Slow-sand water filter: Design, implementation, accessibility and sustainability in developing countries
Identifieur interne : 001792 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 001791; suivant : 001793Slow-sand water filter: Design, implementation, accessibility and sustainability in developing countries
Auteurs : Peter A. Clark [États-Unis] ; Catalina Arango Pinedo [États-Unis] ; Matthew Fadus [États-Unis] ; Stephen Capuzzi [États-Unis]Source :
- Medical Science Monitor : International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research [ 1234-1010 ] ; 2012.
Abstract
The need for clean water has risen exponentially over the globe. Millions of people are affected daily by a lack of clean water, especially women and children, as much of their day is dedicated to collecting water. The global water crisis not only has severe medical implications, but social, political, and economic consequences as well. The Institute of Catholic Bioethics at Saint Joseph’s University has recognized this, and has designed a slow-sand water filter that is accessible, cost-effective, and sustainable. Through the implementation of the Institute’s slow-sand water filter and the utilization of microfinancing services, developing countries will not only have access to clean, drinkable water, but will also have the opportunity to break out of a devastating cycle of poverty.
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DOI: 10.12659/MSM.883200
PubMed: 22739748
PubMed Central: 3560774
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Clark</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pinedo, Catalina Arango" sort="Pinedo, Catalina Arango" uniqKey="Pinedo C" first="Catalina Arango" last="Pinedo">Catalina Arango Pinedo</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Department of Biology, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Biology, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fadus, Matthew" sort="Fadus, Matthew" uniqKey="Fadus M" first="Matthew" last="Fadus">Matthew Fadus</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Capuzzi, Stephen" sort="Capuzzi, Stephen" uniqKey="Capuzzi S" first="Stephen" last="Capuzzi">Stephen Capuzzi</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">22739748</idno><idno type="pmc">3560774</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3560774</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3560774</idno><idno type="doi">10.12659/MSM.883200</idno><date when="2012">2012</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000454</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000454</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000454</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">000454</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">001C52</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Checkpoint">001C52</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Ncbi/Merge">001792</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Slow-sand water filter: Design, implementation, accessibility and sustainability in developing countries</title><author><name sortKey="Clark, Peter A" sort="Clark, Peter A" uniqKey="Clark P" first="Peter A." last="Clark">Peter A. Clark</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pinedo, Catalina Arango" sort="Pinedo, Catalina Arango" uniqKey="Pinedo C" first="Catalina Arango" last="Pinedo">Catalina Arango Pinedo</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Department of Biology, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Biology, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fadus, Matthew" sort="Fadus, Matthew" uniqKey="Fadus M" first="Matthew" last="Fadus">Matthew Fadus</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Capuzzi, Stephen" sort="Capuzzi, Stephen" uniqKey="Capuzzi S" first="Stephen" last="Capuzzi">Stephen Capuzzi</name><affiliation wicri:level="2"><nlm:aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA</wicri:regionArea><placeName><region type="state">Pennsylvanie</region></placeName></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Medical Science Monitor : International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research</title><idno type="ISSN">1234-1010</idno><idno type="eISSN">1643-3750</idno><imprint><date when="2012">2012</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><title>Summary</title><p>The need for clean water has risen exponentially over the globe. Millions of people are affected daily by a lack of clean water, especially women and children, as much of their day is dedicated to collecting water. The global water crisis not only has severe medical implications, but social, political, and economic consequences as well. The Institute of Catholic Bioethics at Saint Joseph’s University has recognized this, and has designed a slow-sand water filter that is accessible, cost-effective, and sustainable. Through the implementation of the Institute’s slow-sand water filter and the utilization of microfinancing services, developing countries will not only have access to clean, drinkable water, but will also have the opportunity to break out of a devastating cycle of poverty.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fewster, E" uniqKey="Fewster E">E Fewster</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mol, A" uniqKey="Mol A">A Mol</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wiessent Brandsma, C" uniqKey="Wiessent Brandsma C">C Wiessent-Brandsma</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hutton, G" uniqKey="Hutton G">G Hutton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Haller, L" uniqKey="Haller L">L Haller</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nickel, J" uniqKey="Nickel J">J Nickel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Santo, Ce" uniqKey="Santo C">CE Santo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lam, Ew" uniqKey="Lam E">EW Lam</name></author><author><name sortKey="Elowsky, Cg" uniqKey="Elowsky C">CG Elowsky</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="David, Manz" uniqKey="David M">Manz David</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Elliott, Ma" uniqKey="Elliott M">MA Elliott</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stauber, Ce" uniqKey="Stauber C">CE Stauber</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koksal, F" uniqKey="Koksal F">F Koksal</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Campos, Cl" uniqKey="Campos C">CL Campos</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Huisman, L" uniqKey="Huisman L">L Huisman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wood, We" uniqKey="Wood W">WE Wood</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lesikar, Bruce" uniqKey="Lesikar B">Bruce Lesikar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Logan, Aj" uniqKey="Logan A">AJ Logan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stevik, Tk" uniqKey="Stevik T">TK Stevik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Siegrist, Rl" uniqKey="Siegrist R">RL Siegrist</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Maanen, Gv" uniqKey="Maanen G">GV Maanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Helms, B" uniqKey="Helms B">B Helms</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Campbell, G" uniqKey="Campbell G">G Campbell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bank, W" uniqKey="Bank W">W Bank</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Clark, J" uniqKey="Clark J">J Clark</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Okonski, K" uniqKey="Okonski K">K Okonski</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vittel, J" uniqKey="Vittel J">J Vittel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="review-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Med Sci Monit</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Med. Sci. Monit</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Medical Science Monitor</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Medical Science Monitor : International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1234-1010</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1643-3750</issn><publisher><publisher-name>International Scientific Literature, Inc.</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22739748</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3560774</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.12659/MSM.883200</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">883200</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Slow-sand water filter: Design, implementation, accessibility and sustainability in developing countries</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Clark</surname><given-names>Peter A.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">1</xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Pinedo</surname><given-names>Catalina Arango</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Fadus</surname><given-names>Matthew</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Capuzzi</surname><given-names>Stephen</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">1</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105"><label>1</label>Institute of Catholic Bioethics, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</aff><aff id="af2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105"><label>2</label>Department of Biology, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105">Peter A. Clark, S.J., Jesuit Community, St. Joseph’s University, 5600 City Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19131, U.S.A., e-mail <email>pclark@sju.edu</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2012</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>01</day><month>7</month><year>2012</year></pub-date><volume>18</volume><issue>7</issue><fpage>RA105</fpage><lpage>RA117</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>27</day><month>3</month><year>2012</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>27</day><month>4</month><year>2012</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© Med Sci Monit, 2012</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2012</copyright-year><license><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><title>Summary</title><p>The need for clean water has risen exponentially over the globe. Millions of people are affected daily by a lack of clean water, especially women and children, as much of their day is dedicated to collecting water. The global water crisis not only has severe medical implications, but social, political, and economic consequences as well. The Institute of Catholic Bioethics at Saint Joseph’s University has recognized this, and has designed a slow-sand water filter that is accessible, cost-effective, and sustainable. Through the implementation of the Institute’s slow-sand water filter and the utilization of microfinancing services, developing countries will not only have access to clean, drinkable water, but will also have the opportunity to break out of a devastating cycle of poverty.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>water filter</kwd><kwd>slow-sand</kwd><kwd>microfinancing</kwd><kwd>ethics</kwd><kwd>filtration</kwd><kwd>typhoid</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>First PVC model designed and constructed out of 6″ PVC pipe over five gallon bucket (December 2010).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="medscimonit-18-7-RA105-g001"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Water filter used in Rural Guatemala used to provide clean water for a family (January 2011).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="medscimonit-18-7-RA105-g002"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>The most current filter produced by the Institute. This is the model that has been tested since the summer of 2011.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="medscimonit-18-7-RA105-g003"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="t1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Comparison of the cost of production of the filters in U.S. Dollars and Kenyan Schillings. Prices in Kenyan Schillings are from the Dagoretti Market in Nairobi, Kenya. It is recommended that households build two filters however, as the full cleaning process takes 10–20 days.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="rows"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cost in U.S. dollars (Philadelphia PA)-$</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cost in Kenyan Schillings (KES)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bag of fine sand (50 lbs)</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.66</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">350</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Two Buckets</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.00 (×2)</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(2× for 2 buckets) 350</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spigot</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.00</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">170</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gravel (pebbles found outside)</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.00</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Matrix of mesh and cheesecloth</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.10</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total ($)</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16.76</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,310 (approximately $12 US)</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>MPN Index and 95% confidence limits for various combinations of positive tubes in a 3 tube dilution series using inoculum quantities of 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 g (ml).</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="rows"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Combination of MPN Index 95% Confidence Limits</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Positives per g (ml)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lower</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Upper</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-0-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><3.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.5</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-0-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.6</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-1-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-1-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-2-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0-3-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-0-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.17</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-0-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-0-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-1-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-1-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-2-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-2-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-3-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-0-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-0-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-0-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-1-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-1-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-1-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-2-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-2-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-2-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-3-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2-3-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-0-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-0-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">110.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-0-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">180.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-1-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">180.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-1-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">75</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">200.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-1-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">120</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-1-3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">160</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-2-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">93</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-2-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">150</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-2-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">210</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-2-3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">290</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1000.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-3-0</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">240</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1000.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-3-1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">460</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2000.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-3-2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1100</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">180.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4100.</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3-3-3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">>1100</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn1-medscimonit-18-7-ra105"><p>United States Department of Agriculture, “Most Probable Number Procedure and Tables”, 2008.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Experimental procedure.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="rows"><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Materials
<list list-type="order"><list-item><p>18 tubes of Lauryl Tryptose</p></list-item><list-item><p>10 micro-centrifuge tubes with 900 uL of saline</p></list-item><list-item><p>Additional saline and sterile tubes</p></list-item><list-item><p>1 tube of nutrient broth to inoculate <italic>E. coli</italic></p></list-item><list-item><p>Pipette tips</p></list-item><list-item><p>4 liters of distilled water</p></list-item></list><italic>Influent Water Procedure:</italic><break></break><italic>Monthly:</italic><list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Bacteria must be streaked on nutrient-rich agar plate and incubated overnight to develop colony growth</p></list-item><list-item><p>Plate of bacteria will then be transferred to refrigerator for storage (Approximate storage duration of one month is expected)</p></list-item></list><italic>Daily:</italic><list list-type="order"><list-item><p>A small amount of bacteria must be obtained on the inoculating loop and passed into nutrient broth</p></list-item><list-item><p>Test tube must be placed in bacteria shaker for overnight growth</p></list-item><list-item><p>The following day, the Optical Density (OD) of the tube must be measured through UV Spectrophotometry. <bold>(Put 1 mL of bacterial sample and blank into cuvettes)</bold></p><list list-type="alpha-lower"><list-item><p>Use distilled water as blank</p></list-item><list-item><p>Set wavelength to 595 nm</p></list-item><list-item><p>Blank instrument and measure OD (absorbance)</p></list-item></list></list-item><list-item><p>Based on absorbance measurement, dilute sample to an OD of 0.1</p><p><bold>VORTEX MICROCENTRIFUGE TUBES PRIOR TO PREPARATION OF EACH DILUTION</bold></p><list list-type="alpha-lower"><list-item><p>Depending on OD reading, dilute the sample to obtain an OD of 0.1. Use this cell suspension as 10<sup>0</sup> to prepare a dilution series as follows. (I believe it is unnecessary to write all steps to j, it would be enough to say: prepare a 10-fold dilution series up to 10<sup>−9</sup>.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline to prepare 10<sup>−1</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (b) to prepare 10<sup>−2</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (c) to prepare 10<sup>−3</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (d) to prepare 10<sup>−4</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (e) to prepare 10<sup>−5</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (f) to prepare 10<sup>−6</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (g) to prepare 10<sup>−7</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (h) to prepare 10<sup>−8</sup> dilution</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 100 uL + 900 uL saline of (i) to prepare 10<sup>−9</sup> dilution</p></list-item></list></list-item><list-item><p>Begin Multiple Tube Fermentation set up in triplicate, using 1 ml of incula per tubes, and 10<sup>−7</sup> to 10<sup>−8</sup> dilutions from the dilution series</p></list-item><list-item><p>Add 1 mL of 4(f) to 4 liters of distilled water, yielding approximately 500 FC/100 mL</p></list-item></list><italic>Effluent Water Procedure:</italic><list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Run Multiple Tube Fermentation test to enumerate total coliform level of effluent water by preparing a 10-fold dilution series to 10<sup>−2</sup>, and conduct the MTF test in triplicate using 1 ml of inocula from the three dilutions in the series</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t4-medscimonit-18-7-ra105" position="float"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Results from four months of testing. Two filters were operated during the fall of 2011. However one of the plastic spigots on the second filter broke, and the filter started leaking. Testing of filter two stopped after the spigot broke. On November 14<sup>th</sup> 2011, the fellows of the Institute changed the sand of the first filter, since the sand had not been changed since April 2011.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="rows"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Test date</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total liters</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Removal rate filter #1</th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Removal rate filter #2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/3/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">96.74</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.67</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/10/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.86</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95.82</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/11/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95.82</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/11/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90.00</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.68</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/24/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.21</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.88</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/25/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.04</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.21</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10/28/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.98</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.94</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/1/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.67</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.85</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/2/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90.00</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.92</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/16/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.67</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/ 17/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95.81</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/21/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95.81</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11/29/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.67</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12/5/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.87</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12/6/11</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98.20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2/13/12</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.93</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2/15/12</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.85</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2/ 16/12</td><td align="right" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99.92</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>États-Unis</li></country><region><li>Pennsylvanie</li></region></list><tree><country name="États-Unis"><region name="Pennsylvanie"><name sortKey="Clark, Peter A" sort="Clark, Peter A" uniqKey="Clark P" first="Peter A." last="Clark">Peter A. 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