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Bioinformatics in Africa: The Rise of Ghana?

Identifieur interne : 000285 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000284; suivant : 000286

Bioinformatics in Africa: The Rise of Ghana?

Auteurs : Thomas K. Karikari

Source :

RBID : PMC:4574930

Abstract

Until recently, bioinformatics, an important discipline in the biological sciences, was largely limited to countries with advanced scientific resources. Nonetheless, several developing countries have lately been making progress in bioinformatics training and applications. In Africa, leading countries in the discipline include South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya. However, one country that is less known when it comes to bioinformatics is Ghana. Here, I provide a first description of the development of bioinformatics activities in Ghana and how these activities contribute to the overall development of the discipline in Africa. Over the past decade, scientists in Ghana have been involved in publications incorporating bioinformatics analyses, aimed at addressing research questions in biomedical science and agriculture. Scarce research funding and inadequate training opportunities are some of the challenges that need to be addressed for Ghanaian scientists to continue developing their expertise in bioinformatics.


Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004308
PubMed: 26378921
PubMed Central: 4574930

Links to Exploration step

PMC:4574930

Le document en format XML

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<p>Until recently, bioinformatics, an important discipline in the biological sciences, was largely limited to countries with advanced scientific resources. Nonetheless, several developing countries have lately been making progress in bioinformatics training and applications. In Africa, leading countries in the discipline include South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya. However, one country that is less known when it comes to bioinformatics is Ghana. Here, I provide a first description of the development of bioinformatics activities in Ghana and how these activities contribute to the overall development of the discipline in Africa. Over the past decade, scientists in Ghana have been involved in publications incorporating bioinformatics analyses, aimed at addressing research questions in biomedical science and agriculture. Scarce research funding and inadequate training opportunities are some of the challenges that need to be addressed for Ghanaian scientists to continue developing their expertise in bioinformatics.</p>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="other">
<pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS Comput Biol</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS Comput. Biol</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">ploscomp</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>PLoS Computational Biology</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1553-734X</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1553-7358</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>San Francisco, CA USA</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmid">26378921</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4574930</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004308</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PCOMPBIOL-D-15-00158</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Perspective</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Bioinformatics in Africa: The Rise of Ghana?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Karikari</surname>
<given-names>Thomas K.</given-names>
</name>
<xref rid="cor001" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff001">
<addr-line>Department of Science Laboratory Technology, School of Applied Science and Technology, Wa Polytechnic, Wa, Ghana</addr-line>
</aff>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<name>
<surname>Punta</surname>
<given-names>Marco</given-names>
</name>
<role>Editor</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="edit1">
<addr-line>Pierre and Marie Curie University (UPMC), FRANCE</addr-line>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<fn fn-type="conflict" id="coi001">
<p>The author has declared that no competing interests exist.</p>
</fn>
<corresp id="cor001">* E-mail:
<email>ohenekakari@gmail.com</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>17</day>
<month>9</month>
<year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection">
<month>9</month>
<year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>11</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<elocation-id>e1004308</elocation-id>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>© 2015 Thomas K. Karikari</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2015</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>Thomas K. Karikari</copyright-holder>
<license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly credited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.pdf"></self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Until recently, bioinformatics, an important discipline in the biological sciences, was largely limited to countries with advanced scientific resources. Nonetheless, several developing countries have lately been making progress in bioinformatics training and applications. In Africa, leading countries in the discipline include South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya. However, one country that is less known when it comes to bioinformatics is Ghana. Here, I provide a first description of the development of bioinformatics activities in Ghana and how these activities contribute to the overall development of the discipline in Africa. Over the past decade, scientists in Ghana have been involved in publications incorporating bioinformatics analyses, aimed at addressing research questions in biomedical science and agriculture. Scarce research funding and inadequate training opportunities are some of the challenges that need to be addressed for Ghanaian scientists to continue developing their expertise in bioinformatics.</p>
</abstract>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement>No specific funding was received for this work.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"></fig-count>
<table-count count="1"></table-count>
<page-count count="14"></page-count>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro" id="sec001">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>The development of bioinformatics as a discipline has provided biological scientists with many important insights into the functioning and composition of biological systems [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
]. Together with tools and methods developed within bioinformatics, these insights provide essential foundations for basic and applied research in current biomedical science, health care, and agriculture [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref008" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>
]. A notable example is the exponential growth recorded in the amount and diversity of genomic sequence data in recent years; significant events in this area include the sequencing of the
<italic>Haemophilus influenza</italic>
genome in 1995 [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref009" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
] and the publishing of an initial draft of the human genome in 2001 [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref010" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
], followed by the sequencing of a large number of other species and variants of the same species. For instance, 23,565 genome sequencing projects (permanent drafts) and 6,653 completed sequencing projects were listed in the Genomes OnLine Database as of June 2015, with 29,940 more projects ongoing at the time (
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://gold.jgi-psf.org/index">https://gold.jgi-psf.org/index</ext-link>
; accessed 10 June 2015). In all, sequencing data from 59,909 organisms were documented in the database. These numbers are expected to increase because of ongoing attempts to sequence genomes of different populations and organisms worldwide; an example is the 100,000 Genomes Project, which is aimed at sequencing 100,000 whole human genomes in England to better understand the link between rare variants and disease (
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/">http://www.genomicsengland.co.uk</ext-link>
). Although these large volumes of information are valuable resources for the scientific community, the extremely rapid growth in database size also brings difficulties in analysing and deriving inferences from such data [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref012" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>
]. Computational research has become essential in the postgenomic era to help organise and store bioinformatics data, ensuring their retrieval and allowing further processing and analysis. This contributes towards improved understanding of the regulation and functioning of biological processes [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref012" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>
].</p>
<p>Over the last three decades, bioinformatics has grown into a scientific discipline [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. A large proportion of the progress in this field has come from scientifically advanced countries, leaving many developing countries behind [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref002" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
]. Recently, however, the application of bioinformatics has been improving in the developing world, with modest developments reported from several countries [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref002" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]. Here, I present an analysis of the incorporation of bioinformatics into biological science education and research in Ghana and how this is contributing to developing the discipline in Africa. I also discuss approaches that have been employed to strengthen capacity for bioinformatics, the challenges faced by scientists, and the opportunities for further development of the discipline.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec002">
<title>Bioinformatics in Africa</title>
<p>The challenges that Africa faces, including those of increasing disease burden, food insecurity, and malnutrition, can be addressed by improving the application of modern science, technology, and innovation (STI) to serve specific nations and the continent at large [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref019" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref021" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>
]. Many African countries are battling with serious challenges such as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), tuberculosis, and malaria [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref022" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
]. STI approaches have been used to address these challenges, and the approaches have been shown in some cases to lead to improvements [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref026" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref031" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>
]. Considering these improvements, a potentially viable approach to enhance STI use would be to build a concerted Africa-wide agenda to constitute a framework to strengthen the continent’s capacities to develop, harness, and apply STI for developmental purposes [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref019" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref021" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>
].</p>
<p>One area of STI that has been employed to improve research in Africa is bioinformatics [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. Scientists in Africa are well positioned to contribute to bioinformatics, partly because infrastructural requirements for its use are relatively less expensive compared to similar activities conducted in bench-research-intensive disciplines [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
]. Bioinformatics training can also be relatively inexpensive; the main costs usually involve training and information technology infrastructure, making the discipline a good use of scarce funding opportunities [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref033" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
]. In recent years, the cost of genome sequencing has been decreasing [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref012" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>
]; the scientific community is close to achieving a much anticipated target of US$1,000 in the $1,000 genomes project [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref034" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>
]. These cost reductions in high-throughput sequencing technologies suggest that more African laboratories can now acquire such resources to advance their research. Also, it is becoming easier to access the Internet in Africa; the average broadband speed and Internet penetration rates have been increasing in recent times [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. Increasing both Internet speed and access makes bioinformatics tools and databases available to, and usable by, a wider range of researchers across the continent [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. The improved Internet connectivity also suggests that the location of the bioinformatics experts (whether rural or urban) is of little consequence to their output, making the discipline a possible path to bring state-of-the-art scientific research to many parts of Africa.</p>
<p>Currently, the demand for scientists with bioinformatics expertise in Africa outweighs the supply [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref035" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>
]. The lack of scientists trained in bioinformatics means that increasing the amount of training could be a good way of addressing the shortfall [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. For the continent to improve its benefits from bioinformatics, more scientists should be trained to be able to effectively carry out large-scale computational experiments and analyses [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref036" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. Building bridges (between African scientists and between African and non-African scientists) is one of the approaches that can help to improve Africa’s participation in bioinformatics and facilitate the development of scientific capacity and productivity in this discipline [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref037" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref038" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>
].</p>
<p>Organisations such as the African Society of Human Genetics (AfSHG,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.afshg.org/">http://www.afshg.org</ext-link>
) and the African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology have been contributing to building bioinformatics capacity in Africa, through efforts such as the provision of training programmes and the establishment of research facilities [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. Recently, the AfSHG partnered with the United States National Institutes of Health and the United Kingdom-based Wellcome Trust to establish the Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) project (
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.h3africa.org/">http://www.h3africa.org</ext-link>
) [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref036" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. H3Africa is one of the biggest scientific capacity-building initiatives in Africa and has so far seen the disbursement of several millions of dollars in research grants to African scientists [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref036" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. One of the highlights of the H3Africa project is the development of a pan-African bioinformatics network called H3ABioNet, which seeks to build capacity for bioinformatics applications on the continent [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. It is also hoped that the ten-year Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa plan adopted by the African Union with the aim of prioritising the use of scientific research to drive the continent’s socioeconomic development will contribute to the further development of contemporary fields like bioinformatics [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref039" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>
].</p>
<p>Much of the progress made in bioinformatics in Africa has come from a few countries, including South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref015" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref040" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>
]. South Africa has established research institutes, funding, and training initiatives to promote bioinformatics [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref015" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]. Bioinformatics in Africa is said to have started from South Africa, with the establishment of the South African National Bioinformatics Institute and the now defunct National Bioinformatics Network [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]. Scientists in Kenya have also been making progress in developing intellectual capacity for bioinformatics, for example, through research and training activities conducted at institutions such as the Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://hub.africabiosciences.org/">http://hub.africabiosciences.org</ext-link>
), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE). Researchers in Kenya and South Africa and their collaborators recently sequenced and assembled the genome of the tsetse fly—the vector of human African trypanosomiasis, a devastating NTD [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref041" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>
]. In Nigeria, bioinformatics research groups have been constituted, and bioinformatics techniques have been applied to address local research questions, mainly focusing on malaria [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>
]. During the recent outbreak of the Ebola virus disease (EVD) in West Africa, Nigerian scientists, together with their international partners, provided a description of the disease epidemiology through whole-genome sequence analysis of affected patients and unaffected controls [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
]. In this report, it was suggested that the EVD outbreak might have resulted from a previous outbreak in Central Africa [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
]. Such studies are expected to help provide insights into disease mechanisms and advance disease control, with other important implications for biological research across the continent [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref040" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
]. Aside from these leading countries, Ghana is another country making progress in bioinformatics.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec003">
<title>Bioinformatics in Ghana</title>
<sec id="sec004">
<title>State of bioinformatics in Ghana</title>
<p>Bioinformatics in Ghana is in the developmental stages. One of the first activities was in the year 2003 when the country hosted the inaugural conference of the AfSHG, which aimed “to provide opportunities for networking and collaboration among professionals working on genetic and genomic issues relevant to Africa” [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref043" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>
]. Since then, considerable improvements have been made.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec005">
<title>Short courses and workshops</title>
<p>There have been a number of short-term bioinformatics training programmes offered in Ghana. These programmes have been mainly targeted at beginners, helping to provide them with foundational skills and preparing them for advanced bioinformatics training. Institutions leading the organisation of such courses include the University of Ghana (UG,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ug.edu.gh/">http://www.ug.edu.gh/</ext-link>
), the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.noguchimedres.org/">http://www.noguchimedres.org</ext-link>
), and the Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine (KCCR,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.kccr-ghana.org/">http://www.kccr-ghana.org/</ext-link>
). The Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCMB) at UG hosted the fifth American Society of Cell Biology’s annual West African regional workshop series on infectious diseases in summer 2013 [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref044" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>
]. Functional genomics and bioinformatics formed part of this training course [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref044" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>
]. Through a partnership with the University of Cambridge, UK, the BCMB organised a ten-day workshop on diagnostic development for NTDs in July 2014, during which aspects of bioinformatics were taught. There are two H3ABioNet nodes in Ghana: one at NMIMR and the other at KCCR [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. The H3ABioNet node at NMIMR recently organised bioinformatics workshops in Accra. Topics treated included introductions to bioinformatics and biological databases, molecular genetics, biological text mining, and computing for biological scientists [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref045" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>
]. A workshop on “Sequence analysis: patterns, similarities and differences discovery from genomic data” was also held at the KCCR node in November 2014.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec006">
<title>University programmes</title>
<p>Presently, no Ghanaian university offers bioinformatics as a degree programme on its own. Attempts to introduce bioinformatics into the curricula of Ghanaian universities have focused on integrating aspects of the discipline into existing life science degree programmes. For instance, the University of Cape Coast (UCC,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ucc.edu.gh/">http://www.ucc.edu.gh</ext-link>
) has bioinformatics modules as part of the Bachelor of Science programmes in Biochemistry and in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref046" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref047" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>
]. The BCMB department at UG also provides training in “advanced topics in bioinformatics” to postgraduate students [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref048" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec007">
<title>International projects, collaborations, and networks</title>
<p>Ghanaian researchers have been involved in a number of international projects involving bioinformatics. One of these is the H3Africa initiative. As of June 2014, Ghanaian scientists and institutions were involved in five H3Africa-funded multicentre projects in health-related genomics research [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. Specifically, these projects included three multicountry collaborative studies, a project to explore public perceptions and attitudes to genomics-based interventions for sickle cell disease, and another on developing the H3ABioNet pan-African bioinformatics network [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. The three H3Africa-supported collaborative research efforts involving Ghana included the (1) University of the Witwatersrand-INDEPTH Network-H3Africa (Wits-INDEPTH-H3Africa) collaborative centre, which aimed to build a sustainable team of African scientists to further the understanding of the role of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors in obesity and its related disorders (2) H3Africa Kidney Disease Research Network, which was targeted at employing genomic technologies to improve kidney disease research in Africa, and (3) Stroke Investigative Research and Educational Network, which had the goal of furthering the existing understanding of genetic and epigenetic factors that contribute to stroke pathology in Africa [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref049" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>
]. To improve its capacity for the use of bioinformatics, the H3ABioNet node at NMIMR recently recruited a bioinformatician to support its research activities [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref050" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
].</p>
<p>Aside from H3Africa, Ghana has been involved in the European Union (EU) Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) projects in Africa [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref051" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>
]. The country had 54 contributions to the EU-funded programme and was ranked as the sixth most successful African country in terms of participation [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref051" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>
]. FP7 examples in Ghana included the Enhanced Protective Immunity Against Filariasis (E PIAF) project, which sought to (1) apply transcriptomics and bioinformatics to identify molecular targets of protective immunity against filariasis and (2) use bioinformatics and microarray technologies to obtain further understanding into protective immunity in the disease [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref051" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>
]. The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST,
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.knust.edu.gh/">http://www.knust.edu.gh</ext-link>
) was a partner in the E PIAF project. In addition, over a dozen Ghanaian scientists have benefitted from Marie Curie funding, also from the EU [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref052" ref-type="bibr">52</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec008">
<title>Analysis of Ghanaian bioinformatics publications</title>
<p>To provide information on the recent bioinformatics research activities and capacity, the PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed bioinformatics-related articles authored by Ghanaian scientists and published within the period of 2004–2014. This literature search aimed to do the following:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<p>Provide an indication of recent efforts of applying bioinformatics in Ghana</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Identify research areas in which bioinformatics applications have been focused</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Identify Ghanaian institutions leading research in the discipline</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<p>The search terms “next-generation sequencing Ghana,” “computational biology Ghana,” “bioinformatics Ghana,” “genomic Ghana,” and “
<italic>in silico</italic>
Ghana” were used. Articles were sorted for duplication and also against the following inclusion criteria: the article was written in English, employed bioinformatics technique(s) (according to the definition of [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref053" ref-type="bibr">53</xref>
]), at least part of the study reported was conducted in Ghana or on samples/subjects from Ghana, and a minimum of one author was affiliated with a Ghanaian institution. In total, 63 articles were obtained (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.g001" ref-type="fig">Fig 1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s002" ref-type="supplementary-material">S2 Table</xref>
). This outcome is indicative and may have missed other articles. The results showed that bioinformatics techniques have been applied in research in areas such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, tuberculosis, diabetes, cancer, NTDs, and crop research (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s001" ref-type="supplementary-material">S1</xref>
and
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s002" ref-type="supplementary-material">S2</xref>
Tables). Most of the articles retrieved emanated from collaborative projects between scientists in Ghanaian institutions and between those in institutions in Ghana and their counterparts abroad. Importantly, Ghanaian scientists took leading roles (first and/or corresponding author roles) in many of these studies. These include studies that investigated the regulatory roles of interleukins and immunoglobulins in malaria pathogenesis [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref054" ref-type="bibr">54</xref>
], the association of specific receptor allelic polymorphisms with clinical malaria [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref055" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>
], HIV-1 drug-resistant mutations in Ghanaian patients [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref056" ref-type="bibr">56</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref057" ref-type="bibr">57</xref>
], human betacoronavirus-related viruses in bats [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref058" ref-type="bibr">58</xref>
], and the efficacy of an onchocerciasis treatment [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref059" ref-type="bibr">59</xref>
]. Others were studies into the genetic diversity of chicken populations in Ghana [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref060" ref-type="bibr">60</xref>
], the genomes of viruses that cause cassava mosaic disease [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref061" ref-type="bibr">61</xref>
], tuberculosis isolate genotyping [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref062" ref-type="bibr">62</xref>
], the genetic diversity in cowpea [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref063" ref-type="bibr">63</xref>
], the dynamics of maize streak virus genotypes [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref064" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>
], and the genetic characterisation of cocoyam accessions [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref065" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>
].
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
summarises research areas in Ghana in which bioinformatics has been utilised, while
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s001" ref-type="supplementary-material">S1 Table</xref>
gives an extensive list of institutions leading bioinformatics-related research in the country, their research foci, institutional websites, and sample publications. Bioinformatics-related peer-reviewed publications authored by scientists from Ghana are provided in
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s002" ref-type="supplementary-material">S2 Table</xref>
.</p>
<fig id="pcbi.1004308.g001" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004308.g001</object-id>
<label>Fig 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Bioinformatics-related publications authored by scientists affiliated with Ghanaian institutions.</title>
<p>As a measure of bioinformatics research output in Ghana, the search terms “next-generation sequencing Ghana,” “computational biology Ghana,” “bioinformatics Ghana,” “genomic Ghana,” and “
<italic>in silico</italic>
Ghana” were used to obtain peer-reviewed research articles published between 2004 and 2014 and indexed in the PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS databases (refer to the main text for article inclusion criteria).</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.g001"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="pcbi.1004308.t001" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004308.t001</object-id>
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Major research areas in which bioinformatics has been applied in Ghana.</title>
</caption>
<alternatives>
<graphic id="pcbi.1004308.t001g" xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.t001"></graphic>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup span="1">
<col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col>
<col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col>
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Research area</th>
<th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Research focus</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tuberculosis</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genotyping tuberculosis isolates; genetic susceptibility to, and protection from, tuberculosis; genomic diversity and evolution of
<italic>Mycobacterium ulcerans</italic>
.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neglected tropical diseases</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic resistance to
<italic>Onchocerca volvulus</italic>
infections, polymorphisms associated with Buruli ulcer.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Malaria</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Evolution of malaria-protective alleles in Africa, genetic basis of resistance to malaria drugs, genetic resistance to severe malaria, polymorphisms associated with malaria, genetic basis of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cancer</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genome-wide association studies of prostate cancer risk in West African men.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Visual sciences</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genome-wide scan for quantitative traits for intraocular pressure, optineurin coding variants in primary open-angle glaucoma.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Animal research</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic diversity of village chickens across Ghana, genomic sequencing of peste des petits ruminant virus, molecular epidemiology of
<italic>Neisseria meningitidis</italic>
infections.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HIV/AIDS and other viral diseases</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Molecular epidemiology of HIV, betacoronaviruses-related viruses in bats, molecular characterisation of hepatitis B virus in Ghana, mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B infections.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diabetes, hypertension, and obesity</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic susceptibility to diabetes mellitus, polymorphisms linked to type 2 diabetes, genome-wide search for phenotypic traits linked to obesity, multilocus analysis of hypertension.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Inflammatory responses</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic susceptibility to proinflammatory responses.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ahaptoglobinaemia</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic polymorphisms associated with ahaptoglobinaemia and hypoahaptoglobinaemia.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Renal function</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genome-wide studies of renal function phenotypes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crop research</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Transmission of cacao pollen shoot viruses, genetic diversity of the shea tree, genetic diversity of cocoyam and cowpea, maize streak virus distribution across Ghana, genomic sequencing of viruses that cause cassava mosaic disease.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</alternatives>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="t001fn001">
<p>
<sup>1</sup>
HIV/AIDS, Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="sec009">
<title>Challenges and prospects of bioinformatics in Ghana</title>
<p>Bioinformatics challenges in the country, as well as suggested measures to improve the discipline, are provided below.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec010">
<title>Bioinformatics infrastructure is in short supply</title>
<p>Even though bioinformatics requires considerably less infrastructural investment than similar activities conducted in bench science research, even minor costs can be obstacles in many developing countries [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
]. Effective bioinformatics applications require essential resources such as powerful computer systems, high-speed Internet connectivity, and continuous electrical power supply [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref033" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref066" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>
]. In Ghana, these resources are not usually available; electrical power failure, unreliable Internet connections, and lack of high-speed computer systems are some of the serious impediments to the effective development of the discipline.</p>
<p>Other challenges include the dearth of dedicated bioinformatics teaching and research facilities. Many Ghanaian research and higher education institutions (RHEIs) lack bioinformatics teaching and research infrastructure such as laboratories. Even within institutions in which bioinformatics is incorporated into degree programmes, dedicated laboratories for computational research are hard to find. The common practice is that bioinformatics teaching and research take place in shared computer laboratories. These shared facilities serve many students and staff members and are difficult to access because of the high demand for them [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. Furthermore, the specifications and speed of the computers in such laboratories are often too low for bioinformatics applications [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. Considering the fact that bioinformatics activities usually require powerful Internet connections and dedicated computers of high specification [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref066" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>
], the provision of well-resourced laboratories specifically for bioinformatics use would help to develop the discipline in Ghana.</p>
<p>One advantage of bioinformatics is the availability of several free, open-source resources (FOSR). FOSR allow for a virtual learning model of education to be applied to bioinformatics, allowing remote access to teaching materials [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref067" ref-type="bibr">67</xref>
]. Some of these FOSR directories are provided in
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s003" ref-type="supplementary-material">S3 Table</xref>
. Ghana can adopt such resources to improve bioinformatics knowledge. Small-scale hobbyist computers can also be adopted, including the credit card-sized single-board computer systems made by the Raspberry Pi Foundation and Beagleboards, with prices starting from about US$25 and US$55, respectively [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref068" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>
]. Although these computers may not be ideal for data-intensive applications in terms of processing power and storage space, they could be useful for several basic purposes, including teaching.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec011">
<title>Scientists with expertise in bioinformatics are lacking in Ghana</title>
<p>Whilst a few institutions have some scientists with appreciable knowledge in bioinformatics (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s001" ref-type="supplementary-material">S1 Table</xref>
), most Ghanaian institutions lack this human resource capacity. This lack of expertise may adversely affect the quality of training. Moreover, an important capacity that is lacking in Ghana is the technical skills to analyse so-called “big data.” Expertise in data analysis is required to clean, transform, and model data, in order to make inferences, suggest conclusions, and inform research directions [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref006" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref069" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>
]. With the anticipated increase in genomic data from African populations, it is critical that attention is paid to world-class training in data analysis [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref049" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>
]. While some universities in Ghana are nurturing ambitions to start bioinformatics degree programmes, the short supply of expertise remains a major challenge. Pragmatic approaches should therefore be developed to train more people so they can lead teaching and research in bioinformatics.</p>
<p>Developing collaborations between Ghanaian scientists could be a useful mechanism to build bioinformatics expertise [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref038" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>
]. This approach would present new opportunities, for instance, in collaborative research and student training [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref038" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>
]. Developing collaborative research efforts between scientists in Ghana and their colleagues elsewhere in Africa may also be a sustainable means to boost bioinformatics activities, by pooling together Africa-based resources and expertise to address research questions. This would also help to overcome the lack of intracontinental bioinformatics research collaboration in Ghana; publications recorded in
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s002" ref-type="supplementary-material">S2 Table</xref>
were dominated by intercontinental examples. Furthermore, the establishment of a national bioinformatics institute in Ghana, possibly modelled on the well-recognised South African National Bioinformatics Institute (
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.sanbi.ac.za/">http://www.sanbi.ac.za</ext-link>
), would support local research and improve excellence in biology education (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.g002" ref-type="fig">Fig 2</xref>
; [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]). Beyond networks, scientists need to stay current with the global trends in their research areas at all times [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref070" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref071" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
]. A key problem affecting science in Africa is the inability of many scientists to attend major international conferences, sometimes due to lack of funding [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref070" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>
]. New discoveries are often discussed at such conferences; missing these events can be costly, particularly in bioinformatics, in which new techniques are frequently introduced. More travel grants and conference scholarships are therefore needed for African peers [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref070" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>
].</p>
<fig id="pcbi.1004308.g002" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004308.g002</object-id>
<label>Fig 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Opportunities for developing bioinformatics in Ghana.</title>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.g002"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec012">
<title>Training opportunities in bioinformatics are limited</title>
<p>Although the approach of offering short courses and workshops is laudable, this model of teaching bioinformatics broadly can hardly produce scientists with expert knowledge in the discipline [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref072" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>
]. For example, participants at introductory bioinformatics courses are usually taught how to compare protein and nucleic acid sequences using alignment tools such as the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref073" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>
]. With these tools, beginners are often content with finding sequence matches, without necessarily understanding the underlying principles [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref074" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]. Another issue is that bioinformatics training programmes in Ghana appear to be limited to only a few institutions that have some bioinformatics capacity, leaving behind the majority of institutions. However, to improve the use of bioinformatics may require the expansion of training partnerships to RHEIs that currently lack capacity in the field. Degree programmes and other forms of advanced training (such as research fellowships) will also be essential to provide learners with in-depth skills in bioinformatics [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref072" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>
].</p>
<p>Knowledge in bioinformatics may be essential for the development of many biologists [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref075" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>
]. For this reason, the bioinformatics short courses offered in the country deserve to be continued to provide fundamental knowledge to beginners [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref066" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref074" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]. However, these programmes should be supported with more advanced training courses, to help build the computational capacity of biologists (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.g002" ref-type="fig">Fig 2</xref>
; [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref074" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]). Furthermore, introducing bioinformatics into degree curricula would help to develop the multidisciplinary skills of students and allow them time to learn about both the use and development of bioinformatics tools [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref033" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref066" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>
]. Interdisciplinary bioinformatics programmes could provide avenues for biologists to complement their biological knowledge with skills in the computational sciences while affording computational science students the opportunity to improve upon their biological knowledge [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref072" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref076" ref-type="bibr">76</xref>
]. Also, doctoral and postdoctoral research fellowships in bioinformatics should be introduced to help more scientists develop their careers to become independent investigators [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref077" ref-type="bibr">77</xref>
].
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s003" ref-type="supplementary-material">S3 Table</xref>
lists some bioinformatics training programmes and other resources that may be useful in the Ghanaian setting. Also, H3ABioNet has established an African Bioinformatics Education Committee to support bioinformatics curriculum development in Africa [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. The existing H3ABioNet nodes in Ghana could take advantage of this support system to spearhead the establishment of long-term bioinformatics training programmes.</p>
<p>Ghanaian scientists can also take advantage of the bioinformatics training programmes organised by scientific nonprofit organisations for African scientists. One of the organisations helping to develop bioinformatics in Africa is Teaching and Research in Natural Sciences for Development in Africa (TReND in Africa;
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://trendinafrica.org/">http://trendinafrica.org</ext-link>
) [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref068" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>
]. An impressive aspect of this organisation’s training programmes is that their volunteers collect surplus equipment in good working condition from Western laboratories and companies to build new laboratories for the courses held at African universities. After the programme, the equipment is donated to the host institution to support local research activities and capacity development [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref068" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref078" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec013">
<title>Funding for bioinformatics research is lacking in Ghana</title>
<p>Funding for scientific research remains a key problem in Ghana, especially funding from local agencies. Government funding for research is low; scientific research and development (R&D) receives about 0.3% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. This is less than half the GDP spent in other African countries, such as South Africa, where about 0.87% of GDP is spent on local scientific research [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref080" ref-type="bibr">80</xref>
]. Research funding from the Government of Ghana (GoG) also falls below the African Union’s recommendation that a minimum of 1.0% of national budgets of member states should be spent on local R&D [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref019" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
]. Only a small fraction of the limited funds (about a tenth of the 0.3% of Ghana’s GDP) goes to support actual research costs because the vast majority (over 90%) is spent on salaries, remunerations, and other operational expenses [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. Research in the country is therefore highly dependent on international donors [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref019" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
,
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. This insufficient financial commitment from local stakeholders makes it difficult to ensure the application of modern scientific approaches such as bioinformatics. It is also worth noting that there exists no clear coordination between GoG and the RHEIs (which are the major STI service providers in the country) for setting research priorities and for implementing, administering, and reviewing research funding schemes [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. There is no clearly defined agency that is responsible for awarding and overseeing competitive research funding in the country, unlike South Africa’s National Research Foundation. As a result, funding directions from GoG to academic institutions often disagree with the research priorities of these institutions and their employee scientists [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
], making it challenging for contemporary disciplines like bioinformatics to obtain governmental funding support. Although GoG recently proposed to establish a national research fund, this fund is yet to be operational, and the priority areas remain unknown.</p>
<p>To increase excellence in bioinformatics research will require improvements in funding, especially from local bodies [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. The GoG’s expenditure on research, particularly in fields that utilise bioinformatics techniques, needs to improve [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. Other sources of local research funding, such as private companies and internal university funds, should also be explored by scientists [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref081" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>
]. Moreover, it is important for scientists to be more involved in public engagement activities, in order to better communicate the significance of their research to the public and policy makers [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref081" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>
]. This could help to educate the public on the need to invest in scientific research, especially bioinformatics [
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.ref078" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec014">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Bioinformatics is gradually gaining roots in Ghana. Whilst the capacity for bioinformatics research and training is limited, efforts have been made in the last decade to employ bioinformatics techniques in research targeted at local challenges in biomedical science and agriculture. These developments show that when given the needed support, resource-limited countries like Ghana can contribute to the use of bioinformatics.</p>
<p>It is hoped that the identification of local institutions with expertise in bioinformatics (
<xref rid="pcbi.1004308.s001" ref-type="supplementary-material">S1 Table</xref>
) will help to build partnerships to develop peer support systems among scientists and scientific organisations in Ghana. Furthermore, recognising Ghana’s capacity in bioinformatics can inform science policy directions in order to use the existing capabilities as a foundation and build on this foundation to address other scientific questions. Additionally, identifying bioinformatics-focused research areas should help to build stronger theme-specific alliances, helping to approach local research questions more collectively. Importantly, to ensure the development of the discipline requires that the key challenges of low funding, inadequate training opportunities, and inadequate teaching and research tools are effectively addressed.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="sec015">
<title>Supporting Information</title>
<supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pcbi.1004308.s001">
<label>S1 Table</label>
<caption>
<title>Institutions that conduct bioinformatics-related research in Ghana.</title>
<p>(DOCX)</p>
</caption>
<media xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.s001.docx">
<caption>
<p>Click here for additional data file.</p>
</caption>
</media>
</supplementary-material>
<supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pcbi.1004308.s002">
<label>S2 Table</label>
<caption>
<title>Bioinformatics-related peer-reviewed journal articles published by scientists from Ghana (2004–2014).</title>
<p>(DOCX)</p>
</caption>
<media xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.s002.docx">
<caption>
<p>Click here for additional data file.</p>
</caption>
</media>
</supplementary-material>
<supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pcbi.1004308.s003">
<label>S3 Table</label>
<caption>
<title>Recommendations to improve bioinformatics in Ghana.</title>
<p>(DOCX)</p>
</caption>
<media xlink:href="pcbi.1004308.s003.docx">
<caption>
<p>Click here for additional data file.</p>
</caption>
</media>
</supplementary-material>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<p>The author is grateful to Dr. Kevin Moffat, University of Warwick, UK; Tom Baden, University of Tübingen, Germany; and Khamal Kwesi Ampah, University of Sheffield, UK, for helpful comments on previous versions of the manuscript.</p>
</ack>
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