author><author><name sortKey="Paxson, C" uniqKey="Paxson C">C Paxson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Behrman, Jr" uniqKey="Behrman J">JR Behrman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rosenzweig, Mr" uniqKey="Rosenzweig M">MR Rosenzweig</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">BMC Womens Health</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">BMC Womens Health</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>BMC Women's Health</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1472-6874</issn><publisher><publisher-name>BioMed Central</publisher-name><publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25887257</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4407878</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">189</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s12905-015-0189-y</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Halim</surname><given-names>Nafisa</given-names></name><address><email>nhalim@bu.edu</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Spielman</surname><given-names>Kathryn</given-names></name><address><email>kspielma@bidmc.harvard.edu</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>Bruce</given-names></name><address><email>blarson@bu.edu</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label></label>Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Crosstown Center, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118 USA</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label></label>Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, USA</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>15</day><month>4</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>15</day><month>4</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2015</year></pub-date><volume>15</volume><elocation-id>33</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>18</day><month>10</month><year>2014</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>19</day><month>3</month><year>2015</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© Halim et al.; licensee BioMed Central. 2015</copyright-statement><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/</ext-link>) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><sec><title>Background</title><p>Globally, 25% of children aged 0 to 4 years and more than 10% of women aged 15 to 49 years suffer from malnutrition. A range of interventions, promising for improving maternal and child nutrition, may also improve physical and intellectual capacity, and, thereby, future productivity and earnings.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>We conducted a systematic literature review and summarized economic impacts of 23 reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) interventions, published in 29 empirical studies between 2000 and 2013, using data from 13 low- and middle-income countries.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>We find that, in low- and middle-income countries, RMNCH interventions were rarely evaluated using rigorous evaluation methods for economic consequences. Nonetheless, based on limited studies, maternal and childhood participation in nutrition interventions was shown to increase individuals’ income as adults by up to 46%, depending on the intervention, demography and country. This effect is sizeable considering that poverty reduction interventions, including microfinance and conditional cash transfer programs, have helped increase income by up to 18%, depending on the context. We also found, compared to females, males appeared to have higher economic returns from childhood participation in RMNCH interventions.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Countries with pervasive malnutrition should prioritize investments in RMNCH interventions for their public health benefits. The existing literature is currently too limited, and restricted to a few selected countries, to warrant any major reforms in RMNCH policies based on expected future income impacts. Longitudinal and intergenerational databases remain needed for countries to be better positioned to evaluate maternal and early childhood nutrition intervention programs for future economic consequences.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Reproductive</kwd><kwd>Maternal</kwd><kwd>Newborn</kwd><kwd>Child health (RMNCH) interventions</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2015</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1" sec-type="introduction"><title>Background</title><p>Poor nutrition in childhood, including <italic>in utero</italic>, remains a public health challenge in many low- and middle-income countries. Globally, 25% of children aged 0 to 4 years and more than 10% of women aged 15 to 49 years suffer from malnutrition; and 90% of them live in 34 low-income countries [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>]. In several low-income countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, as many as 40% of women aged 15 to 49 years have short stature (less than 145 cm) or low body-mass index (less than 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). In low- and middle-income countries, child malnutrition accounts for 42% and 53% of all stunted and wasted children. Poor nutrition in childhood, including <italic>in utero</italic>, poses economic disadvantages for individuals, lasting for more than 30 years and transmitting across generations [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">2</xref>]. Fetal growth restriction and stunting in early childhood can reduce incomes in adulthood by up to 12% and 9%, respectively, depending on the context [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>].</p><p>In recent years, several low- and middle-income countries have scaled up coverage of a wide range of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) interventions to ultimately prevent macro- and micronutrient deficiencies, short stature, or low body-mass index among women and children [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>]. The RMNCH interventions in the areas of reproductive health and family planning, macro- and micronutrients supplementation, and disease prevention and treatment are believed to have the potential to improve not only nutrition but also earnings of service recipients. Underlying this presumption is a set of causal mechanisms: RMNCH interventions at the time of conception and during pregnancy may improve fetal-growth and birth weight in neonates [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>]; optimal birth weight may lower risks of morbidity, mortality, impaired immune function, and poor cognition among neonates and infants, and stunting, wasting, later start of school, and lower school attainment and progression among children [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>]; and, improved nutrition, cognition, and education in childhood may lead to improved nutrition and education in adolescents, and to improved labor capacity and productivity and earnings in adults [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>].</p><p>Although plausible, conceptually, evidence from low- and middle-income countries still is emerging on to what extent RMNCH interventions can improve future productivity in education, economic and other activities. In this study, we conducted a review of the literature, and summarized the economic consequences of 23 reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) interventions, published in 29 empirical studies between 2000 and 2013, using data from 13 low- and middle-income countries. To the extent RMNCH interventions are indeed economically beneficial, they will have policy implications for poverty reduction, especially, in 34 low-income countries, the home of 90% of malnourished women and children worldwide [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">9</xref>].</p><sec id="Sec2"><title>Conceptual framework</title><p>Figure <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref> summarizes potential causal mechanisms linking RMNCH interventions, improved nutrition in childhood, including <italic>in utero</italic>, and future economic outcomes. For adults, higher earnings may follow from better human capital (i.e., cognitive skills, schooling, and stature) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>], where human capital accumulation may be shaped by adults’ nutritional status in childhood, including conditions <italic>in utero</italic>, weight and height at birth and during childhood years, and life-course decisions, including those related to fertility.<fig id="Fig1"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Possible pathways linking RMNCH interventions to future economic outcomes. Notes: RMNCH = Reproductive, maternal, newborn, child health interventions. BMI = Body Mass Index.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="12905_2015_189_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><p>The RMNCH interventions can potentially raise human capital and earnings for women and for children, when they enter the labor market as adults. Access to reproductive and family planning services could raise women’s lifetime earnings by increasing her ability to control child births and, thereby, her opportunities to acquire skills and work in the formal sector [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR10">10</xref>]. Additionally, at the time of conception and during pregnancy, macro- and micronutrient supplementation (such as, food aid, iron supplementation) and disease prevention and treatment (such as, malarial treatment) may increase birth weight in neonates since they may improve nutrient and oxygen supplies to the fetus and prevent restricted fetal-growth and prematurity. Birth weight among neonates of greater than 1.5 kilograms may be associated with lower risks of mortality, morbidity, immune deficiencies, stunting and wasting among infants and children. By being on par in height- and weight for age, children may start school on time, progress through school on schedule, and have higher schooling attainment [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>]. Improved nutrition, cognitive skills and schooling in childhood may lead to improved stature, cognitive skills and schooling in adolescents, and to improved work capacity, productivity and earnings in adults [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. Additionally, conditions <italic>in utero</italic> may affect metabolism, which in turn increases risks of future obesity, health disease, and diabetes, and thereby, economic outcomes [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">13</xref>].</p><p>Additionally, across low- and middle-income counties, differential labor market conditions may determine to what extent RMNCH interventions can potentially contribute to future earnings. Despite having fewer earning opportunities, in general, low-income countries vary sizably among themselves in the extent to which their working-age male and female populations have access to earning opportunities. For example, during 2000–2012, in low-income countries, labor force participation ranged between 63-92% for working-aged males and 15-90% for females [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>]. Therefore, for example, women may benefit more in terms of employment or income from participation in nutrition interventions in Bangladesh than in Afghanistan simply because female labor force participation is significantly different between the two countries (44 percentage points higher in Bangladesh compared to Afghanistan). Also, within a country, RMNCH interventions may differentially affect diverse demographic groups, depending on the country’s regional labor markets and within-country mobility, especially when children enter into the labor market as adults.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec3" sec-type="materials|methods"><title>Methods</title><sec id="Sec4"><title>Databases for candidate studies</title><p>For selecting candidate studies for this review, we searched online bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed articles and working papers. For peer-reviewed articles, we searched in five online bibliographic databases: <italic>EconLit</italic>, <italic>Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI)</italic>, <italic>JSTOR</italic>, <italic>ScienceDirect,</italic> and <italic>PUBMED.</italic> Also, we searched in three online bibliographic databases for working papers: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Bureau for Research and Economic Analysis of Development (BREAD), and IDEAS. Finally, we searched bibliographies of identified articles and working papers. We conducted the search between April 10 and April 27, 2013.</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>Search terms for identifying candidate studies</title><p>To produce a list of articles for the review, we searched for those RMNCH interventions, which potentially could raise earnings following the mechanism articulated in the Conceptual Framework in Section II. In particular, we searched for the RMNCH interventions in the areas of: reproductive health and family planning interventions; macronutrient supplementation; micronutrient supplementation; disease prevention and treatment. Also, for economic outcomes, we used search terms indicating indirect (i.e., human capital accumulation in the forms of cognition, education and health) as well as direct (i.e., income, wealth) economic outcome.</p><p>Therefore, we used combinations of the following search terms: (“nutrition interventions” OR “family planning” OR “folic acid fortification” OR “folic acid supplementation” OR “antenatal care” OR “essential package” OR “prevention and management of HIV and prevention of mother-to-child transmission in pregnancy” OR “prevention and management of childhood malaria” OR “early childhood development programs” OR “food aid” OR “integrated health and nutrition services” OR deworming OR “iron supplementation” OR “vitamin A supplementation” OR “zinc supplementation”) AND (“economic development” OR “economic growth” OR “economic consequences” OR “economic returns” OR welfare OR income OR wealth OR poverty OR socio-economic OR “human capital accumulation” OR “human capital formation” OR “human development” OR “human resources”) AND [(wom*n OR female*) OR (child* OR infant*)].</p><p>We searched using text words appearing in the title and/or the abstract of an article, along with using key words that have been indexed by the databases. We adjusted our search terms to include their synonyms, alternative spellings, and plurals. For example, we used wild cards (*) for alternative spellings and plurals of text words. Also, for possible synonyms of search terms, we used PubMed’s Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) thesaurus, which provides a listing of possible synonyms for each keyword indexed within it.</p></sec><sec id="Sec6"><title>Inclusion and exclusion criteria and study quality assessment</title><p>We included a study in the review if it met the following five criteria: (1) the study was a peer-reviewed article or a working paper; (2) the study was an empirical work; (3) the study included a measure of RMNCH intervention as a predictor variable; (4) the study included a measure of economic outcome (direct or indirect; see below for an explanation) as an outcome variable; (5) the study adjusted for confounders by constructing an appropriate comparison group (e.g., experimental study designs, or quasi-experimental study designs with appropriate statistical methods, such as instrumental-variable [IV], difference-in-difference [DID], and regression-discontinuity methods).</p><p>We excluded a study from review if it met any of the following criteria: the study (1) was a review, letter, or editorial work, (2) was a theoretical work, (3) was not published in English, (4) took place in an upper-middle or a high-income country for the year(s) considered in the study or (5) was published prior to the year 2000 or after 2013.</p><p>We applied the inclusion and exclusion criteria in two stages. First, during the online search stage, we selected the options in the online databases (e.g., publication date, publication type) that were commensurate with the criteria. Second, we read through the articles selected in the first stage, and further eliminated studies based on the exclusion criteria.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec7" sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><sec id="Sec8"><title>Studies identified and selected</title><p>Our search for peer-reviewed articles and working papers in the included bibliographic databases provided an initial list of more than 200 studies. We screened titles and abstracts for relevance, and only 29 of the 200 studies remained as candidates for inclusion in this review. For these studies, we read again the abstracts as well as sections on research methods, and these 29 studies were included in the review. Of the four quality assessment criteria listed in section II.C., each article fulfilled criteria 1 and 2 and any one of criterion 3 or 4. Within these 29 articles, 23 distinct RMNCH interventions were evaluated. Across these 23 interventions, two were for reproductive health and family planning interventions, two for macronutrient supplementation, two for micronutrient supplementation, and seven were for disease prevention and treatment. Four interventions were targeted for the total population, which therefore included women of reproductive age and children. Across all 23 interventions, ten interventions were evaluated for direct economic impacts, while the other 13 interventions were evaluated for impacts on outcomes that are indirectly related to economic impacts.</p></sec><sec id="Sec9"><title>Populations of selected studies</title><p>The 29 studies in this review were carried out in thirteen different low- and middle-income countries across four economic regions: Bangladesh (5) and India (3) in South Asia; China (1), Thailand (1)and Indonesia (3) in East Asia and Pacific; Colombia (1), Costa Rica (1), Guatemala (4) and Mexico (1) in Latin America and Caribbean; and Botswana (1), Kenya (5), South Africa (1) and Tanzania (2) in Sub-Saharan Africa.</p></sec><sec id="Sec10"><title>Methodologies of selected studies</title><p>As required by inclusion criteria, all studies employed appropriate statistical methods for identifying program/intervention impact (typically average treatment effects).</p><p>Studies adopted a wide range of primary outcome measures. Twelve studies evaluated ten RMNCH interventions for direct economic impacts, including annual income, hours worked, hourly wages, and labor productivity. Seventeen studies evaluated the remaining 13 interventions for impacts on human capital accumulation in the form of: (a) schooling, such as enrollment, participation, performance tests, functioning, reading comprehension, and general knowledge; (b) cognitive development, such as, language and motor development, exploratory behavior, cognitive development and ability; and (c) health status.</p></sec><sec id="Sec11"><title>Findings</title><sec id="Sec12"><title>Reproductive health and family planning interventions</title><p>In low-income countries, 76% of pregnant women completed at least one visit for antenatal care, and 38% of married women aged 15–49 or their sexual partners use any form of contraception [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>].</p><p>As summarized in Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>, only three studies focused on reproductive health and family planning interventions were eligible for inclusion based on the selection criteria<italic>.</italic> Women who participated in family planning programs in Colombia as teenagers were 7% more likely to be employed in the formal sector as adults [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>]. In Bangladesh, women participating in similar programs as teenagers earned one third more in wages per month as adults [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>]. Moreover, these programs added 0.5 years of schooling among women aged 15–24 in Bangladesh and 15–19 in Colombia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>]. Also, in Bangladesh, family planning programs improved women’s weight by 0.79 kg, lowered lifetime fertility by 17%, improved birth spacing, and increased use of antenatal care by 0.395 [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>].<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of reproductive health and family planning interventions: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 3</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impact: magnitudes and significance level</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">1.</td><td rowspan="2">Miller, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Colombia</td><td rowspan="2">Quasi-experimental</td><td rowspan="2"># of women 15—44: ~ 999,902</td><td rowspan="2">Probit</td><td>1. Women 15–19 employment <bold>↑</bold>: 7%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. Women 20–24 employment <bold>↑</bold>: 4%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3">2.</td><td rowspan="3">Schultz, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>]</td><td rowspan="3">Bangladesh</td><td rowspan="3">Quasi-experimental</td><td rowspan="3"># of villages: 141 # of HHs: 4,364</td><td rowspan="3">DID</td><td>1. Women 15—24 wages<bold>↑</bold>: 33%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. HH assets <bold>↑</bold>: 25%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>3. Men 15—24 wages: No impact</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3">3.</td><td rowspan="3">Joshi and Schultz, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>]</td><td rowspan="3">Bangladesh</td><td rowspan="3">Quasi-experimental</td><td rowspan="3"># of villages: 141 # of HHs: 4,364 # of women 15—49: ~ 5,269</td><td rowspan="3">DID</td><td>1. Fertility ↓: 17%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. Weight ↑:0.79 kg *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>3. Antenatal care use ↑: 40%*</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05. <italic>DID</italic> = Difference-in-Differences. <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact; ↓ indicates a negative impact.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec13"><title>Macronutrients supplementation</title><p>In low-income countries, poor nutrition affects 37% of children aged 0 to 4 years and more than 10% of women aged 15–49 [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>]. For economic productivity and lifetime earnings, poor nutrition in childhood, including <italic>in utero</italic>, can be damaging: it reduces physical and intellectual capacity, and thereby, can reduce individual learning and economic productivity.</p><p>As summarized in Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>, nutrition supplementation had the greatest economic returns in adulthood when children received nutritional supplementation while in <italic>utero</italic> (i.e., mothers received nutritional supplementation while they were pregnant with these children) and during the first three years of life. Hoddinott <italic>et al.</italic> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>] showed that, in Guatemala, a daily protein-enriched drink for children aged less than 3 years led to a 46% higher wage in their adult years. Furthermore, nutrition supplementation in early childhood was associated with a greater human capital accumulation in adults: in Guatemala, a daily protein-enriched drink for children aged less than 3 years was associated with an increased intellectual functioning in men [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>] and women [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">20</xref>], and with reduced risks of chronic diseases in adults [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">21</xref>]. Also, in Kenya, a daily protein-enriched breakfast was associated with children’s higher attendance and better performance [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>].<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of macronutrients supplementation: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 5</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impacts: magnitudes and significance level</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">1.</td><td rowspan="2">Hoddinott <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>].</td><td rowspan="2">Guatemala</td><td rowspan="2">Experimental. A follow up study, using the INCAP <italic>Oriente</italic> Survey</td><td># of villages: 4</td><td rowspan="2">OLS</td><td>1. Men’s wages ↑: 46% *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td># of individuals: 2,392</td><td>2. Women’s wages: No impact.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2.</td><td>Li <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">20</xref>]</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Experimental. A follow up study, using the INCAP <italic>Oriente</italic> Survey</td><td># of women: 130</td><td>Ordinal Logit</td><td>1. Improved educational achievement (OR: 2.8*)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">3.</td><td rowspan="2">Stein <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>].</td><td rowspan="2">Guatemala</td><td rowspan="2">Experimental. A follow up study, using the INCAP <italic>Oriente</italic> Survey</td><td rowspan="2"># of individuals: 1,448</td><td rowspan="2">GLM</td><td>1. Reading comprehension ↑: 3.46 points *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. Cognitive functioning ↑: 1.74 points*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>4.</td><td>Stein <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">21</xref>]</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Experimental. A follow up study, using the INCAP <italic>Oriente</italic> Survey</td><td># of individuals: 1,455</td><td>OLS; Logit</td><td>1. Men and women had a lower fasting glucose level (7.0 mg/dl*); systolic blood pressure (3.0 mm/dl*); triglyceride level (22.2 mg/dl*); and a higher density of lipoprotein cholesterol level (4.7 mg/dl*).</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">5.</td><td rowspan="2">Vermeersch and Kremer, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Kenya</td><td rowspan="2">Experimental</td><td># of schools: 50</td><td rowspan="2">Tobit, RE</td><td>1. School participation ↑: 30%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td># of children: 2,392</td><td>2. Test scores ↑: 0.38 and 0.42*</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05. <italic>OLS</italic> = Ordinary Least Squares; <italic>GLM</italic> = Generalized Linear Models; <italic>RE</italic> = Random Effects. <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec14"><title>Micronutrients supplementation</title><p>Globally, 42% pregnant women and 58% of children suffer from iron deficiency; and 32% of children suffer from iodine deficiency [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>].</p><p>Indeed, as presented in Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref>, iron supplementation yields economic benefits to adults in Indonesia: a 6% income increase for women; and, for men, between 20 and 40% income increase; 0.8 more days worked per month; and 20 fewer loss of minutes per day in sleeping due to fatigue [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">23</xref>].<table-wrap id="Tab3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of micronutrients supplementation: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 12</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Population intervened</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample size</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Treatment</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impacts: magnitudes and significance level</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="6">1</td><td>Thomas <italic>et al.,</italic> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">23</xref>]</td><td>Indonesia</td><td>Adults, 30–70 yrs</td><td>Experimental</td><td>17,000</td><td>DID</td><td>Iron supplementation</td><td>1. Men:</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Income ↑: 20% *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hourly earnings↑: 40%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Productivity ↑: 0.8 days</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Minutes/day spent sleeping due to fatigue↓: 20</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. Women: income↑: 6% *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3">2</td><td rowspan="3">Bobonis <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">24</xref>]</td><td>India</td><td>Children, 2–6 yrs</td><td>Experimental</td><td>4,068</td><td>DID</td><td>Iron supplementation and deworming treatment</td><td>1. Weight ↑: 0.5 kg*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. School participation ↑: 5.8% percentage points*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3. Effects most pronounced among girls and children of low SES.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">3.</td><td rowspan="2">Stolzfus <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">25</xref>]</td><td>Tanzania</td><td>Children, 6–59 months</td><td>Experimental</td><td>614</td><td>GLM</td><td>Iron supplementation and anthelmintic treatment</td><td>1. Language development ↑: 0.3—0.8 points *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. Motor skill development ↑: 0.4—1.1 point*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>4.</td><td>Black <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">26</xref>]</td><td>Bangladesh</td><td>Infants</td><td>Experimental</td><td>560</td><td>GLMM</td><td>Iron and zinc supplementation</td><td>Psychomotor Development Index score↑: 0.35*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3">5.</td><td rowspan="3">Field <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>]</td><td>Tanzania</td><td>Pregnant women</td><td>Quasi-experimental</td><td>1,395</td><td>FE</td><td>Iodized oil in utero</td><td>Schooling in years:</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1. Girls ↑: 0.82 **</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. Boys ↑: 0.38 **</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">6.</td><td rowspan="2">O’Donnell <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>]</td><td>China</td><td>Pregnant women and children 2 yrs</td><td>Experimental</td><td>207</td><td>GLM; ANCOVA</td><td>Timing of initial iodine supplementation</td><td>Head circumference and Psychomotor Development Index scores:</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1. Children supplemented early in pregnancy those supplemented later*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>7.</td><td>Schmidt <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">29</xref>]</td><td>Indonesia</td><td>Pregnant women</td><td>Experimental</td><td>276</td><td>OLS</td><td>Micronutrient supplementation</td><td>No association with infants’ mental and psychomotor development.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="4">8.</td><td rowspan="4">Tofail <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>]</td><td>Bangladesh</td><td>Pregnant women</td><td>Experimental</td><td>2,853</td><td>ANCOVA</td><td>Micronutrient supplementation; food supplementation</td><td>Infants:</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1. Problem-solving: ↑ 0.17*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. Psychomotor Development Index: ↑ 0.28*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3. Behavioral ratings: ↑0.24*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="3">9.</td><td rowspan="3">Prado <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">31</xref>]</td><td>Indonesia</td><td>Pregnant women</td><td>Experimental</td><td>487</td><td>GLMM; GLM; RE</td><td>Micronutrients supplementation</td><td>Children</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1. Motor ability: ↑0.39*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2. Visual attention: ↑0.24—0.37*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>10.</td><td>Pongcharoen, <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">32</xref>]</td><td>Thailand</td><td>Infants, 4–6 months</td><td>Experimental</td><td>560</td><td>GLMM</td><td>Iron and zinc supplementation</td><td>No impact on cognitive development</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>11.</td><td>Lozoff <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">33</xref>]</td><td>Costa Rica</td><td>Infants, 12–23 months</td><td>Longitudinal survey of children who were treated with iron supplementation during infancy irrespective of their chronic iron deficient or good iron status.</td><td>191</td><td>ANCOVA</td><td>Iron supplementation</td><td>No impact on long-term behavioral and developmental outcomes</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>12.</td><td>Black <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">34</xref>]</td><td>India</td><td>Infants</td><td>Experimental</td><td>221</td><td>ANOVA; GLM</td><td>Zinc and micronutrient-mix supplementation</td><td>No impact on cognitive and motor development</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05, **<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.01. <italic>ANCOVA</italic> = Analysis of Covariance; <italic>GLM</italic> = Generalized Linear Models; <italic>GLMM</italic> = Generalized Linear Mixed Models; <italic>FE</italic> = Fixed Effects; <italic>RE</italic> = Random Effects. <italic>DID</italic> = Difference-in-Differences. SES = Socioeconomic status; <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact; ↓ indicates a negative impact.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>Furthermore, in childhood, iron supplementation led to greater human capital accumulation: preschool attendance increased in India [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">24</xref>]; motor skills improved in Tanzania [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">25</xref>] and in Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">26</xref>]. Maternal iodine supplementation led to higher cognitive abilities in children in Tanzania [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>] and in China [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>]: 0.6 years of more schooling in Tanzania and higher psychomotor test scores in China [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>] the gains were larger for girls in Tanzania [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>]. Maternal micronutrient supplementation led to improved cognition among children in Indonesia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">31</xref>] and infants in Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>].</p><p>However, maternal micronutrient supplementation did not improve cognition among another sample of infants in Indonesia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">29</xref>]. Likewise, in childhood, iron, iron and zinc and zinc and micronutrient supplementation had no association was improved cognition in Thailand [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">32</xref>],Costa Rica [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">33</xref>], and India [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">34</xref>], respectively.</p></sec><sec id="Sec15"><title>Disease prevention and treatment</title><sec id="Sec16"><title>Malaria treatment</title><p>Globally, in 2012, 3.4 billion people were at risk of malaria, 207 million suffered and 627,000 died from it. As presented in Table <xref rid="Tab4" ref-type="table">4</xref>, malaria eradication efforts led to a 0.8% and a 13.5% increase in income among adult men in India [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>] and Mexico [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>], respectively.<table-wrap id="Tab4"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of malarial treatment: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 2</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impacts: magnitudes and significance level</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">1</td><td rowspan="2">Cutler <italic>et al.</italic>, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">India</td><td rowspan="2">Quasi-experimental using government map on malaria endemicity and the Indian National Sample Survey</td><td># of men, 20—60: 111,218</td><td rowspan="2">DID</td><td>1. Men, HH expenditures ↑: 0.8%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td># of women, 20—60: 107,551</td><td>2. Women, no impact on HH expenditures.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">2</td><td rowspan="2">Venkataramani, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Mexico</td><td rowspan="2">Quasi-experimental using state-level data on malaria death rates; the Mexican Family Life Survey</td><td># of men, 20—60: 1,647</td><td rowspan="2">DID</td><td>1. Men, HH expenditures ↑: 12.2% *</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td># of women, 20—60: 2,209</td><td>2. Women: no impact on HH expenditures.</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05. <italic>DID</italic> = Difference-in-Differences; <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact<bold>.</bold></p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec17"><title>Deworming</title><p>In Africa alone, up to 44 million women aged 14—49 years are infected with hookworms; this includes 7 million pregnant women. As presented in Table <xref rid="Tab5" ref-type="table">5</xref>, deworming interventions can potentially increase individual labor productivity and earnings, along with reducing sick days and absenteeism. In Kenya, a deworming treatment of children with a single dose albendazole every six months or praziqunatel annually led to a 12% increase in work hours per week and to 0.1 additional meals’ consumption per day in their adult years [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">35</xref>]. The same intervention increased school attendance by six percentage points and schooling by 0.14 years (p), for boys of all ages and young girls aged less than 13 years benefitting more than older girls aged 13 years or older [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>].<table-wrap id="Tab5"><label>Table 5</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of deworming: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 3</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impacts: magnitudes and significance levels</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">1.</td><td rowspan="2">Baird <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">35</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Kenya</td><td rowspan="2">Using the Kenyan Life Panel Survey, a follow up study of the Primary School Deworming Program, in which 75 schools (=32,565 pupils, aged 6—18 years) were randomly phased into the treatment of deworming medication</td><td rowspan="2"># of adults: 7,500</td><td rowspan="2">IV</td><td>1. # of hours worked ↑: 12%*</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. Earnings ↑: 20%*.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2.</td><td>Miguel and Kremer, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>]</td><td>Kenya</td><td>Experimental</td><td># of schools: 75<break></break># of children 6—18: 32,565</td><td>OLS; IV</td><td>1. School participation ↑: up to 6.2 percentage points*.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>3.</td><td>Gilgen <italic>et al</italic>., [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">37</xref>].</td><td>Bangladesh</td><td>Experimental</td><td># of female adult workers: 553</td><td>OLS</td><td>No significant difference in labor productivity.</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05. <italic>OLS</italic> = Ordinary Least Squares; <italic>IV</italic> = Instrumental Variables; <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec18"><title>Aids treatment</title><p>Globally, in 2012, approximately 35.3 million people were living with HIV, 60% of them were women and children [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">38</xref>]; most of them live in sub-Saharan Africa. As presented in Table <xref rid="Tab6" ref-type="table">6</xref>, in Kenya, ARV treatment led to a 20% and 21% increase in labor-market activities among HIV-infected men and women’s, respectively; HIV-infected men worked 35% more hours per week; and, once the HIV-infected adults within the household began treatment, young boys worked fewer hours in the labor market and increased their attendance at school [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">39</xref>]. Also, in Kenya, ARV treatment helped male tea pluckers offset decline in each of the total number of days per month worked in nonplucking assignments and the total number of days per month worked in plucking assignments by two days [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">40</xref>]. In Botswana, within a year of the initiation of ARV treatment, worker absenteeism decreased to 12 days from 20 days in the pretreatment year [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">41</xref>]. In South Africa, ARV treatment increased the likelihood of HIV-infected individuals actively seeking employment in the formal labor market [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">42</xref>].<table-wrap id="Tab6"><label>Table 6</label><caption><p><bold>Economic consequences of aids treatment: key findings from studies in selected low- and middle-income countries, 2000—2013,</bold><bold><italic>n</italic></bold>
<bold>= 4</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>#</bold></th><th><bold>Study</bold></th><th><bold>Country</bold></th><th><bold>Study design</bold></th><th><bold>Sample</bold></th><th><bold>Statistical analysis</bold></th><th><bold>Economic impacts: Magnitudes and significance levels</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td><bold>1</bold></td><td><bold>Thirumurthy et al.,</bold> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">39</xref>]</td><td><bold>Kenya</bold></td><td><bold>Quasi-experimental</bold></td><td><bold># of individuals,18-65: 3,009</bold></td><td><bold>FE</bold></td><td><bold>1. Labor force participation ↑: 20% *</bold></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><bold>2. # of Hours worked ↑: 35% *</bold></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><bold>3. Young boys resumed back to school</bold></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">2.</td><td rowspan="2">Larson <italic>et al.,</italic> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">40</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Kenya</td><td rowspan="2">Quasi-experimental</td><td rowspan="2"># of HIV-infect men tea plucker: 125 # of HIV-infect women tea plucker: 112</td><td rowspan="2">ITT</td><td>1. HIV-infected male and female tea-pluckers harvested 51% and 62% less tea, respectively, compared to healthy male and female tea-pluckers, respectively</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. By the 24 months on ART, HIV-infected male tea-pluckers were 90% as productive as healthy male tea-pluckers; HIV-infected female workers were 80% as productive as healthy female tea-pluckers</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td rowspan="2">3</td><td rowspan="2">Habyarimana, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">41</xref>]</td><td rowspan="2">Botswana</td><td rowspan="2">Quasi-experimental</td><td rowspan="2"># of adults diamond mine workers: 441</td><td rowspan="2">OLS, FE</td><td>1. Absenteeism (=12 days) was comparable between HIV-infected on ART and healthy worker</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>2. HIV-infected workers retained this rate of absenteeism for up to four years since ART initiation.</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>4</td><td>Coetzee, [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">42</xref>]</td><td>South Africa</td><td>Quasi-experimental</td><td># of HIV-infected adults on ART = 237</td><td>AFTM; Cox Proportional Hazard Model</td><td>1. Time for transition from labor inactivity to actively looking for employment ↓ (<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05. <italic>ITT</italic> = Intent to Treat; <italic>OLS</italic> = Ordinary Least Squares; <italic>FE</italic> = Fixed Effects; <italic>AFTM</italic> = Accelerated Failure Time Models; <bold>↑</bold> indicates a positive impact; ↓ indicates a negative impact.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec></sec></sec><sec id="Sec19" sec-type="discussion"><title>Discussion</title><p>Starting early 1990s, Behrman and colleagues argued that, in low- and middle-income countries, policy makers should consider improving nutrition in order to improve wages and productivity among non-poor as well as the poor members of the society [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">44</xref>]. Echoing Behrman and his colleagues from 20 years earlier, Stenberg <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">45</xref>] write in a <italic>Lancet</italic> article that, “improvement of preconception and maternal health, reduction of low birthweight and stunting through better nutrition, and expansion of a range of preventive child and adolescent health services are increasingly recognized as an investment in the potential for economic productivity and potential lifetime earnings in this and next generation”.</p><p>While the logic of these conclusions are well understood, the evidence from low- and middle-income countries remains limited on the extent to which such interventions might increase economic productivity and potential lifetime earnings. To support a better understanding of the evidence to date, and to consider needs for future research, we conducted a systematic literature review to summarize the economic impacts of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health interventions in low- and middle-income countries. A total of 29 studies between 2000 and 2013 addressing 23 interventions met the inclusion criteria. We summarize key findings and limitations. Making policy tradeoffs between specific interventions is beyond the purpose of this review.</p><p><italic>First</italic>, in low-income and lower-middle-income countries, nutrition interventions were <italic>rarely</italic> evaluated using appropriate evaluation methods for economic consequences, as evident by the small number of studies satisfying inclusion criteria. Between 2000 and 2013, six RMNCH interventions, including two for reproductive health and family planning, two for malaria, one for macronutrient supplementation, and one for deworming, were evaluated for economic consequences in six countries—Bangladesh, Colombia, Guatemala, Kenya, India and Mexico.</p><p><italic>Second</italic>, when available, however, the limited number of studies finds that RMNCH interventions can increase individuals’ income as adults, depending on the outcome measure, intervention, demography and country. Women gaining access to reproductive health and family planning interventions increased women’s monthly wages by a third in Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>] and labor force participation by 7% in Colombia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>]. An early childhood macronutrient intervention led to a 46% higher wage in adult years in Guatemala [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>]. Deworming treatment for children led to a 12% increase in labor productivity in their adult years in Kenya [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">34</xref>]. Malaria eradication efforts for children led to a 0.8% increase in income in their adult years in India, and to a 13.5% increase in Mexico [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>].</p><p>With an increase in earnings by between 7% and 46%, the economic returns of RMNCH interventions appear to be sizable, when they are compared, albeit crudely, with the economic returns of poverty reduction programs, namely, microfinance and conditional cash transfer programs. For example, poverty reduction programs were shown to have increased earnings by up to 18% for poor households in low and middle-income countries [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">46</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>].</p><p>Third, compared to females, males appeared to have higher economic returns from participation in RMNCH interventions, perhaps because of a pro-male bias in the labor market. Malaria eradication led to increased income for adult men but not for women in India or in Mexico [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>]. In Kenya, ARV therapy increased labor productivity more for men than it did for women [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">40</xref>]; ARV therapy reduced young boys’ weekly hours worked while increasing their attendance at school, but it showed no impact on young girls’ weekly hours worked and school attendance [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">39</xref>]. However, in Bangladesh, family planning intervention was associated with an approximate 33% increase in women’s wages, but it had no effect on men’s wages [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>].</p><p>We recognize several limitations of this systematic review, many of which are also limitation of the existing literature. <italic>First</italic>, studies utilized a mix of direct and indirect indicators for economic outcomes, making comparisons of economic impacts across studies difficult. <italic>Second,</italic> because the studies were set in a variety of contexts (interventions and locations within countries), the ability to generalize findings is limited. <italic>Third</italic>, for 2000—2013 (the years of interest to this review), only three studies focused on reproductive health and family planning interventions were eligible for inclusion based on the selection criteria. This number is too small to provide persuasive evidence. <italic>Fourth</italic>, we have mitigated—but not eliminated—risks of a potential positive publication bias. We selected for review ten studies showing no effects on the study population [29, 32—34, 37] or a subsection [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>] following our efforts to mitigate risks of a potential publication bias by expanding search databases to include working papers (see Section III.A). <italic>Fifth</italic>, we reviewed studies on AIDS treatment and not on AIDS treatment of pregnant women, which is a RMNCH intervention. Existing studies on PMTCT services did not meet our inclusion criteria. And <italic>sixth</italic>, except for Miguel and Kremer [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>], studies were mute regarding externalities that might have caused under- or overestimates of impact. Miguel and Kremer [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>] showed that, by attending schools within up to six kilometers away from schools receiving deworming treatment, students had up to 26% fewer infections.</p></sec><sec id="Sec20" sec-type="conclusion"><title>Conclusions</title><p>Investments today in reproductive, maternal, neonatal and child health may translate into future economic benefits among male and female populations in low- and middle-income countries. In high-income countries, a rich body of evidence has long documented these beneficial effects. For example, using a longitudinal dataset from the United Kingdom, Case <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">53</xref>] find that prenatal and childhood health status are significant predictors of economic status in middle age (p. 368), even when parental- and individual-level confounders are adjusted for in analyses. Using data on monozygotic twins in the US and controlling for differences in genetics and family backgrounds, Behrman and Rosenzweig [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">54</xref>] find that lower-birth weight babies earn 6% less income in their lifetime than their higher birth weight counterparts.</p><p>In low- and middle-income countries, the existing literature currently is too limited, and restricted to a few selected countries, to warrant any major reforms in RMNCH policies based on expected future income impacts. Longitudinal and intergenerational databases on nutrition and economic indicators remain needed for countries to be better positioned to evaluate maternal and early childhood nutrition intervention programs for future socioeconomic consequences. Low and middle-income countries should prioritize investments in such longitudinal databases as the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama longitudinal Study, the <italic>Matlab</italic> Health and Socioeconomic Survey, the Kenyan Life Panel Survey, and the Mexican Family Life Survey. Meanwhile, low- and middle-income countries should prioritize investments in RMNCH interventions for their public health benefits.</p></sec></body><back><fn-group><fn><p><bold>Competing interests</bold></p><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></fn><fn><p><bold>Authors’ contributions</bold></p><p>NH conceptualized and designed the research. KS and NH conducted the research. BL provided critical inputs on intellectual content and data interpretation. All authors contributed in drafting the manuscript, and approved the final manuscript.</p></fn></fn-group><ack><p>We received financial help from the Partnership for Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health (PMNCH), Geneva, Switzerland. We thank Jere Behrman, Malcolm Bryant, Gampo Dorji, the editor and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions.</p></ack><ref-list id="Bib1"><title>References</title><ref id="CR1"><label>1.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>RE</given-names></name><name><surname>Victora</surname><given-names>CG</given-names></name><name><surname>Walker</surname><given-names>SP</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhutta</surname><given-names>ZA</given-names></name><name><surname>Christian</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>de Onis</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries</article-title><source>Lancet.</source><year>2013</year><volume>382</volume><issue>9890</issue><fpage>427</fpage><lpage>51</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60937-X</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23746772</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR2"><label>2.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Halim</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Bryant</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Dorji</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Spielman</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><source>The short- and long-term consequences of maternal and child malnutrition for economic development in low- and middle- income countries: A systematic review of recent literature, 2000–2013</source><year>2013</year><publisher-loc>Geneva, Switzerland</publisher-loc><publisher-name>The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn & Child Health (PMNCH)</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR3"><label>3.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chen Yuyu</surname><given-names>ZL</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The long-term health and economic consequences of the 1959–1961 famine in China</article-title><source>J Health Econ</source><year>2007</year><volume>26</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>659</fpage><lpage>81</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.12.006</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17289187</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR4"><label>4.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cutler</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Fung</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Kremer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Singhal</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Vogl</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Early-life malaria exposure and adult outcomes: evidence from malaria eradication in India</article-title><source>Am Econ J: Appl Econ</source><year>2010</year><volume>2</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>72</fpage><lpage>94</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR5"><label>5.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Venkataramani</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Early life exposure to malaria and cognition in adulthood: evidence from Mexico</article-title><source>J Health Econ.</source><year>2012</year><volume>31</volume><fpage>767</fpage><lpage>80</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jhealeco.2012.06.003</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22906550</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR6"><label>6.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Allen</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Gillespie</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><source>What works? A review of efficacy and effectiveness of nutrition interventions</source><year>2001</year><publisher-loc>Manila</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Nutrition and Development Series Asian Development Bank</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR7"><label>7.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Verhoeff</surname><given-names>FH</given-names></name><name><surname>Brabin</surname><given-names>BJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Van Buuren</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Chimsuku</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Kazembe</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Wit</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>An analysis of intra-uterine growth retardation in rural Malawi</article-title><source>Eur J Clin Nutr</source><year>2001</year><volume>55</volume><issue>8</issue><fpage>682</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601200</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11477467</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR8"><label>8.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Alderman</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Behrman</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Reducing the incidence of Low birth weight in Low-income countries Has substantial economic benefits</article-title><source>World Bank Research Observer</source><year>2006</year><volume>21</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>25</fpage><lpage>48</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/wbro/lkj001</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR9"><label>9.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>RE</given-names></name><name><surname>Allen</surname><given-names>LH</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhutta</surname><given-names>ZA</given-names></name><name><surname>Caulfield</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name><name><surname>de Onis</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ezzati</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences</article-title><source>Lancet.</source><year>2008</year><volume>371</volume><issue>9608</issue><fpage>243</fpage><lpage>60</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18207566</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR10"><label>10.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Canning</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Schultz</surname><given-names>TP</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The economic consequences of reproductive health and family planning</article-title><source>Lancet</source><year>2012</year><volume>380</volume><issue>9837</issue><fpage>165</fpage><lpage>71</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60827-7</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22784535</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR11"><label>11.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barker</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The fetal and infant origins of adult disease</article-title><source>BMJ</source><year>1990</year><volume>301</volume><issue>6761</issue><fpage>1111</fpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/bmj.301.6761.1111</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2252919</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR12"><label>12.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barker</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Fetal origins of coronary heart disease</article-title><source>BMJ</source><year>1995</year><volume>311</volume><issue>6998</issue><fpage>171</fpage><lpage>4</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/bmj.311.6998.171</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7613432</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR13"><label>13.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Currie</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Healthy, wealthy, and wise: Is there a causal relationship between child health and human capital development?</article-title><source>J Econ Lit</source><year>2009</year><volume>47</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>87</fpage><lpage>122</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1257/jel.47.1.87</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">The World Bank. 2014. World Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank (producer and distributor). <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators">http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators</ext-link>. Accessed 02 January 2015.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR15"><label>15.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Contraception as development? New evidence from family planning in Colombia</article-title><source>Econ J.</source><year>2009</year><volume>120</volume><fpage>709</fpage><lpage>36</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02306.x</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR16"><label>16.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schultz</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><source>How does family planning promote development? Evidence from a social experiment in Matlab, Bangladesh, 1977–1996</source><year>2009</year><publisher-loc>New Haven</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Yale University</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR17"><label>17.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Joshi</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Schultz</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Family planning and women’s and children’s health: Long-term consequences of an outreach program in Matlab, Bangladesh</article-title><source>Demography.</source><year>2013</year><volume>50</volume><fpage>149</fpage><lpage>80</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s13524-012-0172-2</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23212440</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR18"><label>18.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hoddinott</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Maluccio</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name><name><surname>Behrman</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name><name><surname>Flores</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Martorell</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effect of a nutrition intervention during early childhood on economic productivity in Guatemalan adults</article-title><source>Lancet</source><year>2008</year><volume>371</volume><issue>9610</issue><fpage>411</fpage><lpage>6</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60205-6</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18242415</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR19"><label>19.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stein</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>DiGirolamo</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Grajeda</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Ramakrishnan</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name><name><surname>Ramirez-Zea</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Nutritional supplementation in early childhood, schooling, and intellectual functioning in adulthood: A prospective study in Guatemala</article-title><source>Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med</source><year>2008</year><volume>162</volume><issue>7</issue><fpage>612</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/archpedi.162.7.612</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18606931</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR20"><label>20.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Barnhart</surname><given-names>HX</given-names></name><name><surname>Stein</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name><name><surname>Martorell</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of early childhood supplementation on the educational achievement of women</article-title><source>Pediatrics</source><year>2003</year><volume>112</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>1156</fpage><lpage>62</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1542/peds.112.5.1156</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14595062</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR21"><label>21.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stein</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ramirez-Zea</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Flores</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Grajeda</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Melgar</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Exposure to a nutrition supplementation intervention in early childhood and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in adulthood: evidence from Guatemala</article-title><source>Am J Epidemiol</source><year>2006</year><volume>164</volume><issue>12</issue><fpage>1160</fpage><lpage>70</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/aje/kwj328</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17018700</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Vermeersch C, Kremer, M. School meals, educational achievement and school competition: Evidence from a randomized evaluation. University of Oxford. 2004.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="CR23"><label>23.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Frankenberg</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Friedman</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Habicht</surname><given-names>J-P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hakimi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Jones</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><source>Iron deficiency and the well-being of older adults: Early results from a randomized nutrition intervention</source><year>2003</year><publisher-loc>Mimeo</publisher-loc><publisher-name>University of California, Los Angeles</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR24"><label>24.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bobonis</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Miguel</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Puri-Sharma</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Anemia and school participation</article-title><source>J Hum Resour</source><year>2006</year><volume>41</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>692</fpage><lpage>721</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR25"><label>25.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stolzfus</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Kvalsvig</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Chwaya</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Montresor</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Albonico</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Tielsch</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Effects of iron supplementation and anthelmintic treatment on motor and language development of preschool children in Zanzibar: Double-blind, placebo controlled study</article-title><source>Br Med J.</source><year>2001</year><volume>323</volume><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/bmj.323.7303.1</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11440920</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR26"><label>26.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Baqui</surname><given-names>AH</given-names></name><name><surname>Zaman</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Ake Persson</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>El Arifeen</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Le</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Iron and zinc supplementation promote motor development and exploratory behavior among Bangladeshi infants</article-title><source>Am J Clin Nutr</source><year>2004</year><volume>80</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>903</fpage><lpage>10</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15447897</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR27"><label>27.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Field</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Robles</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Torero</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Iodine deficiency and schooling attainment in Tanzania</article-title><source>Am Econ J: Appl Econ</source><year>2009</year><volume>1</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>140</fpage><lpage>69</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR28"><label>28.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>O'Donnell</surname><given-names>KJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Rakeman</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name><name><surname>Zhi-Hong</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Xue-Yi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Mei</surname><given-names>ZY</given-names></name><name><surname>DeLong</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Effects of iodine supplementation during pregnancy on child growth and development at school age</article-title><source>Dev Med Child Neurol</source><year>2002</year><volume>44</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>76</fpage><lpage>81</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1017/S0012162201001712</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11848114</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR29"><label>29.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schmidt</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Muslimatun</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>West</surname><given-names>CE</given-names></name><name><surname>Schultink</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Hautvast</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Mental and psychomotor development in Indonesian infants of mothers supplemented with vitamin A in addition to iron during pregnancy</article-title><source>Br J Nutr.</source><year>2004</year><volume>91</volume><fpage>279</fpage><lpage>85</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1079/BJN20031043</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14756914</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR30"><label>30.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tofail</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Persson</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name><name><surname>El Arifeen</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Hamadani</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name><name><surname>Mehrin</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Ridout</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Effects of prenatal food and micronutrient supplementation on infant development: a randomized trial from the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions, Matlab (MINIMat) study</article-title><source>Am J Clin Nutr</source><year>2008</year><volume>87</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>704</fpage><lpage>11</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18326610</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR31"><label>31.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Prado</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name><name><surname>Alcock</surname><given-names>KJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Muadz</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Ullman</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name><name><surname>Shankar</surname><given-names>AH</given-names></name><name><surname>Group</surname><given-names>SS</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Maternal multiple micronutrient supplements and child cognition: a randomized trial in Indonesia</article-title><source>Pediatrics</source><year>2012</year><volume>130</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>e536</fpage><lpage>46</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1542/peds.2012-0412</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22908103</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR32"><label>32.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pongcharoen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>DiGirolamo</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name><name><surname>Ramakrishnan</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name><name><surname>Winichagoon</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Flores</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Martorell</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Long-term effects of iron and zinc supplementation during infancy on cognitive function at 9 y of age in northeast Thai children: a follow-up study</article-title><source>Am J Clin Nutr</source><year>2011</year><volume>93</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>636</fpage><lpage>43</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3945/ajcn.110.002220</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21270383</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR33"><label>33.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lozoff</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Jimenez</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Hagen</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Mollen</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Wolf</surname><given-names>AW</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Poorer behavioral and developmental outcome more than 10 years after treatment for iron deficiency in infancy</article-title><source>Pediatrics</source><year>2000</year><volume>105</volume><issue>4</issue><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1542/peds.105.4.e51</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10742372</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR34"><label>34.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Sazawal</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Khosla</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Kumar</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Venugopal</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Cognitive and motor development among small-for-gestational-Age infants: impact of zinc supplementation, birth weight, and caregiving practices</article-title><source>Pediatrics</source><year>2004</year><volume>113</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>1297</fpage><lpage>305</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1542/peds.113.5.1297</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15121945</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR35"><label>35.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baird</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Hicks</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name><name><surname>Kremer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Miguel</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name></person-group><source>Worms at work: long-run impacts of child health gains</source><year>2011</year><publisher-loc>Berkeley</publisher-loc><publisher-name>University of California at Berkeley</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR36"><label>36.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Miguel</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Kremer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Worms: identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities</article-title><source>Econometrica</source><year>2004</year><volume>72</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>159</fpage><lpage>217</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00481.x</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR37"><label>37.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gilgen</surname><given-names>DD</given-names></name><name><surname>Mascie-Taylor</surname><given-names>CGNCGN</given-names></name><name><surname>Rosetta</surname><given-names>LL</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Intestinal helminth infections, anaemia and labour productivity of female tea pluckers in Bangladesh</article-title><source>Trop Med Int Health</source><year>2001</year><volume>6</volume><fpage>449</fpage><lpage>57</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00729.x</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11422959</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR38"><label>38.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><collab>Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)</collab></person-group><source>"Global Report: UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2013."</source><year>2013</year><publisher-loc>Geneva</publisher-loc><publisher-name>UNAIDS</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR39"><label>39.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Thirumurthy</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Zivin</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name><name><surname>Goldstein</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The economic impact of AIDS treatment; labor supply in Western Kenya</article-title><source>J Hum Resour</source><year>2008</year><volume>43</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>511</fpage><lpage>52</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1353/jhr.2008.0009</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22180664</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR40"><label>40.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name><name><surname>Fox</surname><given-names>MP</given-names></name><name><surname>Bii</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Rosen</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Rohr</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Shaffer</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Antiretroviral therapy, labor productivity, and sex: a longitudinal cohort study of tea pluckers in Kenya</article-title><source>AIDS</source><year>2013</year><volume>27</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>115</fpage><lpage>23</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835a5b12</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23014516</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR41"><label>41.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Habyarimana</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Mbakile</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Pop-Eleches</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The impact of HIV/AIDS and ARV treatment on worker absenteeism: implications for African firms</article-title><source>J Hum Resour</source><year>2010</year><volume>45</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>809</fpage><lpage>39</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1353/jhr.2010.0032</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR42"><label>42.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Coetzee</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The impact of Highly Active Antiretroviral Treatment (HAART) on employment in khayelitsha</article-title><source>South Afr J Econ.</source><year>2008</year><volume>76</volume><fpage>S75</fpage><lpage>85</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1813-6982.2008.00166.x</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR43"><label>43.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Behrman</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The economic rationale for investing in nutrition in developing countries</article-title><source>World Dev</source><year>1993</year><volume>21</volume><issue>11</issue><fpage>1749</fpage><lpage>71</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/0305-750X(93)90081-J</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR44"><label>44.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Strauss</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Health, nutrition, and economic development</article-title><source>J Econ Lit.</source><year>1998</year><volume>36</volume><fpage>766</fpage><lpage>817</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR45"><label>45.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stenberg</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Axelson</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Sheehan</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Anderson</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Gulmezoglu</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name><name><surname>Temmerman</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Advancing social and economic development by investing in women's and children's health: a new Global Investment Framework</article-title><source>Lancet.</source><year>2014</year><volume>383</volume><issue>9925</issue><fpage>1333</fpage><lpage>54</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62231-X</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">24263249</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR46"><label>46.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kabeer</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name><name><surname>Mahmud</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Castro</surname><given-names>JGI</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>NGOs and the political empowerment of poor people in rural Bangladesh: cultivating the habits of democracy?</article-title><source>World Dev</source><year>2012</year><volume>40</volume><issue>10</issue><fpage>2044</fpage><lpage>62</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.011</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR47"><label>47.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Crépon</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Devoto</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Duflo</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Pariente</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name></person-group><source>Estimating the impact of microcredit on those Who take It Up: evidence from a randomized experiment in Morocco. NBER working papers No. w20144</source><year>2014</year><publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc><publisher-name>National Bureau of Economic Research</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR48"><label>48.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Augsburg</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>de Haas</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Harmgart</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Meghir</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><source>Microfinance, poverty and education. NBER working papers No 18538</source><year>2013</year><publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc><publisher-name>National Bureau of Economic Research</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR49"><label>49.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Angelucci</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Karlan</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Zinman</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><source>Win some lose some? Evidence from a randomized microcredit program placement experiment by Compartamos Banco. NBER Working Papers No w19119</source><year>2013</year><publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc><publisher-name>National Bureau of Economic Research</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR50"><label>50.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Attanasio</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Augsburg</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>de Haas</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Fitzsimons</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Harmgart</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name></person-group><source>Group lending or individual lending? Evidence from a randomized field experiment in Mongolia, WZB Discussion Paper, No. SP II 2014–303</source><year>2014</year><publisher-loc>Berlin</publisher-loc><publisher-name>WZB Berlin Social Science Center</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR51"><label>51.</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tarozzi</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Desai</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Johnson</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><source>On the impact of microcredit: Evidence from a randomized intervention in rural Ethiopia</source><year>2013</year><publisher-loc>Durham</publisher-loc><publisher-name>The Bureau for Research and Economic Analysis of Development</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR52"><label>52.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pitt</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Khandker</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The impact of group-based credit on poor households in Bangladesh: does the gender of the participants matter?</article-title><source>J Pol Econ</source><year>1998</year><volume>106</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>958</fpage><lpage>96</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1086/250037</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR53"><label>53.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Case</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Fertig</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Paxson</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance</article-title><source>J Health Econ</source><year>2005</year><volume>24</volume><issue>2005</issue><fpage>365</fpage><lpage>89</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jhealeco.2004.09.008</pub-id><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15721050</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="CR54"><label>54.</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Behrman</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name><name><surname>Rosenzweig</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Returns to birthweight</article-title><source>Rev Econ Stat</source><year>2004</year><volume>86</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>586</fpage><lpage>601</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1162/003465304323031139</pub-id></element-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/Sante/explor/SidaSubSaharaV1/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 000823 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 000823 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/Sante
|area= SidaSubSaharaV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:4407878
|texte= The economic consequences of selected maternal and early childhood nutrition interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the literature, 2000—2013
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:25887257" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a SidaSubSaharaV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.32. |  |