Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana
Identifieur interne : 000036 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 000035; suivant : 000037Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana
Auteurs : Augustine A. Boadu [Ghana] ; Alex Asase [Ghana]Source :
- Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM [ 1741-427X ] ; 2017.
Abstract
Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries. However, indigenous knowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to document herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communities living in Ghana. The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana. Data were collected from 45 healers using ethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected. A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant families were reportedly used for treatment and management of 42 diseases and ailments. Medicinal plants were commonly harvested from the wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions (67%) and infusions (33%). Oral administration of the herbals was most (77%) common route of administration whereas the least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal (2%). The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment and management of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important during harvesting of plants for treatments.
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DOI: 10.1155/2017/3043061
PubMed: 28684965
PubMed Central: 5480049
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana</title><author><name sortKey="Boadu, Augustine A" sort="Boadu, Augustine A" uniqKey="Boadu A" first="Augustine A." last="Boadu">Augustine A. Boadu</name><affiliation wicri:level="4"><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Ghana</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon</wicri:regionArea><orgName type="university">Université du Ghana</orgName><placeName><settlement type="city">Accra</settlement><settlement type="town">Legon (Ghana)</settlement><region type="region">Région du Grand Accra</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Asase, Alex" sort="Asase, Alex" uniqKey="Asase A" first="Alex" last="Asase">Alex Asase</name><affiliation wicri:level="4"><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Ghana</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon</wicri:regionArea><orgName type="university">Université du Ghana</orgName><placeName><settlement type="city">Accra</settlement><settlement type="town">Legon (Ghana)</settlement><region type="region">Région du Grand Accra</region></placeName></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">28684965</idno><idno type="pmc">5480049</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5480049</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5480049</idno><idno type="doi">10.1155/2017/3043061</idno><date when="2017">2017</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000416</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000416</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000415</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">000415</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">000036</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Checkpoint">000036</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana</title><author><name sortKey="Boadu, Augustine A" sort="Boadu, Augustine A" uniqKey="Boadu A" first="Augustine A." last="Boadu">Augustine A. Boadu</name><affiliation wicri:level="4"><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Ghana</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon</wicri:regionArea><orgName type="university">Université du Ghana</orgName><placeName><settlement type="city">Accra</settlement><settlement type="town">Legon (Ghana)</settlement><region type="region">Région du Grand Accra</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Asase, Alex" sort="Asase, Alex" uniqKey="Asase A" first="Alex" last="Asase">Alex Asase</name><affiliation wicri:level="4"><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Ghana</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon</wicri:regionArea><orgName type="university">Université du Ghana</orgName><placeName><settlement type="city">Accra</settlement><settlement type="town">Legon (Ghana)</settlement><region type="region">Région du Grand Accra</region></placeName></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM</title><idno type="ISSN">1741-427X</idno><idno type="eISSN">1741-4288</idno><imprint><date when="2017">2017</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries. However, indigenous knowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to document herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communities living in Ghana. The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana. Data were collected from 45 healers using ethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected. A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant families were reportedly used for treatment and management of 42 diseases and ailments. Medicinal plants were commonly harvested from the wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions (67%) and infusions (33%). Oral administration of the herbals was most (77%) common route of administration whereas the least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal (2%). The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment and management of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important during harvesting of plants for treatments.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Calixto, J B" uniqKey="Calixto J">J. B. Calixto</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hensel, A" uniqKey="Hensel A">A. Hensel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kisseih, E" uniqKey="Kisseih E">E. Kisseih</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lechtenberg, M" uniqKey="Lechtenberg M">M. Lechtenberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Petereit, F" uniqKey="Petereit F">F. Petereit</name></author><author><name sortKey="Agyare, C" uniqKey="Agyare C">C. Agyare</name></author><author><name sortKey="Asase, A" uniqKey="Asase A">A. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Evid Based Complement Alternat Med</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Evid Based Complement Alternat Med</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ECAM</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1741-427X</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1741-4288</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Hindawi</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">28684965</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5480049</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2017/3043061</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Boadu</surname><given-names>Augustine A.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="false">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0116-3445</contrib-id><name><surname>Asase</surname><given-names>Alex</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1"></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="I1">Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana</aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">*Alex Asase: <email>alexasase@gmail.com</email></corresp><fn fn-type="other"><p>Academic Editor: Andrea Pieroni</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><year>2017</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>8</day><month>6</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><volume>2017</volume><elocation-id>3043061</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>19</day><month>1</month><year>2017</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>31</day><month>3</month><year>2017</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>3</day><month>5</month><year>2017</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2017 Augustine A. Boadu and Alex Asase.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2017</copyright-year><license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries. However, indigenous knowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to document herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communities living in Ghana. The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana. Data were collected from 45 healers using ethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected. A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant families were reportedly used for treatment and management of 42 diseases and ailments. Medicinal plants were commonly harvested from the wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions (67%) and infusions (33%). Oral administration of the herbals was most (77%) common route of administration whereas the least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal (2%). The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment and management of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important during harvesting of plants for treatments.</p></abstract></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="fig1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Map of study area showing communities where study was conducted.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ECAM2017-3043061.001"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families, (b) habit of plants, and (c) percentage of plant parts.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ECAM2017-3043061.002"></graphic></fig><fig id="fig3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>Human diseases commonly treated and/managed with herbal medicines.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ECAM2017-3043061.003"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="tab1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Biodata on traditional healers interviewed.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Categories</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variables</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of healers</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Percentage of healers</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1">Sex</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28.9</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Male</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">71.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1">Religion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Christians</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">82.2</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Traditionalist</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17.8</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" align="left" colspan="1">Formal education</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">None</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.3</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Basic</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.7</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Secondary</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.0</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6" align="left" colspan="1">Age-groups</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40–49</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50–59</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.2</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60–69</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.2</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70–79</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80–89</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.9</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥90</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6" align="left" colspan="1">Years of practice</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10–19</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20–29</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30–39</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40–49</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33.3</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50–59</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11.1</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥60</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab2" content-type="sidewaystable" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Species of plants reportedly being used by healers arranged according to their families with information on their habits, ailments treated, plant parts used, methods of preparation, and route of administration of the plants.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Families </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Scientific names (voucher specimen #) </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Local names (Akuapem/Krobo) </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Frequency of citation (%)</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Habit of plant </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diseases and/ailments </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plant parts </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Methods of preparation </th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Route of administration </th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Acanthaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Ruellia brevifolia</italic> (Pohl) C. Ezcurra (A029)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mokotso (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Halitosis</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aloaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Aloe vera</italic> L. (A001)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aloe</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.5</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diabetes<break></break>Diabetes<break></break>Typhoid fever<break></break>Baldness</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Infusion<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Amaranthaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Alternanthera pungens</italic> Kunth. (A028)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nkassenkasee (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stomach ulcer</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rectal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Annonaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Polyalthia longifolia</italic> (Sonn.) Thwaites (K001)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tsogaga (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Apocynaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Alstonia boonei</italic> De Wild. (A026)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nyamedua (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sexual disorders</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Topical</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Rauvolfia vomitoria</italic> Wennberg (A025)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Osteoarthritis</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rectal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Asclepiadaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Calotropis gigantea</italic> (L.) W. T. Aiton</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Heart burns</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1"> Asteraceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chromolaena odorata</italic> (L.) R. M. King (K003)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Acheampong (Akuapem/Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Typhoid fever<break></break>Stop bleeding<break></break>Typhoid fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Launaea taraxacifolia</italic>. (Wild). Amin ex. C. Jeffrey (K002)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Blood pressure<break></break>Diuretic<break></break>Blood pressure</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> Delile (A023)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Awunyun (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Malaria</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Vernonia conferta</italic> Benth. (K010)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Owudifukete (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diabetes</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Bignoniaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Kigelia africana</italic> (Lam.) Benth. (K004)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nfuten (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Piles</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Spathodea campanulata</italic> P. Beauv. (K005)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Akuakua nisuo (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stroke</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bombacaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Bombax buonopozense</italic> P. Beauv. (A002)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nyankuduro/Akonkodies (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> </td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stroke<break></break>Diabetes</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Boraginaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Heliotropium indicum</italic> L. (K007)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Akomfemtikoro (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Convulsion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Capparidaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Euadenia eminens</italic> L. (K008)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dinsikuro (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Low sperm count</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chrysobalanaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Maranthes robusta</italic> (Oliv.) Prance (K009)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Afambere (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rheumatism</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and seed</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Combretaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Terminalia superba</italic> Engl. & Diels (A021)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ofram (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Convulsion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cucurbitaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Momordica charantia</italic> L. (K020)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nyenye (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Climber</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Snake bite<break></break>Diabetes</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant<break></break>Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cyperaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cyperus esculentus</italic> L. (A020)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Winto/Wintino (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Typhoid fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Dennstaedtiaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pteridium aquilinum</italic> (L.) Kuhn (A012)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pteridium esculentum</italic> (Forst.) Nakai (A018)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Meyaabea (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menstrual disorders</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="8" align="left" colspan="1"> Euphorbiaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Bridelia ferruginea</italic> Benth (K014)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diarrhoea</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Discoglypremna caloneura</italic> (Pax) Prain (A017)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2.</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stroke<break></break>Female infertility</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and root<break></break>Leaf and root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral/Rectal</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Drypetes aubrevillei</italic> Leandri (K017)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Duameko (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stroke</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Drypetes floribunda</italic> Hutch. (K016)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Katirika (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Miscarriage</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> L. (A014)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hernia</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Jatropha gossypifolia</italic> L. (A015)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">High fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and fruit</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Macaranga barteri</italic> Müll. Arg. (K015)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Opam (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Foot rot</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Uapaca guineensis </italic>Müll. Arg. (A016)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Agyahere (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stroke</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root, bark and leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6" align="left" colspan="1"> Fabaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Acacia senegalensis</italic> (Houtt.) Roberty (K022)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">High fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Albizia ferruginea</italic> (Guill. & Perr.) B. (K021)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Awiemtosamina (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diarrhoea</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Baphia nitida</italic> Lodd. (A005)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Odwaen</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Retarded growth</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Topical</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Berlinia</italic> sp. (A013)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rheumatism<break></break>Fever</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root and bark <break></break>Bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Topical<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cassia alata L. (K023)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kobatso (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Purgative<break></break>Menstrual disorders<break></break>Fertility problems</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Copaifera salikounda</italic> Heckel (A030)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Otedua (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">High fever<break></break>Piles</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bark <break></break>Root and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Topical<break></break>Oral/Rectal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lamiaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Ocimum gratissimum</italic> Seem. (A011)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nunnum (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bloating</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Malvaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Gossypium hirsutum</italic> L. (K024)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Asawadua (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Osteoarthritis<break></break>Infertility</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion<break></break>Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Meliaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> A. Juss (A008)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nimtso (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.4</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fever<break></break>Fever<break></break>Malaria</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Khaya senegalensis</italic> A. Juss. (K008)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mahogany (Akuapem/Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infertility <break></break>Male infertility</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bark <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Menispermaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Sphenocentrium jollyanum</italic> Pierre (K026)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kramaoti (Akuapem)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diabetes</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Moringaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Moringa oleifera</italic> Lam. (A007)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Moringa</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Blood tonic<break></break>Pruritus<break></break>Jaundice</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Myrtaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Psidium guajava</italic> L. (K028)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aguava (Akuapem/Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diarrhoea</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Rutaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Citrus sinensis</italic> Pers. (K030)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anka (Akuapem)/Kpeta (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tree</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Constipation</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and fruit</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Zanthoxylum leprieurii</italic> Guill. & Perr. (K029)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Okanto (Akuapem)/Oyaa (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sexual weakness<break></break>Stroke</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Root</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction<break></break>Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral<break></break>Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Sapindaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Lecaniodiscus cupanioides</italic> Planch. (K031)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stomach ulcer</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Paullinia pinnata </italic>L. (A002)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tuatin (Twi) Detsemamu (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.5</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Miscarriage <break></break>Stomach ulcer<break></break>Stroke<break></break>HIV/AIDS<break></break>Bone fracture</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf <break></break>Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction <break></break>Infusion<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Decoction<break></break>Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral <break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral<break></break>Oral/Rectal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Sapotaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Aningeria altissima</italic> (A. Chev.) Aubrév. (K033)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Asanfena (Twi)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stops bleeding</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf and bark</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Malacantha alnifolia</italic> Pierre (K032)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Miscarriage</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Leaf</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decoction</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" colspan="1"> Solanaceae</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Physalis angulata</italic> L. (K034)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Totoa (Krobo)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Herb</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cancer</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Whole plant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral/Topical</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Solanum melongena</italic> L. (A003)</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shrub</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anaemia</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fruit</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Infusion</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="tab3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Information on considerations on factors of place and time during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in some communities in southern Ghana.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Place/time</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Factors/variables</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number of healers</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Percentage of healers </th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3" align="left" colspan="1">Elevation</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Lowland</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97.8</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Highland</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1">Habitat</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wild</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Home garden</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.3</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Degraded area</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35.6</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.7</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1">Seasonality</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wet season</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20.0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dry season</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.7</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Both</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66.7</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.7</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1">Soil type</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Loam soil</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">75.6</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandy soil</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17.7</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Clay soil</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.7</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5" align="left" colspan="1">Time of day</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Morning</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">57.8</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Evening/night</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Afternoon</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anytime</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28.9</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1">Topography</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Steep slope</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gentle slope</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8.8</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Flat land</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">41</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">91.1</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="left" colspan="1">Vegetation type</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Forest</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37.8</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Savanna</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Forest-savanna mosaic</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">51.1</td></tr><tr><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unimportant</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.6</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>Ghana</li></country><region><li>Région du Grand Accra</li></region><settlement><li>Accra</li><li>Legon (Ghana)</li></settlement><orgName><li>Université du Ghana</li></orgName></list><tree><country name="Ghana"><region name="Région du Grand Accra"><name sortKey="Boadu, Augustine A" sort="Boadu, Augustine A" uniqKey="Boadu A" first="Augustine A." last="Boadu">Augustine A. 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