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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">PREHISTORICAL <italic>Pediculus humanus capitis</italic>
INFESTATION:
QUANTITATIVE DATA AND LOW VACUUM SCANNING MICROSCOPY</title>
<author><name sortKey="Dutra, Juliana M F" sort="Dutra, Juliana M F" uniqKey="Dutra J" first="Juliana M. F." last="Dutra">Juliana M. F. Dutra</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Alves, Arthur Daniel" sort="Alves, Arthur Daniel" uniqKey="Alves A" first="Arthur Daniel" last="Alves">Arthur Daniel Alves</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Pessanha, Thaila" sort="Pessanha, Thaila" uniqKey="Pessanha T" first="Thaila" last="Pessanha">Thaila Pessanha</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Rachid, Rachel" sort="Rachid, Rachel" uniqKey="Rachid R" first="Rachel" last="Rachid">Rachel Rachid</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"> Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho s/n, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Souza, Wanderley" sort="De Souza, Wanderley" uniqKey="De Souza W" first="Wanderley" last="De Souza">Wanderley De Souza</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"> Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho s/n, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Linardi, Pedro Marcos" sort="Linardi, Pedro Marcos" uniqKey="Linardi P" first="Pedro Marcos" last="Linardi">Pedro Marcos Linardi</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3"> Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Caixa Postal 486, 30161-970 Belo Horizonte, MG,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Ferreira, Luiz Fernando" sort="Ferreira, Luiz Fernando" uniqKey="Ferreira L" first="Luiz Fernando" last="Ferreira">Luiz Fernando Ferreira</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Souza, Sheila Mendonca" sort="De Souza, Sheila Mendonca" uniqKey="De Souza S" first="Sheila Mendonça" last="De Souza">Sheila Mendonça De Souza</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Araujo, Adauto" sort="Araujo, Adauto" uniqKey="Araujo A" first="Adauto" last="Araujo">Adauto Araujo</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
</titleStmt>
<publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno>
<idno type="pmid">24626412</idno>
<idno type="pmc">4085847</idno>
<idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4085847</idno>
<idno type="RBID">PMC:4085847</idno>
<idno type="doi">10.1590/S0036-46652014000200005</idno>
<date when="2014">2014</date>
<idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000397</idno>
<idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000397</idno>
</publicationStmt>
<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">PREHISTORICAL <italic>Pediculus humanus capitis</italic>
INFESTATION:
QUANTITATIVE DATA AND LOW VACUUM SCANNING MICROSCOPY</title>
<author><name sortKey="Dutra, Juliana M F" sort="Dutra, Juliana M F" uniqKey="Dutra J" first="Juliana M. F." last="Dutra">Juliana M. F. Dutra</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Alves, Arthur Daniel" sort="Alves, Arthur Daniel" uniqKey="Alves A" first="Arthur Daniel" last="Alves">Arthur Daniel Alves</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Pessanha, Thaila" sort="Pessanha, Thaila" uniqKey="Pessanha T" first="Thaila" last="Pessanha">Thaila Pessanha</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Rachid, Rachel" sort="Rachid, Rachel" uniqKey="Rachid R" first="Rachel" last="Rachid">Rachel Rachid</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"> Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho s/n, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Souza, Wanderley" sort="De Souza, Wanderley" uniqKey="De Souza W" first="Wanderley" last="De Souza">Wanderley De Souza</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff2"> Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho s/n, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Linardi, Pedro Marcos" sort="Linardi, Pedro Marcos" uniqKey="Linardi P" first="Pedro Marcos" last="Linardi">Pedro Marcos Linardi</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff3"> Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Caixa Postal 486, 30161-970 Belo Horizonte, MG,<country>Brazil</country>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Ferreira, Luiz Fernando" sort="Ferreira, Luiz Fernando" uniqKey="Ferreira L" first="Luiz Fernando" last="Ferreira">Luiz Fernando Ferreira</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Souza, Sheila Mendonca" sort="De Souza, Sheila Mendonca" uniqKey="De Souza S" first="Sheila Mendonça" last="De Souza">Sheila Mendonça De Souza</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Araujo, Adauto" sort="Araujo, Adauto" uniqKey="Araujo A" first="Adauto" last="Araujo">Adauto Araujo</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"> Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
</analytic>
<series><title level="j">Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo</title>
<idno type="ISSN">0036-4665</idno>
<idno type="eISSN">1678-9946</idno>
<imprint><date when="2014">2014</date>
</imprint>
</series>
</biblStruct>
</sourceDesc>
</fileDesc>
<profileDesc><textClass></textClass>
</profileDesc>
</teiHeader>
<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p id="para1">A pre-Columbian Peruvian scalp was examined decades ago by a
researcher from the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. Professor Olympio da Fonseca Filho
described nits and adult lice attached to hair shafts and commented about the
origin of head lice infestations on mankind. This same scalp was sent to our
laboratory and is the subject of the present paper. Analysis showed a massive
infestation with nine eggs/cm<sup>2</sup>
and an impressive number of very well
preserved adult lice. The infestation age was roughly estimated as nine months
before death based on the distance of nits from the hair root and the medium
rate of hair growth. A small traditional textile was associated with the scalp,
possibly part of the funerary belongings. Other morphological aspects visualized
by low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy are also presented here for adults
and nits.</p>
</div>
</front>
<back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Araujo, A" uniqKey="Araujo A">A Araujo</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Ferreira, Lf" uniqKey="Ferreira L">LF Ferreira</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Guidon, N" uniqKey="Guidon N">N Guidon</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Maues Da Serra Freire, N" uniqKey="Maues Da Serra Freire N">N Maues da Serra-Freire</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Reinhard, K" uniqKey="Reinhard K">K Reinhard</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Dittmar, K" uniqKey="Dittmar K">K Dittmar</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Arriaza, B" uniqKey="Arriaza B">B Arriaza</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Allison, M" uniqKey="Allison M">M Allison</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Standen, V" uniqKey="Standen V">V Standen</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Focacci, G" uniqKey="Focacci G">G Focacci</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Chacama, J" uniqKey="Chacama J">J Chacama</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Arriaza, B" uniqKey="Arriaza B">B Arriaza</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Orellana, Nc" uniqKey="Orellana N">NC Orellana</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Barbosa, Hs" uniqKey="Barbosa H">HS Barbosa</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Menna Barreto, Rf" uniqKey="Menna Barreto R">RF Menna-Barreto</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Araujo, A" uniqKey="Araujo A">A Araújo</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Standen, V" uniqKey="Standen V">V Standen</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Arriaza, B" uniqKey="Arriaza B">B Arriaza</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Standen, V" uniqKey="Standen V">V Standen</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Busvine, Jr" uniqKey="Busvine J">JR Busvine</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Callen, E" uniqKey="Callen E">E Callen</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Cameron, Twm" uniqKey="Cameron T">TWM Cameron</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chamberlain, Aj" uniqKey="Chamberlain A">AJ Chamberlain</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Dawber, Rp" uniqKey="Dawber R">RP Dawber</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ewing, He" uniqKey="Ewing H">HE Ewing</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ferris, Gf" uniqKey="Ferris G">GF Ferris</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fonseca Filho, O" uniqKey="Fonseca Filho O">O Fonseca Filho</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fornaciari, G" uniqKey="Fornaciari G">G Fornaciari</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Giuffra, V" uniqKey="Giuffra V">V Giuffra</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Marinozzi, S" uniqKey="Marinozzi S">S Marinozzi</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Picchi, Ms" uniqKey="Picchi M">MS Picchi</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Masetti, M" uniqKey="Masetti M">M Masetti</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Harkey, R" uniqKey="Harkey R">R Harkey</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hopkins, Ghe" uniqKey="Hopkins G">GHE Hopkins</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Horne, P" uniqKey="Horne P">P Horne</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Leo, Np" uniqKey="Leo N">NP Leo</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Campbell, Njm" uniqKey="Campbell N">NJM Campbell</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Yang, X" uniqKey="Yang X">X Yang</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Muncuoglu, K" uniqKey="Muncuoglu K">K Muncuoglu</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Barker, Sc" uniqKey="Barker S">SC Barker</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Light, Je" uniqKey="Light J">JE Light</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Toups, Ma" uniqKey="Toups M">MA Toups</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Reed, Dl" uniqKey="Reed D">DL Reed</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Linardi, Pm" uniqKey="Linardi P">PM Linardi</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Botelho, Jr" uniqKey="Botelho J">JR Botelho</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Maria, M" uniqKey="De Maria M">M de Maria</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Cunha, Hc" uniqKey="Cunha H">HC Cunha</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Linardi, Pm" uniqKey="Linardi P">PM Linardi</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="De Maria, M" uniqKey="De Maria M">M De Maria</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Botelho, Jr" uniqKey="Botelho J">JR Botelho</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Cunha, Hc" uniqKey="Cunha H">HC Cunha</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Ferreira, Jb" uniqKey="Ferreira J">JB Ferreira</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Owen, Bd" uniqKey="Owen B">BD Owen</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Raoult, D" uniqKey="Raoult D">D Raoult</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Dutour, O" uniqKey="Dutour O">O Dutour</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Houhamdi, L" uniqKey="Houhamdi L">L Houhamdi</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Jankauskas, R" uniqKey="Jankauskas R">R Jankauskas</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Fournier, Pe" uniqKey="Fournier P">PE Fournier</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Ardagna, Y" uniqKey="Ardagna Y">Y Ardagna</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Raoult, D" uniqKey="Raoult D">D Raoult</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Reed, Dl" uniqKey="Reed D">DL Reed</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Dittmar, K" uniqKey="Dittmar K">K Dittmar</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Kirchman, Jj" uniqKey="Kirchman J">JJ Kirchman</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Rolain, Jm" uniqKey="Rolain J">JM Rolain</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Guillen, S" uniqKey="Guillen S">S Guillen</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Reed, Dl" uniqKey="Reed D">DL Reed</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Light, Je" uniqKey="Light J">JE Light</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Allen, Jm" uniqKey="Allen J">JM Allen</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Kirchman, Jj" uniqKey="Kirchman J">JJ Kirchman</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Reinhard, Kj" uniqKey="Reinhard K">KJ Reinhard</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Buikstra, J" uniqKey="Buikstra J">J Buikstra</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rick, Fm" uniqKey="Rick F">FM Rick</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Rocha, Gc" uniqKey="Rocha G">GC Rocha</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Dittmar, K" uniqKey="Dittmar K">K Dittmar</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Coimbra Cea, Jr" uniqKey="Coimbra Cea J">Jr Coimbra CEA</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Reinhard, K" uniqKey="Reinhard K">K Reinhard</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Bouchet, F" uniqKey="Bouchet F">F Bouchet</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rivera, Ma" uniqKey="Rivera M">MA Rivera</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Mumcuoglu, Ky" uniqKey="Mumcuoglu K">KY Mumcuoglu</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Matheny, Rt" uniqKey="Matheny R">RT Matheny</name>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Matheny, Dg" uniqKey="Matheny D">DG Matheny</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ruffer, Ma" uniqKey="Ruffer M">MA Ruffer</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
</listBibl>
</div1>
</back>
</TEI>
<pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0036-4665</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1678-9946</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Instituto de Medicina Tropical</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24626412</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4085847</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0036-46652014000200005</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0036-46652014000200005</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Paleoparasitology</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>PREHISTORICAL <italic>Pediculus humanus capitis</italic>
INFESTATION:
QUANTITATIVE DATA AND LOW VACUUM SCANNING MICROSCOPY</article-title>
<trans-title-group xml:lang="pt"><trans-title>Infestação pré-histórica por <italic>Pediculus humanus
capitis:</italic>
análise quantitativa e por microscopia de varredura de
baixo vácuo</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Dutra</surname>
<given-names>Juliana M.F.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Alves</surname>
<given-names>Arthur Daniel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Pessanha</surname>
<given-names>Thaila</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rachid</surname>
<given-names>Rachel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">(2)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>de Souza</surname>
<given-names>Wanderley</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">(2)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Linardi</surname>
<given-names>Pedro Marcos</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">(3)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ferreira</surname>
<given-names>Luiz Fernando</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>de Souza</surname>
<given-names>Sheila Mendonça</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Araujo</surname>
<given-names>Adauto</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">(1)</xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1"><label>(1)</label>
Laboratório de Paleoparasitologia, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sérgio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, R. Leopoldo Bulhões 1480, Manguinhos, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
. Tel.: +55 (21) 2598-2566</aff>
<aff id="aff2"><label>(2)</label>
Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho s/n, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ,<country>Brazil</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3"><label>(3)</label>
Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Caixa Postal 486, 30161-970 Belo Horizonte, MG,<country>Brazil</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes><corresp><bold>Correspondence to:</bold>
Juliana M.F. DUTRA, E-mail: <email>jsantiago@ensp.fiocruz.br</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub"><season>Mar-Apr</season>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<pmc-comment>Fake ppub date generated by PMC from publisher
pub-date/@pub-type='epub-ppub' </pmc-comment>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><season>Mar-Apr</season>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>56</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>115</fpage>
<lpage>119</lpage>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>18</day>
<month>2</month>
<year>2013</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>26</day>
<month>6</month>
<year>2013</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/"><license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits
unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p id="para1">A pre-Columbian Peruvian scalp was examined decades ago by a
researcher from the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. Professor Olympio da Fonseca Filho
described nits and adult lice attached to hair shafts and commented about the
origin of head lice infestations on mankind. This same scalp was sent to our
laboratory and is the subject of the present paper. Analysis showed a massive
infestation with nine eggs/cm<sup>2</sup>
and an impressive number of very well
preserved adult lice. The infestation age was roughly estimated as nine months
before death based on the distance of nits from the hair root and the medium
rate of hair growth. A small traditional textile was associated with the scalp,
possibly part of the funerary belongings. Other morphological aspects visualized
by low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy are also presented here for adults
and nits.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="pt"><p id="para2">Há décadas um escalpo peruano, datado do período pré-colombiano, foi
examinado por um pesquisador da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. O Professor Olympio da
Fonseca Filho descreveu lêndeas e adultos fixos a fios de cabelos e fez
comentários sobre a origem da infecção por piolhos na espécie humana. Este mesmo
escalpo foi enviado ao nosso laboratório e é objeto deste artigo. Sua análise
mostrou maciça infestação, com nove lêndeas/cm<sup>2</sup>
em impressionante
número de adultos muito bem preservados. O tempo de infestação foi estimado em
cerca de nove meses antes da morte, baseado na maior distância entre lêndeas e o
couro cabeludo, levando em consideração taxa média de crescimento capilar de 1
cm por mês. Um pequeno pedaço de tecido tradicional peruano foi encontrado
associado ao escalpo, provavelmente pertencente ao conjunto de peças usado no
ritual funerário. Aqui, apresentamos alguns aspectos morfológicos de adultos e
lêndeas vizualizados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura de baixo vácuo.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd><italic>Pediculus humanus</italic>
</kwd>
<kwd>Head lice</kwd>
<kwd>Paleoparasitology</kwd>
<kwd>Human hair</kwd>
<kwd>Parasitism</kwd>
<kwd>Evolution</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts><fig-count count="3"></fig-count>
<table-count count="1"></table-count>
<ref-count count="26"></ref-count>
<page-count count="5"></page-count>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body><sec sec-type="intro"><title>INTRODUCTION</title>
<p id="para3">The family Pediculidae includes two types of lice that uniquely infest
humans and are generally site-specific: <italic>Pediculus humanus capitis</italic>
(the head louse) and <italic>Pediculus humanus humanus</italic>
(the body louse),
also considered by some authors as distinct species, in spite of molecular studies
evidenced that they are conspecific<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>
,<xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
</sup>
. Fertilized eggs of sucking lice are referred to as nits and are firmly
cemented to the hair shaft. Subsequently, eggs develop through three nymph instars
before achieving adulthood<sup><xref rid="B05" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
,<xref rid="B09" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para4">Lice infestation is dated from 25 million years ago (MYA) in primates<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>
</sup>
. At 6 MYA mark humans and monkeys are supposed to take different evolutionary ways<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>
,<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>
</sup>
. Lice infestation is mentioned in the Bible as the third plague punishing the
Egyptians when the Pharaoh denied the request of Moses to set the Israelites free -
<italic>“when all the dust throughout the land of Egypt became
lice”</italic>
.</p>
<p id="para5">Evidence of louse infestation in archeological samples came with RUFFER<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
</sup>
studies in Egyptian mummies from the Royal dynasty. The dynamics of
infestation and transmission of head and body louse in the past is very well
documented in many publications on the issue<sup><xref rid="B01" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,<xref rid="B03" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
,<xref rid="B08" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>
,<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
,<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>
,<xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>
,<xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
</sup>
. Hair samples, hair attached to the skull, in the form of scalp or fragments
found in urns, carry lice and nits that have not yet been dated in the timeline of
man's presence in the Americas. The world's oldest known direct head-louse
association - a nit on a human hair - was found at a 10,000 year old archaeological
site in northeastern Brazil<sup><xref rid="B01" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para6">Lice infestation in ancient populations is associated to different groups,
economic conditions and periods; hygiene and cultural habits determine the
prevalence and frequency of infestation in human groups. A double infestation by
<italic>Pediculus capitis</italic>
and <italic>Pthirus pubis</italic>
(pubic
louse) was described by FORNACIARI <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
</sup>
, in the mummy of the King of Naples, Ferdinand II of Aragon (1467-1496).
Another relevant episode of body lice infestation including parts of the abdomen or
the dorsum of five lice evolved in Napoleon's soldiers in Vilnius, when Napoleon
Bonaparte besieged the city in 1812, during the Russian Campaign<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>
</sup>
. Evidence of ancient lice infestation in America was improved by the studies
of mummies from the Chiribayan culture<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
</sup>
, Chinchorro culture<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
</sup>
and others from northern Chile<sup><xref rid="B03" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para7">Studying nits in mummified bodies is quite simple, since they keep
attached to the hairs even after death. If no grooming or other strategy help to get
rid of them, the dead nits can persist for a long time firmly attached, being
preserved in the mummified bodies and loose hairs. LINARDI <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
</sup>
proposed that nit persistence on hair shafts could help to estimate the time
lapse of the infestation, using the distance between the nit and the scalp as a
reference. On the other hand, the finding of adult lice is more surprising, because
they are expected to abandon the body of the deceased soon after death, because of
the cooling of the corpse.</p>
<p id="para8">Here, we reviewed a case of louse infestation in a scalp of Peruvian
origin. A previous description of this scalp was presented by FONSECA FILHO<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
</sup>
which mentioned only the finding of nits and lice in the sample. From that,
the elevated number of nits and lice called our attention and a more detailed
investigation was carried out using new methods for estimating the infestation and
low vacuum scanning electron microscopy for parasite documentation.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="materials|methods"><title>MATERIAL AND METHODS</title>
<p id="para9"><bold>Human scalp and hair sample:</bold>
In 1981, Dr. Dorath Pinto Uchoa,
archaeologist of the Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia da Universidade de São Paulo,
Brazil, sent to the Laboratory of Paleoparasitology of ENSP/FIOCRUZ the present
scalp for paleoparasitological examination. The scalp was said to belong to the
private collection of Paulo Duarte, a famous Brazilian anthropologist, and had been
previously examined by professor Olympio da Fonseca Filho, probably in 1960's.</p>
<p id="para10">The material consists of fragments of different sizes of a human scalp
and some loose hair shafts containing lice and nits. The fragments suggest that the
piece was rotten and the skin/hairs were cut in some areas, possibly to provide
minor samples for analysis. The hair was partially lost and was cut into different
segments, a signal of destructive bioactivity. In the mummified scalp the skin is
thin and elastic but most of the hairs still have their roots firmly inserted in
site. The dark brown hairs are flexible and there is no signal of discoloration.
Putting the different fragments together and respecting the orientation of the hairs
it is possible to confirm that it was originally a bigger scalp, possibly from the
top and back parts of the head.</p>
<p id="para11"><bold>Quantitative analysis for nit size:</bold>
The methodology follows
REINHARD & BUIKSTRA<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para12">After the first examination, four different fragments of the scalp,
identified as A, B, C and D respectively, were selected for quantitative studies.
The biggest fragment measured 6.7 × 4.4 cm (length x width) and three smaller ones
sized between 2 and 5 cm were used for counting nits and adults. For counting nits a
2 × 2 cm square window was cut into a cardboard paper and placed above different
regions of each fragment. The nits inside each of those delimited areas were
counted. A total of three windows were counted.</p>
<p id="para13">For bright field microscopy analysis, fifty nits were separated randomly
under a stereomicroscope. After 72 hours of rehydration in trisodium phosphate 0.5%
aqueous solution<sup><xref rid="B06" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
</sup>
the nits were mounted on glass slides for observation. All were measured and
photographed under a Primo Star microscopy associated with Zen® software (Carl
Zeiss), in a final magnification of 100x.</p>
<p id="para14"><bold>Infestation profile:</bold>
In order to analyze the infestation
profile, ten hair shafts with nits were separated randomly from each fragment and
measured. Hair shaft length and the distance between nit position and the scalp were
measured using a millimeter scale, following LINARDI <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
</sup>
. The maximum number of nits per shaft was also calculated.</p>
<p id="para15"><bold>Scanning electron microscopy:</bold>
Nits and adults were observed
under low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For SEM preparation, four nits
were rehydrated as previously described at item 2, then washed in distillated water
and dried at room temperature. Hair shafts were mounted on stubs with double side
carbon tape (TED PELLA Inc.) and examined in a low-vacuum SEM at QUANTA 250 (FEI
Company). Adults were not rehydrated before SEM observation.</p>
<p id="para16">Fifty nits were randomly selected and prepared for light microscopy after
rehydration and measured in length and width. The morphological aspect of nits was
also evaluated (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Fig. 1</xref>
). For inside nit
exposition, the hair shaft containing nits was mounted on a stub with a double side
carbon tape. In the sequence, adhesive tape was stuck on the top to remove the
superficial layer of the sample. Both halves were observed under low-vacuum SEM as
described above.</p>
<p><fig id="f01" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Fig. 1</label>
<caption><title>Eggs/nits under bright field microscopy. After the rehydration
process, it is possible to visualize the embryonic stage inside the
eggshell. 50 nits were measured: the size ranged between 1,126.92 µm
(length) and 469.38 µm (width). Scale bar = 200 µm.</title>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0036-4665-rimtsp-56-02-115-gf01"></graphic>
</fig>
</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="results"><title>RESULTS</title>
<p id="para17">The results presented here were conclusive for heavy infestation
determined by the high density of nits in the scalp, as summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table I</xref>
. All the fragments of the scalp showed
a high-density value of nits, ranging from 3.5 nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
to 9.5
nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
.</p>
<p><table-wrap id="t01" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Nits density and position on hair shaft</title>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups" width="95%"><thead style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000"><tr><th rowspan="2" colspan="1"></th>
<th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Fragments</th>
</tr>
<tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">A</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">C</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-color: #000000; border-bottom: thin solid"><tr><td colspan="5" align="left" rowspan="1"><bold>Hair shaft length</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Longest<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01t01">*</xref>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Shorter</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Max. nits per area<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02t01">**</xref>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.6</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="5" align="left" rowspan="1"><bold>Distance of nits from scalp</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Min.</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.3</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.5</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Max.</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.5<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03t01">†</xref>
</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.0</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.3</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.6</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Max. nits per hair
shaft</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN01t01"><label>*</label>
<p>centimeter scale;</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN02t01"><label>**</label>
<p>2×2 cm square;</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN03t01"><label>†</label>
<p>nit on the longest hair shaft found (18 cm).</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</p>
<p id="para18">The morphological characteristics of the nits as well as adults, and the
maximum width (average: 469.38 ± 100 µm) and length (average: 1,126.92 ± 221 µm) of
the nit size showed no differences when compared with modern nits. The good state of
preservation of nits/adults allowed a morphologically detailed description by light
and scanning electron microscopy, helping to confirm its morphological
characteristics and to compare with other descriptions in the literature (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Fig. 1</xref>
and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">2</xref>
). Nymphs inside the eggs could be identified after the eggshell was
removed with adhesive tape (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Fig. 2B-2D</xref>
).</p>
<p><fig id="f02" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Fig. 2</label>
<caption><title>Low-vacuum scanning microscopy of eggs/nits attached to a hairshaft.
The eggshell was removed with adhesive tape and showed the presence of a
larvae hatching. Scale bar = 500 µm.</title>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0036-4665-rimtsp-56-02-115-gf02"></graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p id="para19">The nit's position was useful to determine the time of infestation, and
the distance from the hair root measured between 0.2 cm and 9.5 cm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table I</xref>
). The longest hair shaft measured in
the scalp (fragment A) also showed the major distance from nits to skin.</p>
<p id="para20">Empty nits positioned 9.5 cm away from scalp points for a period of nine
months before death as a possible infestation date. Other viable nits (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Fig. 2B-2D</xref>
) situated at 0.2 cm from the base of
the scalp could signalize a minimum infestation age of 5-7 days before death, in
accordance with the emergence of the first nymph instar<sup><xref rid="B05" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
,<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para21">Low-vacuum SEM was used for morphological analysis in adults and nits.
Adults showed a very well preserved state, with a flattened and desiccated body from
the aging process (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig. 3</xref>
). It was possible to
visualize lateral spiracles (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig. 3A</xref>
and C -
arrows) and the genital aperture from females (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig.
3D</xref>
- asterisk). One female in particular that had lost a pair of antenna
and the first pair of clawed legs, although the eyes were preserved (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig. 3B</xref>
).</p>
<p><fig id="f03" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Fig. 3</label>
<caption><title>Adults seen under a stereomicroscope and by Low-vacuum scanning
microscopy. It can be noted that the lateral spiracles were well
preserved (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig. 3A</xref>
and C - arrows)
and the genital aperture from females (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Fig. 3D</xref>
- asterisk).</title>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0036-4665-rimtsp-56-02-115-gf03"></graphic>
</fig>
</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion"><title>DISCUSSION</title>
<p id="para22">Recent observations done by REINHARD AND BUIKSTRA<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
</sup>
also showed an expressive infestation in Chiribaya people, an Andean group
living around 900 and 1350 AD in southern Peru. In that study the mean maximum louse
density was 8.9 nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
in cotton samples, but the value for all other
sites studied was 2.28 nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
. As stated by those authors, a mean
maximum density ranging from five nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
to 22 nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
represent heavy infestation, making the value found in the present case, of nine
nits/cm<sup>2</sup>
, very representative. The finding of a heavy infestation
seems not to be the rule even in people of the past of the Andean area, and special
conditions must be considered here that may justify the present results. The unknown
origin of the scalps prevents further detailed interpretation but one possible
explanation is the individual condition, as also inferred by the papers cited above
where we can find differences in individual infestation values, especially because
one ill or handicapped people could be more susceptible to infestation. As in any
culture in the past, age groups, sex and social conditions could all affect the
possibility of regular hygiene practices/grooming and their benefits could be
available to some individuals and not to others in the same group. The second
possibility is that the scalp examined may come from one group more affected than
others by the infestation<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
</sup>
, and this could be associated with some special conditions such as periods of
violence, crowding conditions, scarcity periods, imprisonment, and others moments of
social disruption that would certainly affect the possibility of keeping traditional
practices. In America, the contact period after the XVI century, as well as the
troubled periods under the pressure of expanding dominant groups like Wari,
Tiwaknaku or Inka could represent such situations<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para23">Adults and nits, as demonstrated by low-vacuum SEM pictures here, were an
interesting finding. As stated before, although nits are usually found attached to
hairs and scalps, the finding of adults, in considerable numbers, is not expected in
such mummified samples, because the free adults try to abandon the corpse after
death, maximizing their chances of survival and reproduction.</p>
<p id="para24">Following LINARDI <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
</sup>
, nits, nymphs and adults can be found alive 24 hours after removal from the
host. Nits can still be attached to hair shafts even after death. A cement substance
produced in the accessory glands of the louse is laid by females together with eggs;
it prevents the egg from becoming unstuck from the hair shaft, even after the egg
has hatched, and they migrate far from the scalp following hair growth<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
</sup>
.</p>
<p id="para25">The dynamics of hair growth differ between ethnic groups, and vary with
age, gender, body site and environmental changes. Physiological or pathological
states such as pregnancy, malnutrition or disease can also modulate hair growth<sup><xref rid="B07" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>
</sup>
. Assuming one cm/month as a reasonable medium rate of growth for humans we
can estimate the infestation time in this case. Otherwise, infestation time cannot
be precisely estimated because many factors can change the equation, including the
fact that human hair growth is variable in the same head<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>
</sup>
. Taking the heavy density of nits found and the multiple presences in a
single hair shaft, this possible period of infestation does not seem so unlikely,
even though it is impossible to determine other parameters that could impair hair
growth in this individual. ARRIAZA <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B03" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
</sup>
, describing a Maita Chiribaya mummy lice infestation, also found a heavy
infestation, confirming numerous specimens in different stages of development. The
results were associated with the life style of the group. For REINHARD & BUIKSTRA<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
</sup>
who first found a similar heavy infestation in the population of Chiribaya,
the prevalence in men, instead of women and children, could point to differences in
social attributes. They also described the combs used by those people. The practice
of combing the hair is very well known for different native groups, and the special
hairdressings using tresses and other special fashions among Andean groups inspired
even modern stylists. The combing practices among women probably also helped to
remove adults and minimize the symptoms of intense itching caused by <italic>P. h.
capitis</italic>
. Although ARRIAZA <italic>et al.</italic>
<sup><xref rid="B02" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
</sup>
and ARRIAZA & STANDEN<sup><xref rid="B04" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
</sup>
maintain that lice infestations should be endemic in the Andes region,
because of the archaeological findings of fine combs possibly used for nits or
adults removal, we must keep in mind that the existence of very sophisticated
combing and dressing patterns in the Andean region goes beyond the possible
functional lice-related practices. On the other hand, the endemicity of <italic>P.
h. capitis</italic>
is confirmed by the study of different samples as described
in the literature. It was not possible to compare the total counting of 17 adult
lice in this scalp with the finding of other authors because the present sample was
fragmented, but it is possible to maintain that the individual had an active
infestation when he/she died. The practice of wrapping corpses in order to prepare
the funerary bundle may explain the persistence of the adults in the scalp after
death, preventing them from abandoning the head. This makes us consider that
differences in funerary practices certainly have an impact on the possibility of
recovering or not, adult lice, and consequently, vary interpretations of final
results in archaeological samples.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions"><title>CONCLUSION</title>
<p id="para26">Lice infestation, one of the most antique host-parasite interactions was
present in Andean groups, and the finding of well preserved adult forms, eggs and
nits helps in their study over time and space. In the scalp we examined, the use of
SEM techniques helped to confirm the good preservation of the parasites and to
detail the description of the different stages (adult to nits) of the parasite
present in the hairs or free in the scalp. The application of quantitative methods
to estimate the number of nits per area of scalp, and the distance between the nits
and the scalp, helped to compare the severity and antiquity of the infestation with
other similar studies in South America. The infestation in the present case was
considered intense, lasting for about nine months before death, being no doubt,
active in the moment the individual died.</p>
<p id="para27">Finally, results proved to be a good opportunity to call attention to the
beginnings of paleoparasitology in our country, as professor Olympio da Fonseca
Filho was a pioneer on this matter describing parasites in archaeological material.
As far as we know, he had the opportunity of examining this scalp years before he
published his book in the early 1970's<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
</sup>
. The essence of paleoparasitology, while discussing the origins and evolution
of host-parasite relationships, is present in his book.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back><ack><title>ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</title>
<p id="para28">We would like to thank Dr. Dorath Pinto Uchôa for giving us the
opportunity to examine such precious material. Also, we would like to thank Dr.
Silvia Maranca and Dr. Veronica Wesolowski for helping us identify the origin of the
archaeological material.</p>
<p id="para29">PML, AA, WS are research fellows of Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq/Brazil). Fundings by CNPq, FAPERJ (Fundação Carlos
Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro) and CAPES
(Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior).</p>
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