Antiretroviral Therapy for Control of the HIV-associated Tuberculosis Epidemic in Resource-Limited Settings
Identifieur interne : 000925 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 000924; suivant : 000926Antiretroviral Therapy for Control of the HIV-associated Tuberculosis Epidemic in Resource-Limited Settings
Auteurs : Stephen D. Lawn [Afrique du Sud, Royaume-Uni] ; Katharina Kranzer [Afrique du Sud, Royaume-Uni] ; Robin Wood [Afrique du Sud]Source :
- Clinics in Chest Medicine [ 0272-5231 ] ; 2009.
Abstract
Great progress has been made over the past few years in HIV testing in patients who have tuberculosis (TB) and in the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy. More than 3 million people in resource-limited settings were estimated to have started antiretroviral therapy by the end of 2007 and 2 million of these were in sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known about what impact this massive public health intervention will have on the HIV-associated TB epidemic or how antiretroviral therapy might be used to best effect TB control. This article provides an in-depth review of these issues.
Url:
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2009.08.010
PubMed: 19925961
PubMed Central: 2887494
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Lawn</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1">The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Cape Town</wicri:noRegion></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff2">Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Research Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Royaume-Uni</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Research Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Londres</settlement><region type="country">Angleterre</region><region type="région" nuts="1">Grand Londres</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kranzer, Katharina" sort="Kranzer, Katharina" uniqKey="Kranzer K" first="Katharina" last="Kranzer">Katharina Kranzer</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1">The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Cape Town</wicri:noRegion></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff2">Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Research Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Royaume-Uni</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Research Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Londres</settlement><region type="country">Angleterre</region><region type="région" nuts="1">Grand Londres</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Wood, Robin" sort="Wood, Robin" uniqKey="Wood R" first="Robin" last="Wood">Robin Wood</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1">The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Cape Town</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Clinics in Chest Medicine</title><idno type="ISSN">0272-5231</idno><idno type="eISSN">1557-8216</idno><imprint><date when="2009">2009</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Great progress has been made over the past few years in HIV testing in patients who have tuberculosis (TB) and in the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy. More than 3 million people in resource-limited settings were estimated to have started antiretroviral therapy by the end of 2007 and 2 million of these were in sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known about what impact this massive public health intervention will have on the HIV-associated TB epidemic or how antiretroviral therapy might be used to best effect TB control. This article provides an in-depth review of these issues.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lawn, S D" uniqKey="Lawn S">S.D. Lawn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Churchyard, G" uniqKey="Churchyard G">G. Churchyard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Frieden, T R" uniqKey="Frieden T">T.R. Frieden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Munsiff, S S" uniqKey="Munsiff S">S.S. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Clin Chest Med</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Clin. Chest Med</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Clinics in Chest Medicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0272-5231</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1557-8216</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences Division</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">19925961</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">2887494</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0272-5231(09)00086-0</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ccm.2009.08.010</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Antiretroviral Therapy for Control of the HIV-associated Tuberculosis Epidemic in Resource-Limited Settings</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Lawn</surname><given-names>Stephen D.</given-names></name><degrees>MD</degrees><email>stevelawn@yahoo.co.uk</email><xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">a</xref><xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">b</xref><xref rid="cor1" ref-type="corresp">∗</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kranzer</surname><given-names>Katharina</given-names></name><degrees>MD</degrees><xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">a</xref><xref rid="aff2" ref-type="aff">b</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Wood</surname><given-names>Robin</given-names></name><degrees>FCP MMed</degrees><xref rid="aff1" ref-type="aff">a</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><label>a</label>The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa</aff><aff id="aff2"><label>b</label>Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Research Unit, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK</aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><label>∗</label>Corresponding author. The Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa. <email>stevelawn@yahoo.co.uk</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>1</day><month>12</month><year>2009</year></pub-date><pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on .</pmc-comment>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>12</month><year>2009</year></pub-date><volume>30</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>685</fpage><lpage>699</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2009 Elsevier Inc.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2009</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Elsevier Inc.</copyright-holder><license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>Open Access under <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</ext-link> license</license-p></license></permissions><abstract abstract-type="teaser"><p>Great progress has been made over the past few years in HIV testing in patients who have tuberculosis (TB) and in the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy. More than 3 million people in resource-limited settings were estimated to have started antiretroviral therapy by the end of 2007 and 2 million of these were in sub-Saharan Africa. However, little is known about what impact this massive public health intervention will have on the HIV-associated TB epidemic or how antiretroviral therapy might be used to best effect TB control. This article provides an in-depth review of these issues.</p></abstract><kwd-group><title>Keywords</title><kwd>HIV</kwd><kwd>Tuberculosis</kwd><kwd>Antiretroviral</kwd><kwd>Disease control</kwd><kwd>Mortality</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="fig1"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p>Estimated TB incidence rates by country for 2006. (<italic>Reproduced from</italic> World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control. Surveillance, planning, and financing. WHO/HTM/TB/2008.393. Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Organization; 2008; with permission.)</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="gr1"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig2"><label>Fig. 2</label><caption><p>TB incidence (cases per 100 person-years) among patients who were HIV-infected in Cape Town, South Africa, who were or were not receiving antiretroviral therapy. Patients were stratified according to baseline CD4 cell count and WHO stage of disease. Overall, TB rates were approximately 80% lower among those receiving ART, which was observed across a broad spectrum of baseline immunodeficiency. (<italic>Data from</italic> Badri M, Wilson D, Wood R. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on incidence of tuberculosis in South Africa: a cohort study. Lancet 2002;359(9323):2059–64).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="gr2"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig3"><label>Fig. 3</label><caption><p>TB incidence rates during ART. The graph shows data from studies included in (see <xref rid="tbl2" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>) in which changing TB incidence rates were calculated according to increasing duration of ART. The two lowest curves present data from studies conducted in high-income countries.<xref rid="bib15 bib18" ref-type="bibr"><sup>15,18</sup></xref> The remaining four studies are from South Africa (diamonds<xref rid="bib13" ref-type="bibr"><sup>13</sup></xref> and inverted triangles<xref rid="bib14" ref-type="bibr"><sup>14</sup></xref>), a range of resource-limited countries (circles<xref rid="bib15" ref-type="bibr"><sup>15</sup></xref>), and Uganda (squares<xref rid="bib16" ref-type="bibr"><sup>16</sup></xref>).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="gr3"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig4"><label>Fig. 4</label><caption><p>Decreasing TB incidence rates (cases/100 person-years, white squares) and rising median CD4 cell counts (cells/μL, black diamonds) during the first 3 years of ART. These data are from a community-based ART cohort in a township in Cape Town, South Africa. (<italic>Data from</italic> Refs.<xref rid="bib13 bib19 bib56" ref-type="bibr"><sup>13,19,56</sup></xref>).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="gr4"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig5"><label>Fig. 5</label><caption><p>Relationship between updated CD4 cell-count measurements made every 4 months during 4.5 years of ART in a treatment cohort in a township in Cape Town, South Africa. Observed rates are shown as diamonds together with 95% confidence intervals indicated by bars. A logarithmic trend line is overlaid (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.97). TB incidence rates are seen to fall substantially as CD4 cell counts increase during ART. (<italic>Data from</italic> Lawn SD, Myer L, Edwards D, et al. Short-term and long-term risk of tuberculosis associated with CD4 cell recovery during antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. AIDS 2009;23(13):1717–25.)</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="gr5"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="tbl1" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Studies (n = 12) reporting the impact of antiretroviral therapy on tuberculosis incidence rates in observational cohorts</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Study</th><th>Setting</th><th>N</th><th>Study Period</th><th>Study Design</th><th>Impact of ART on TB Incidence Rates</th><th>Adjusted Hazards Ratio (95%CI)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7"><italic>Studies comparing TB rates in cohorts before and after introduction of ART</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Brodt et al, 1997<xref rid="bib57" ref-type="bibr"><sup>57</sup></xref></td><td>Germany</td><td>1003</td><td>1992–1996</td><td>Cohort of homosexual men 1992–1996</td><td>No change in overall cohort incidence rates (range, 2.1–2.7 cases/100 PY)</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>Kirk et al, 2000<xref rid="bib58" ref-type="bibr"><sup>58</sup></xref></td><td>Europe</td><td>6,972</td><td>1994–1999</td><td>EuroSIDA multicenter cohort 1994–1999</td><td>Overall rate in cohort decreased from 1.8 cases/100 PY to 0.3 cases/100 PY</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7"><italic>Studies comparing TB rates in patients receiving or not receiving ART</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Ledergerber et al, 1999<xref rid="bib17" ref-type="bibr"><sup>17</sup></xref></td><td>Switzerland</td><td>2410</td><td>1995–1997</td><td>Swiss HIV Cohort Study</td><td>Rate 0.78 cases/100 PY pre-ART and 0.22 cases/100 PY during first 15 months ART</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>Jones et al, 2000<xref rid="bib11" ref-type="bibr"><sup>11</sup></xref></td><td>United States</td><td>–</td><td>1992–1998</td><td>Multicenter cohort Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease project</td><td>Steep decreases in TB incidence rates</td><td>0.2 (0.1–0.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Girardi et al, 2000<xref rid="bib59" ref-type="bibr"><sup>59</sup></xref></td><td>Italy</td><td>1360</td><td>1995–1996</td><td>Multicenter cohort</td><td>Not stated</td><td align="char">0.08 (0.01–0.88)</td></tr><tr><td>Santoro-Lopes et al, 2002<xref rid="bib60" ref-type="bibr"><sup>60</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>255</td><td>1991–1998</td><td>Prospective cohort</td><td>Not stated</td><td>0.2 (0.04–1.13)</td></tr><tr><td>Badri et al, 2002<xref rid="bib12" ref-type="bibr"><sup>12</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>1034</td><td>1992–2001</td><td>Rates compared in separate prospective observational cohorts receiving or not receiving ART</td><td>Markedly lower TB rates across a broad spectrum of baseline CD4 counts and WHO stage</td><td>0.19 (0.09–0.38)</td></tr><tr><td>Golub et al, 2007<xref rid="bib40" ref-type="bibr"><sup>40</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>11,026</td><td>2003–2005</td><td>Multicenter retrospective cohort</td><td>Rates among those receiving and not receiving ART were 1.9 and 4.0 cases/100 PY, respectively</td><td>0.46 (0.33–0.63)</td></tr><tr><td>Miranda et al, 2007<xref rid="bib61" ref-type="bibr"><sup>61</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>463</td><td>1995–2001</td><td>Multicenter retrospective study</td><td>Rates among those receiving and not receiving ART were 1.2 and 13.4 cases/100 PY, respectively</td><td>0.2 (0.1–0.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Muga et al, 2007<xref rid="bib62" ref-type="bibr"><sup>62</sup></xref></td><td>Spain</td><td>2238</td><td>1980s–2004</td><td>Multicenter seroconverter cohort</td><td>Marked reduction in rates after 1995 in all HIV transmission categories</td><td>0.31 (0.17–0.54)</td></tr><tr><td>Moreno et al, 2008<xref rid="bib63" ref-type="bibr"><sup>63</sup></xref></td><td>Spain</td><td>4268</td><td>1997–2003</td><td>Multicenter hospital-based cohort</td><td>Rates among those receiving and not receiving ART were 0.5 and 1.6 cases/100 PY, respectively</td><td>0.26 (0.16–0.40)</td></tr><tr><td>Golub et al, 2009<xref rid="bib64" ref-type="bibr"><sup>64</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>2778</td><td>2003–2007</td><td>Retrospective data from two study sites</td><td>Rates among those receiving and not receiving ART were 4.6 and 7.1 cases/100 PY, respectively</td><td>0.36 (0.25–0.51)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p><italic>Abbreviation:</italic> PY, person-years.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tbl2" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Studies (n=14) reporting tuberculosis incidence rates during antiretroviral therapy</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Study</th><th>Setting</th><th>N</th><th>Median / Mean Follow-up (Months)</th><th>Median Baseline CD4 Cell Count (Cells/μL)</th><th>TB Cncidence, Cases/100 PY (Months of ART)</th><th>Estimated National TB Incidence Rate (Per 100 Population)<xref rid="tblfn1" ref-type="table-fn">a</xref></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7">High-income countries</td></tr><tr><td>Girardi et al, 2005<xref rid="bib18" ref-type="bibr"><sup>18</sup></xref></td><td>Germany, Switzerland, France, Netherland, UK, Canada, United States</td><td>17,142</td><td>25.8</td><td>280</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>1.31 (0–3)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.78 (4–6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.46 (7–12)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.33 (13–24)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.15 (25–36)</p></list-item></list></td><td>0.005–0.016</td></tr><tr><td>Brinkhof et al, 2007<xref rid="bib15" ref-type="bibr"><sup>15</sup></xref></td><td>Europe, North America</td><td>22,217</td><td>11.0</td><td>234</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>1.7 (0–3)</p></list-item><list-item><p>1.0 (4–6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.6 (7–12)</p></list-item></list></td><td><0.015</td></tr><tr><td>Moreno et al, 2008<xref rid="bib63" ref-type="bibr"><sup>63</sup></xref></td><td>Spain</td><td>4268</td><td>46.0</td><td>324</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.035</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Resource-limited settings</td></tr><tr><td>Badri et al, 2002<xref rid="bib12" ref-type="bibr"><sup>12</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>1034</td><td>16.8</td><td>254</td><td>2.4</td><td>0.406</td></tr><tr><td>Santoro-Lopes et al, 2002<xref rid="bib60" ref-type="bibr"><sup>60</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>284</td><td>22.0</td><td>–</td><td>8.4</td><td>0.071</td></tr><tr><td>Lawn et al. 2005<xref rid="bib14" ref-type="bibr"><sup>14</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>346</td><td>40.0</td><td>242</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>3.35 (0–12)</p></list-item><list-item><p>1.56 (13–24)</p></list-item><list-item><p>1.36 (25–36)</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.90 (37–48)</p></list-item><list-item><p>1.01 (49–60)</p></list-item></list></td><td>0.576</td></tr><tr><td>Seyler et al, 2005<xref rid="bib20" ref-type="bibr"><sup>20</sup></xref></td><td>Côte d'Ivoire</td><td>129</td><td>26.0</td><td>125</td><td>4.8</td><td>0.368</td></tr><tr><td>Lawn et al, 2006<xref rid="bib13" ref-type="bibr"><sup>13</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>1002</td><td>0.9</td><td>96</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>23.0 (0–3)10.7 (4–6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>7.0 (7–12)</p></list-item><list-item><p>3.7 (13–24)</p></list-item></list></td><td>0.898</td></tr><tr><td>Bonnet et al, 2006<xref rid="bib65" ref-type="bibr"><sup>65</sup></xref></td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>Kenya</p></list-item><list-item><p>Malawi</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cameroon</p></list-item><list-item><p>Thailand</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cambodia</p></list-item></list></td><td>3151</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>3.7</p></list-item><list-item><p>6.7</p></list-item><list-item><p>11.1</p></list-item><list-item><p>3.7</p></list-item><list-item><p>7.3</p></list-item></list></td><td>–</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>17.6</p></list-item><list-item><p>14.3</p></list-item><list-item><p>4.8</p></list-item><list-item><p>10.4</p></list-item><list-item><p>7.6</p></list-item></list></td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>0.419</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.416</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.194</p></list-item><list-item><p>0.142</p></list-item><list-item><p>–</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Golub et al, 2007<xref rid="bib40 bib64" ref-type="bibr"><sup>40,64</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>11,026</td><td>17.0</td><td>–</td><td>1.90</td><td>0.053</td></tr><tr><td>Miranda et al, 2007<xref rid="bib61" ref-type="bibr"><sup>61</sup></xref></td><td>Brazil</td><td>245</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>1.2</td><td>0.064</td></tr><tr><td>Brinkhof et al, 2007<xref rid="bib15" ref-type="bibr"><sup>15</sup></xref></td><td>Botswana, Brazil, Côte d'Ivoire, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Malawi, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa, Thailand, Uganda</td><td>4540</td><td>9.6</td><td>107</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>10.7 (0–3)</p></list-item><list-item><p>7.5 (4–6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>5.2 (7–12)</p></list-item></list></td><td>0.055–0.852</td></tr><tr><td>Moore et al, 2007<xref rid="bib16" ref-type="bibr"><sup>16</sup></xref></td><td>Uganda</td><td>1044</td><td>17.0</td><td>127</td><td><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>3.9 (overall)</p></list-item><list-item><p>7.5 (0–6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>2.4 (7–12)</p></list-item><list-item><p>1.9 (13–18)</p></list-item></list></td><td>0.385</td></tr><tr><td>Walters et al, 2008<xref rid="bib66" ref-type="bibr"><sup>66</sup></xref></td><td>South Africa</td><td>290 (pediatric)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>6.4</td><td>0.898</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p><italic>Abbreviation:</italic> PY, person-years.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tblfn1"><label>a</label><p>National TB incidence estimates at the midpoint of the study duration; data sourced from World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis control: epidemiology, strategy, financing. Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Organization; 2009. WHO/HTM/TB/2009.411.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tbl3" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Observational cohort studies (n=8) showing the impact of antiretroviral therapy on mortality among patients who have HIV-associated tuberculosis</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Study</th><th>Country</th><th>Study Design</th><th>Outcome</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Dheda et al, 2004<xref rid="bib67" ref-type="bibr"><sup>67</sup></xref></td><td>United Kingdom</td><td>Retrospective study of patients who had HIV-TB (n = 99) treated in pre-ART era and in ART era</td><td>Adjusted hazards of death or new AIDS-defining illness was 0.34 (95%CI, 0.18–0.63) during ART era</td></tr><tr><td>Manosuthi et al, 2006<xref rid="bib68" ref-type="bibr"><sup>68</sup></xref></td><td>Thailand</td><td>Retrospective cohort study (n = 1003) comparing mortality in a historic natural- history cohort with rates in an ART cohort</td><td>The adjusted hazards of death associated with use of ART was 0.05 (95%CI, 0.02–0.12).</td></tr><tr><td>Akksilp et al, 2007<xref rid="bib69" ref-type="bibr"><sup>69</sup></xref></td><td>Thailand</td><td>Prospective cohort (n = 329) comparing patients receiving and not receiving ART</td><td>Adjusted hazards of death was 0.2 (95%CI, 0.1–0.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Zachariah et al, 2007<xref rid="bib43" ref-type="bibr"><sup>43</sup></xref></td><td>Malawi</td><td>Retrospective observational cohort in which a proportion of patients started ART during the continuation phase of TB treatment (n = 658)</td><td>No difference in mortality between patients who chose or did not choose to receive ART, but potential allocation bias according to degree of immunodeficiency and most deaths occurred pre-ART during intensive phase</td></tr><tr><td>Nahid et al, 2007<xref rid="bib49" ref-type="bibr"><sup>49</sup></xref></td><td>United States</td><td>Retrospective observational cohort (n = 264) 1990–2001 spanning pre-ART and ART era</td><td>Use of ART protected against mortality compared with patients who did not receive ART (hazard ratio 0.36, 95% CI 0.14–0.91)</td></tr><tr><td>Haar et al, 2007<xref rid="bib42" ref-type="bibr"><sup>42</sup></xref></td><td>Netherlands</td><td>Retrospective observational study of national data 1993–2001 spanning pre-ART and ART era</td><td>Compared with 1993–1995, adjusted odds of death during 1999–2001 was 0.46 (95%CI, 0.24–0.89), whereas no such change was observed among patients who had TB and were not infected with HIV</td></tr><tr><td>Varma et al, 2009<xref rid="bib70" ref-type="bibr"><sup>70</sup></xref></td><td>Thailand</td><td>Prospective multicenter observational study (n = 667) comparing patients receiving and not receiving ART</td><td>Adjusted hazards of death among those who received ART was 0.16 (95%CI, 0.07–0.36)</td></tr><tr><td>Velasco et al, 2009<xref rid="bib71" ref-type="bibr"><sup>71</sup></xref></td><td>Spain</td><td>Retrospective observational cohort 1987–2004 (n = 313) comparing patients receiving and not receiving ART</td><td>Compared with no ART, initiation of ART within the first 2 months of TB treatment was associated with an adjusted hazards of death of 0..37 (95%CI, 0.17–0.66)</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><boxed-text id="tbox1"><label>Box 1</label><caption><title>Reasons why scale-up of antiretroviral therapy is likely to have only limited impact on tuberculosis incidence rates at the community level</title></caption><p><list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>•</label><p>Much HIV-associated TB occurs before initiation of ART</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>High rates of TB persist during ART</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Prolonged survival of patients on ART is associated with a high life-time cumulative risk of TB</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Limited coverage of ART in the community and limited compliance with treatment</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Impact of ART on TB transmission in the community is suspected to be low</p></list-item></list></p></boxed-text><boxed-text id="tbox2"><label>Box 2</label><caption><title>Potential ways to enhance the impact of antiretroviral therapy on tuberculosis prevention at a community level</title></caption><p><list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>•</label><p>Diagnose HIV earlier and initiate ART at higher CD4 cell counts</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Increase coverage of ART in the community</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Increase rapidity of scale-up of ART</p></list-item><list-item><label>•</label><p>Use of adjunctive interventions with ART, such as those included within the WHO 3I's strategy (intensified case finding, isoniazid preventive therapy and infection control)<xref rid="bib37" ref-type="bibr"><sup>37</sup></xref></p></list-item></list></p></boxed-text></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>Afrique du Sud</li><li>Royaume-Uni</li></country><region><li>Angleterre</li><li>Grand Londres</li></region><settlement><li>Londres</li></settlement></list><tree><country name="Afrique du Sud"><noRegion><name sortKey="Lawn, Stephen D" sort="Lawn, Stephen D" uniqKey="Lawn S" first="Stephen D." last="Lawn">Stephen D. Lawn</name></noRegion><name sortKey="Kranzer, Katharina" sort="Kranzer, Katharina" uniqKey="Kranzer K" first="Katharina" last="Kranzer">Katharina Kranzer</name><name sortKey="Wood, Robin" sort="Wood, Robin" uniqKey="Wood R" first="Robin" last="Wood">Robin Wood</name></country><country name="Royaume-Uni"><region name="Angleterre"><name sortKey="Lawn, Stephen D" sort="Lawn, Stephen D" uniqKey="Lawn S" first="Stephen D." last="Lawn">Stephen D. Lawn</name></region><name sortKey="Kranzer, Katharina" sort="Kranzer, Katharina" uniqKey="Kranzer K" first="Katharina" last="Kranzer">Katharina Kranzer</name></country></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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