Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for Darwinius
Identifieur interne : 000038 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000037; suivant : 000039Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for Darwinius
Auteurs : Sergi L Pez-Torres ; Michael A. Schillaci ; Mary T. SilcoxSource :
- Royal Society Open Science [ 2054-5703 ] ; 2015.
Abstract
Url:
DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150340
PubMed: 26473056
PubMed Central: 4593690
Links to Exploration step
PMC:4593690Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for <italic>Darwinius</italic></title><author><name sortKey="L Pez Torres, Sergi" sort="L Pez Torres, Sergi" uniqKey="L Pez Torres S" first="Sergi" last="L Pez-Torres">Sergi L Pez-Torres</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schillaci, Michael A" sort="Schillaci, Michael A" uniqKey="Schillaci M" first="Michael A." last="Schillaci">Michael A. Schillaci</name></author><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mary T" sort="Silcox, Mary T" uniqKey="Silcox M" first="Mary T." last="Silcox">Mary T. Silcox</name></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">26473056</idno><idno type="pmc">4593690</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4593690</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4593690</idno><idno type="doi">10.1098/rsos.150340</idno><date when="2015">2015</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000038</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000038</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for <italic>Darwinius</italic></title><author><name sortKey="L Pez Torres, Sergi" sort="L Pez Torres, Sergi" uniqKey="L Pez Torres S" first="Sergi" last="L Pez-Torres">Sergi L Pez-Torres</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schillaci, Michael A" sort="Schillaci, Michael A" uniqKey="Schillaci M" first="Michael A." last="Schillaci">Michael A. Schillaci</name></author><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mary T" sort="Silcox, Mary T" uniqKey="Silcox M" first="Mary T." last="Silcox">Mary T. Silcox</name></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Royal Society Open Science</title><idno type="eISSN">2054-5703</idno><imprint><date when="2015">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p><italic>Darwinius</italic> is an adapoid primate from the Eocene of Germany, and its only known specimen represents the most complete fossil primate ever found. Its describers hypothesized a close relationship to Anthropoidea, and using a <italic>Saimiri</italic> model estimated its age at death. This study reconstructs the ancestral permanent dental eruption sequences for basal Euprimates, Haplorhini, Anthropoidea, and stem and crown Strepsirrhini. The results show that the ancestral sequences for the basal euprimate, haplorhine and stem strepsirrhine are identical, and similar to that of <italic>Darwinius</italic>. However, <italic>Darwinius</italic> differs from anthropoids by exhibiting early development of the lower third molars relative to the lower third and fourth premolars. The eruption of the lower second premolar marks the point of interruption of the sequence in <italic>Darwinius</italic>. The anthropoid <italic>Saimiri</italic> as a model is therefore problematic because it exhibits a delayed eruption of P<sub>2</sub>. Here, an alternative strepsirrhine model based on <italic>Eulemur</italic> and <italic>Varecia</italic> is presented. Our proposed model shows an older age at death than previously suggested (1.05–1.14 years), while the range for adult weight is entirely below the range proposed previously. This alternative model is more consistent with hypotheses supporting a stronger relationship between adapoids and strepsirrhines.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sahni, A" uniqKey="Sahni A">A Sahni</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gebo, Dl" uniqKey="Gebo D">DL Gebo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fleagle, Jg" uniqKey="Fleagle J">JG Fleagle</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wortman, Jl" uniqKey="Wortman J">JL Wortman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schoeninger, M" uniqKey="Schoeninger M">M Schoeninger</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fisher, Dc" uniqKey="Fisher D">DC Fisher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gunnell, Gf" uniqKey="Gunnell G">GF Gunnell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author><author><name sortKey="Uhen, Md" uniqKey="Uhen M">MD Uhen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Franzen, Jl" uniqKey="Franzen J">JL Franzen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Habersetzer, J" uniqKey="Habersetzer J">J Habersetzer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hurum, Jh" uniqKey="Hurum J">JH Hurum</name></author><author><name sortKey="Von Koenigswald, W" uniqKey="Von Koenigswald W">W von Koenigswald</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gregory, Wk" uniqKey="Gregory W">WK Gregory</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hoffstetter, R" uniqKey="Hoffstetter R">R Hoffstetter</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Beard, Kc" uniqKey="Beard K">KC Beard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dagosto, M" uniqKey="Dagosto M">M Dagosto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gebo, Dl" uniqKey="Gebo D">DL Gebo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Godinot, M" uniqKey="Godinot M">M Godinot</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dagosto, M" uniqKey="Dagosto M">M Dagosto</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ross, Cf" uniqKey="Ross C">CF Ross</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, Ba" uniqKey="Williams B">BA Williams</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Seiffert, Er" uniqKey="Seiffert E">ER Seiffert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Perry, Jmg" uniqKey="Perry J">JMG Perry</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Williams, Ba" uniqKey="Williams B">BA Williams</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kirk, Ec" uniqKey="Kirk E">EC Kirk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ross, Cf" uniqKey="Ross C">CF Ross</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gilbert, Cc" uniqKey="Gilbert C">CC Gilbert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maiolino, Sa" uniqKey="Maiolino S">SA Maiolino</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Marig, J" uniqKey="Marig J">J Marigó</name></author><author><name sortKey="Minwer Barakat, R" uniqKey="Minwer Barakat R">R Minwer-Barakat</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moya Sola, S" uniqKey="Moya Sola S">S Moyà-Solà</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Steiper, Me" uniqKey="Steiper M">ME Steiper</name></author><author><name sortKey="Seiffert, Er" uniqKey="Seiffert E">ER Seiffert</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ni, X" uniqKey="Ni X">X Ni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gebo, Dl" uniqKey="Gebo D">DL Gebo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dagosto, M" uniqKey="Dagosto M">M Dagosto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Meng, J" uniqKey="Meng J">J Meng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tafforeau, P" uniqKey="Tafforeau P">P Tafforeau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flynn, Jf" uniqKey="Flynn J">JF Flynn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beard, Kc" uniqKey="Beard K">KC Beard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Seiffert, Er" uniqKey="Seiffert E">ER Seiffert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Costeur, L" uniqKey="Costeur L">L Costeur</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Franzen, Jl" uniqKey="Franzen J">JL Franzen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Habersetzer, J" uniqKey="Habersetzer J">J Habersetzer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hurum, Jh" uniqKey="Hurum J">JH Hurum</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Seiffert, Er" uniqKey="Seiffert E">ER Seiffert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Maiolino, S" uniqKey="Maiolino S">S Maiolino</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gilbert, Cc" uniqKey="Gilbert C">CC Gilbert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Groenke, J" uniqKey="Groenke J">J Groenke</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Franzen, Jl" uniqKey="Franzen J">JL Franzen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Habersetzer, J" uniqKey="Habersetzer J">J Habersetzer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Scholsser Sturm, E" uniqKey="Scholsser Sturm E">E Scholsser-Sturm</name></author><author><name sortKey="Franzen, El" uniqKey="Franzen E">EL Franzen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sauther, Ml" uniqKey="Sauther M">ML Sauther</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cuozzo, Fp" uniqKey="Cuozzo F">FP Cuozzo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cuozzo, Fp" uniqKey="Cuozzo F">FP Cuozzo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sauther, Ml" uniqKey="Sauther M">ML Sauther</name></author><author><name sortKey="Singleton, Cl" uniqKey="Singleton C">CL Singleton</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Franzen, Jl" uniqKey="Franzen J">JL Franzen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Habersetzer, J" uniqKey="Habersetzer J">J Habersetzer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Scholsser Sturm, E" uniqKey="Scholsser Sturm E">E Scholsser-Sturm</name></author><author><name sortKey="Franzen, El" uniqKey="Franzen E">EL Franzen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Macho, Ga" uniqKey="Macho G">GA Macho</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kelley, J" uniqKey="Kelley J">J Kelley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Tm" uniqKey="Smith T">TM Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nargolwalla, Mc" uniqKey="Nargolwalla M">MC Nargolwalla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Begun, Dr" uniqKey="Begun D">DR Begun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dean, Mc" uniqKey="Dean M">MC Dean</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reid, Dj" uniqKey="Reid D">DJ Reid</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kordos, L" uniqKey="Kordos L">L Kordos</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schultz, Ah" uniqKey="Schultz A">AH Schultz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author><author><name sortKey="Crummet, Tl" uniqKey="Crummet T">TL Crummet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brandt, Kl" uniqKey="Brandt K">KL Brandt</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Franzen, Jl" uniqKey="Franzen J">JL Franzen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Byrd, Ke" uniqKey="Byrd K">KE Byrd</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Byrd, Ke" uniqKey="Byrd K">KE Byrd</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Madden, Rh" uniqKey="Madden R">RH Madden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Plavcan, Jm" uniqKey="Plavcan J">JM Plavcan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cifelli, Rl" uniqKey="Cifelli R">RL Cifelli</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bown, Tm" uniqKey="Bown T">TM Bown</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rose, Kd" uniqKey="Rose K">KD Rose</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bown, Tm" uniqKey="Bown T">TM Bown</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Luckett, Wp" uniqKey="Luckett W">WP Luckett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="O Leary, Ma" uniqKey="O Leary M">MA O'Leary</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Omland, Ke" uniqKey="Omland K">KE Omland</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Felsenstein, J" uniqKey="Felsenstein J">J Felsenstein</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Swofford, Dl" uniqKey="Swofford D">DL Swofford</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Wp" uniqKey="Maddison W">WP Maddison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Swofford, Dl" uniqKey="Swofford D">DL Swofford</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Wp" uniqKey="Maddison W">WP Maddison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pagel, M" uniqKey="Pagel M">M Pagel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Polly, Pd" uniqKey="Polly P">PD Polly</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Springer, Ms" uniqKey="Springer M">MS Springer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Teeling, Ec" uniqKey="Teeling E">EC Teeling</name></author><author><name sortKey="Madsen, O" uniqKey="Madsen O">O Madsen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stanhope, Mj" uniqKey="Stanhope M">MJ Stanhope</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Jong, Ww" uniqKey="De Jong W">WW de Jong</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pagel, M" uniqKey="Pagel M">M Pagel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Meade, A" uniqKey="Meade A">A Meade</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barker, D" uniqKey="Barker D">D Barker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Finarelli, Ja" uniqKey="Finarelli J">JA Finarelli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flynn, Jj" uniqKey="Flynn J">JJ Flynn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="James, Ty" uniqKey="James T">TY James</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sato, Jj" uniqKey="Sato J">JJ Sato</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wolsan, M" uniqKey="Wolsan M">M Wolsan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Minami, S" uniqKey="Minami S">S Minami</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hosoda, T" uniqKey="Hosoda T">T Hosoda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sinaga, Mh" uniqKey="Sinaga M">MH Sinaga</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hiyama, K" uniqKey="Hiyama K">K Hiyama</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yamaguchi, Y" uniqKey="Yamaguchi Y">Y Yamaguchi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Suzuki, H" uniqKey="Suzuki H">H Suzuki</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Montgomery, Sh" uniqKey="Montgomery S">SH Montgomery</name></author><author><name sortKey="Capellini, I" uniqKey="Capellini I">I Capellini</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barton, Ra" uniqKey="Barton R">RA Barton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mundy, Ni" uniqKey="Mundy N">NI Mundy</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="King, B" uniqKey="King B">B King</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lee, Msy" uniqKey="Lee M">MSY Lee</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gunnell, Gf" uniqKey="Gunnell G">GF Gunnell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tattersall, I" uniqKey="Tattersall I">I Tattersall</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, Jh" uniqKey="Schwartz J">JH Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, Gt" uniqKey="Schwartz G">GT Schwartz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mahoney, P" uniqKey="Mahoney P">P Mahoney</name></author><author><name sortKey="Godfrey, Lr" uniqKey="Godfrey L">LR Godfrey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cuozzo, Fp" uniqKey="Cuozzo F">FP Cuozzo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jungers, Wl" uniqKey="Jungers W">WL Jungers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Randira, Gfn" uniqKey="Randira G">GFN Randira</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Long, Jo" uniqKey="Long J">JO Long</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cooper, Rw" uniqKey="Cooper R">RW Cooper</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gingerich, Pd" uniqKey="Gingerich P">PD Gingerich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Eaglen, Rh" uniqKey="Eaglen R">RH Eaglen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, Jh" uniqKey="Schwartz J">JH Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stehlin, Hg" uniqKey="Stehlin H">HG Stehlin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Guthrie, Eh" uniqKey="Guthrie E">EH Guthrie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frost, Sr" uniqKey="Frost S">SR Frost</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Perry, Jmg" uniqKey="Perry J">JMG Perry</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vizcaino, Sf" uniqKey="Vizcaino S">SF Vizcaíno</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bargo, Ms" uniqKey="Bargo M">MS Bargo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Glassman, Dm" uniqKey="Glassman D">DM Glassman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Henderson, E" uniqKey="Henderson E">E Henderson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Johnston, Gw" uniqKey="Johnston G">GW Johnston</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dreizen, S" uniqKey="Dreizen S">S Dreizen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Levy, Bm" uniqKey="Levy B">BM Levy</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hershkovitz, P" uniqKey="Hershkovitz P">P Hershkovitz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wintheiser, Jg" uniqKey="Wintheiser J">JG Wintheiser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clauser, Da" uniqKey="Clauser D">DA Clauser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tappen, Nc" uniqKey="Tappen N">NC Tappen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Geer, Aae" uniqKey="Van Der Geer A">AAE Van der Geer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dermitzakis, Md" uniqKey="Dermitzakis M">MD Dermitzakis</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="King, Sj" uniqKey="King S">SJ King</name></author><author><name sortKey="Godfrey, Lr" uniqKey="Godfrey L">LR Godfrey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dirks, W" uniqKey="Dirks W">W Dirks</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Swindler, Dr" uniqKey="Swindler D">DR Swindler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beynon, As" uniqKey="Beynon A">AS Beynon</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Harvati, K" uniqKey="Harvati K">K Harvati</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frost, Sr" uniqKey="Frost S">SR Frost</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Harvati, K" uniqKey="Harvati K">K Harvati</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pan, R" uniqKey="Pan R">R Pan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Oxnard, C" uniqKey="Oxnard C">C Oxnard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dean, Mc" uniqKey="Dean M">MC Dean</name></author><author><name sortKey="Leakey, Mg" uniqKey="Leakey M">MG Leakey</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smith, Bh" uniqKey="Smith B">BH Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Marivaux, L" uniqKey="Marivaux L">L Marivaux</name></author><author><name sortKey="Welcomme, J L" uniqKey="Welcomme J">J-L Welcomme</name></author><author><name sortKey="Antoine, P O" uniqKey="Antoine P">P-O Antoine</name></author><author><name sortKey="Metais, G" uniqKey="Metais G">G Métais</name></author><author><name sortKey="Baloch, Im" uniqKey="Baloch I">IM Baloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Benammi, M" uniqKey="Benammi M">M Benammi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chaimanee, Y" uniqKey="Chaimanee Y">Y Chaimanee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ducrocq, S" uniqKey="Ducrocq S">S Ducrocq</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jaeger, J J" uniqKey="Jaeger J">J-J Jaeger</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gunnell, Gf" uniqKey="Gunnell G">GF Gunnell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Arnold, C" uniqKey="Arnold C">C Arnold</name></author><author><name sortKey="Matthews, Lj" uniqKey="Matthews L">LJ Matthews</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nunn, Cl" uniqKey="Nunn C">CL Nunn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Md" uniqKey="Boyer M">MD Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Houde, P" uniqKey="Houde P">P Houde</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kay, Rf" uniqKey="Kay R">RF Kay</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kistler, L" uniqKey="Kistler L">L Kistler</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Springer, Ms" uniqKey="Springer M">MS Springer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Strasser, E" uniqKey="Strasser E">E Strasser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delson, E" uniqKey="Delson E">E Delson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shoshani, J" uniqKey="Shoshani J">J Shoshani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Groves, Cp" uniqKey="Groves C">CP Groves</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simons, El" uniqKey="Simons E">EL Simons</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gunnell, Gf" uniqKey="Gunnell G">GF Gunnell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Frost, Sr" uniqKey="Frost S">SR Frost</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chase, Je" uniqKey="Chase J">JE Chase</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cooper, Rw" uniqKey="Cooper R">RW Cooper</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sargis, Ej" uniqKey="Sargis E">EJ Sargis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sargis, Ej" uniqKey="Sargis E">EJ Sargis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sargis, Ej" uniqKey="Sargis E">EJ Sargis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sargis, Ej" uniqKey="Sargis E">EJ Sargis</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Silcox, Mt" uniqKey="Silcox M">MT Silcox</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gunnell, Gf" uniqKey="Gunnell G">GF Gunnell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chester, Sgb" uniqKey="Chester S">SGB Chester</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sussman, Rw" uniqKey="Sussman R">RW Sussman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rasmussen, Dt" uniqKey="Rasmussen D">DT Rasmussen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Raven, Ph" uniqKey="Raven P">PH Raven</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chester, Sgb" uniqKey="Chester S">SGB Chester</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bloch, Ji" uniqKey="Bloch J">JI Bloch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyer, Dm" uniqKey="Boyer D">DM Boyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clemens, Wa" uniqKey="Clemens W">WA Clemens</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Wp" uniqKey="Maddison W">WP Maddison</name></author><author><name sortKey="Donoghue, Mj" uniqKey="Donoghue M">MJ Donoghue</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Dr" uniqKey="Maddison D">DR Maddison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jane Ka, Je" uniqKey="Jane Ka J">JE Janečka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miller, W" uniqKey="Miller W">W Miller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pringle, Th" uniqKey="Pringle T">TH Pringle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wiens, F" uniqKey="Wiens F">F Wiens</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zitzmann, A" uniqKey="Zitzmann A">A Zitzmann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Helgen, Km" uniqKey="Helgen K">KM Helgen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Springer, Ms" uniqKey="Springer M">MS Springer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Murphy, Wj" uniqKey="Murphy W">WJ Murphy</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Liu, L" uniqKey="Liu L">L Liu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yu, L" uniqKey="Yu L">L Yu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pearl, Dk" uniqKey="Pearl D">DK Pearl</name></author><author><name sortKey="Edwards, Sv" uniqKey="Edwards S">SV Edwards</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Wp" uniqKey="Maddison W">WP Maddison</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maddison, Dr" uniqKey="Maddison D">DR Maddison</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zehr, Sm" uniqKey="Zehr S">SM Zehr</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roach, Rg" uniqKey="Roach R">RG Roach</name></author><author><name sortKey="Haring, D" uniqKey="Haring D">D Haring</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, J" uniqKey="Taylor J">J Taylor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cameron, Fh" uniqKey="Cameron F">FH Cameron</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yoder, Ad" uniqKey="Yoder A">AD Yoder</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hammer, " uniqKey="Hammer ">Ø Hammer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harper, Dat" uniqKey="Harper D">DAT Harper</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ryan, Pd" uniqKey="Ryan P">PD Ryan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Harvey, Ph" uniqKey="Harvey P">PH Harvey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clutton Brock, Th" uniqKey="Clutton Brock T">TH Clutton-Brock</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">R Soc Open Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">R Soc Open Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">RSOS</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">royopensci</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Royal Society Open Science</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2054-5703</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The Royal Society Publishing</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">26473056</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4593690</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rsos.150340</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">rsos150340</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="hwp-journal-coll"><subject>1005</subject><subject>144</subject><subject>70</subject><subject>58</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Biology (Whole Organism)</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="leader"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for <italic>Darwinius</italic></article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="short">New growth model for Darwinius</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>López-Torres</surname><given-names>Sergi</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Schillaci</surname><given-names>Michael A.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>Mary T.</given-names></name></contrib></contrib-group><aff><addr-line>Department of Anthropology</addr-line>,<institution>University of Toronto Scarborough</institution>,<addr-line>1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1C 1A4</addr-line></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">Author for correspondence: Sergi López-Torres e-mail: <email>sergi.lopeztorres@mail.utoronto.ca</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>9</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>9</day><month>9</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>9</day><month>9</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on the
<volume>2</volume><issue>9</issue><elocation-id>150340</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>13</day><month>7</month><year>2015</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>11</day><month>8</month><year>2015</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement></copyright-statement><copyright-year>2015</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>© 2015 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="rsos150340.pdf"></self-uri><self-uri content-type="reviewer_comments" xlink:href="rsos150340_review_history.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><p><italic>Darwinius</italic> is an adapoid primate from the Eocene of Germany, and its only known specimen represents the most complete fossil primate ever found. Its describers hypothesized a close relationship to Anthropoidea, and using a <italic>Saimiri</italic> model estimated its age at death. This study reconstructs the ancestral permanent dental eruption sequences for basal Euprimates, Haplorhini, Anthropoidea, and stem and crown Strepsirrhini. The results show that the ancestral sequences for the basal euprimate, haplorhine and stem strepsirrhine are identical, and similar to that of <italic>Darwinius</italic>. However, <italic>Darwinius</italic> differs from anthropoids by exhibiting early development of the lower third molars relative to the lower third and fourth premolars. The eruption of the lower second premolar marks the point of interruption of the sequence in <italic>Darwinius</italic>. The anthropoid <italic>Saimiri</italic> as a model is therefore problematic because it exhibits a delayed eruption of P<sub>2</sub>. Here, an alternative strepsirrhine model based on <italic>Eulemur</italic> and <italic>Varecia</italic> is presented. Our proposed model shows an older age at death than previously suggested (1.05–1.14 years), while the range for adult weight is entirely below the range proposed previously. This alternative model is more consistent with hypotheses supporting a stronger relationship between adapoids and strepsirrhines.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Adapoidea</kwd><kwd>Strepsirrhini</kwd><kwd>Haplorhini</kwd><kwd>Anthropoidea</kwd><kwd>Eocene</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group id="funding-1"><funding-source>Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
<named-content content-type="funder-id">http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000038</named-content></funding-source></award-group></funding-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>cover-date</meta-name><meta-value>September , 2015</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="s1"><label>1.</label><title>Background</title><p>Adapoids were medium-sized, arboreal euprimates, widespread throughout portions of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America from the Early Eocene to the Late Miocene. Adapoids were a very diverse group, comprising six families and more than 100 species [<xref rid="RSOS150340C1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]. Despite receiving considerable attention in the literature, the evolutionary relationships of adapoids to modern strepsirrhines or haplorhines remain unclear. Currently, two opposing hypotheses predominate: (i) the Adapoid–Anthropoid hypothesis [<xref rid="RSOS150340C4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] and (ii) the Adapoid–Strepsirrhine hypothesis [<xref rid="RSOS150340C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>].</p><p>The Adapoid–Strepsirrhine hypothesis has been more broadly accepted for the past two decades, based on the fact that it is recovered in all broadly sampled, recent phylogenetic analyses [<xref rid="RSOS150340C22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>]. However, the debate surrounding the phylogenetic position of adapoids was thrust back into prominence with the description of the most complete fossil primate skeleton, the caenopithecid adapoid <italic>Darwinius masillae</italic>. Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] proposed a stronger relationship between <italic>Darwinius</italic> and haplorhines, and Gingerich <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>] later united it specifically with anthropoids. Since then, the biology and the evolutionary relationships of <italic>Darwinius</italic> and adapoids to modern primates have been discussed extensively in the literature (e.g. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>]). An area that has received much less treatment than the question of <italic>Darwinius</italic>' phylogenetic position is the age model used [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] to reconstruct its body mass and age at death. This paper considers the appropriateness of anthropoids generally, and <italic>Saimiri</italic> specifically, with respect to choosing an appropriate model for <italic>Darwninius</italic>' development, and also assesses the relevance of growth data to the phylogenetic debates.</p><sec id="s1a"><label>1.1</label><title>Relevance of dental eruption sequences in primate life history</title><p>Life-history analysis assesses the chronology of development and reproduction throughout a species' lifetime, from conception to death. The pattern and timing of tooth emergence known for extant primates can be used to broadly infer the life history of fossil groups [<xref rid="RSOS150340C37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>]. This is particularly useful for fossil taxa, in which the dentition is the primary and most reliable gauge of ontogeny [<xref rid="RSOS150340C39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>]. The relevance of the dentition as a source of information to explain life history relies on the fact that it is not strongly influenced by environment [<xref rid="RSOS150340C40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>]. There is also a relationship between the sequence of dental eruption and the overall pace of growth, maturation and other aspects of primate life history [<xref rid="RSOS150340C41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>]. For example, M<sub>1</sub> is the first permanent tooth to erupt in primates, and the timing of its emergence is highly correlated with adult brain weight, body weight and probably reflects infant precociality [<xref rid="RSOS150340C40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>]. In order to use data from dental eruption sequences in modern taxa to form inferences about a fossil, it is necessary to define the point of interruption of the sequence. Defining this point allows for modern growth trajectory data to be used to determine not only age at death but also other variables such as projected adult weight (e.g. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]).</p></sec><sec id="s1b"><label>1.2</label><title>Dental eruption and life history of <italic>Darwinius</italic></title><p>The <italic>Darwinius</italic> specimen is split into two parts: PMO 214.214 and its counterpart WDC-MG-210 [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>].<sup><xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN1">1</xref></sup> The specimens, altogether nicknamed ‘Ida’, come from the site of Messel (near Darmstadt, Germany; 47.5 Ma [<xref rid="RSOS150340C43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>]). The individual was a weaned and independently feeding juvenile, with an erupted M<sub>1</sub> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]. Based on the absence of a baculum, the specimen has been interpreted as female [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], although it is possible that this element was lost (e.g. along with the left lower limb below the knee) or had not fully developed at the time of the animal's death.</p><p>The preserved dentition (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS150340F1">figure 1</xref>) allows for several inferences about the permanent dental eruption sequence. We follow Gingerich & Smith's [<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>] inference that P<sub>2</sub> is an adult tooth, and Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] in considering it to be the last tooth to have emerged before death. It is known that variability in the premolar eruption sequence is common in some New World monkeys, such as in <italic>Callicebus</italic>, <italic>Alouatta</italic>, <italic>Saimiri</italic>, <italic>Callithrix</italic>, <italic>Mico</italic>, <italic>Saguinus</italic> and <italic>Cebus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>]. However, there is no intraspecific variability reported in the presence of P<sub>2</sub> in adapoids [<xref rid="RSOS150340C48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>], and no reported variation in eruption sequences [<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]. Therefore, <italic>a priori</italic>, there is no empirical basis for believing the eruption of P<sub>2</sub> in <italic>Darwinius</italic> is variable, or that P<sub>2</sub> erupted unusually early or late in ‘Ida’. We are additionally assuming that dP<sub>2</sub> is replaced by P<sub>2</sub> in ‘Ida’, as it is in modern primates that retain this tooth. It is possible that this is an incorrect assumption, and that P<sub>2</sub> emerged without having a deciduous precursor, in a manner similar to P<sub>1</sub> in many living mammals [<xref rid="RSOS150340C50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>]. However, loss of P<sub>1</sub> replacement is inferred to be a very ancient feature in mammalian evolution, based on its absence in even some non-eutherians (e.g. <italic>Didelphis</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>]), whereas in all adapoids for which there are adequate data, P<sub>2</sub> is known to be replaced [<xref rid="RSOS150340C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]. As such, arguing for a lack of a deciduous precursor for P<sub>2</sub> would require the assumption that this particular lineage developed a peculiar homoplasy, not observed in living primates. Although this is of course possible, in the absence of any data it seems more parsimonious to assume that <italic>Darwinius</italic> was a typical adapoid and replaced its P<sub>2</sub>. It is worth noting that in applying a <italic>Saimiri</italic> model, or indeed a model based on any living primate (e.g. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]), this same assumption is being made.
<fig id="RSOS150340F1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>Radiograph of the right side of the skull of <italic>Darwinius masillae</italic> showing the deciduous (indicated with a ‘d’) and permanent teeth. Adapted from Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], fig. 5.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="rsos150340-g1"></graphic></fig></p><p>Following from this inference, the teeth of <italic>Darwinius</italic> can be divided in two sets: (M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> P<sub>2</sub>), which are adult and erupted, and (I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub>), which are in various stages of development and have yet to erupt, with the point of interruption in the sequence occurring after the eruption of P<sub>2</sub> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]. Using the dental eruption sequence of the New World anthropoid <italic>Saimiri</italic> as a model, Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] estimated an age at death between 9 and 10 months based on the interruption of the dental eruption sequence, and a projected adult weight between 650 and 900 g. For the unerupted teeth, it is also possible to make certain inferences about their likely place in the sequence based on their degree of development. For example, the crown of M<sub>3</sub> is completely formed and the tooth is in process of erupting. It was probably only covered by soft tissue, although it still lacks mineralized roots [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]. Therefore, this would place the timing of eruption of M<sub>3</sub> early in the sequence.</p><p>The goals of the present study are to reassess the age estimate for <italic>Darwinius</italic> by using ancestral reconstruction of dental eruption sequences, and to further explore the life history of <italic>Darwinius</italic>. Specifically, we assess the validity of using the anthropoid (<italic>Saimiri</italic>) model for inferring the age and life history of <italic>Darwinius</italic>.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods" id="s2"><label>2.</label><title>Material and methods</title><p>Ancestral state reconstruction has been embraced by both systematists and evolutionary biologists for many years [<xref rid="RSOS150340C52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref>] as a way of making inferences about the pattern of evolution of particular traits or character complexes. Indeed its implementation can be traced back almost 30 years to the work of Felsenstein [<xref rid="RSOS150340C53" ref-type="bibr">53</xref>]. Since then, this method has been applied extensively by many authors in the field of palaeontology (e.g. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C54" ref-type="bibr">54</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>]). For the ancestral state reconstruction analysis in this study, dental eruption sequences for 97 fossil and extant taxa were used, including Primates, Scandentia and Soricomorpha (<xref ref-type="table" rid="RSOS150340TB1">table 1</xref>). A matrix of 14 characters related to eruption sequences was created (<xref ref-type="table" rid="RSOS150340TB2">table 2</xref>). The 14 characters used in our matrix constitute the minimum number of informative characters needed to allow the reconstruction of eruption sequences. These characters code for presence or absence of certain teeth, and relative timing of eruption of teeth in different positions. By reconstructing the ancestral states for every character, it is possible, from the information they provide, to infer the order of dental eruption at any particular node on the tree. Although not all of the characters are independent, because of the way they are defined, it is impossible for them to generate conflicting reconstructions. For example, in electronic supplementary material, table S2, the ancestral reconstruction for the euprimate node for character 6 ‘Eruption of I<sub>1</sub> relative to the earliest premolar’ recovers both states (i.e. I<sub>1</sub> erupting before or after the earliest premolar), instead of one ancestral state. However, because all incisors erupt unequivocally before M<sub>2</sub> (character 8, state 3) and all premolars erupt unequivocally after M<sub>2</sub> (character 12, state 0), the ancestral state for character 6 resolves as I<sub>1</sub> erupting before the earliest premolar.
<table-wrap id="RSOS150340TB1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>List of lower permanent dental eruption sequences for 97 taxa. Taxa marked with an asterisk (*) had published information on only upper dentition. The time of eruption between lower and upper dentition differs, but the sequence of eruption is usually the same for both dentitions. Parentheses () group teeth that in a fossil are either all emerged or all have not emerged yet. Square brackets [ ] surround teeth when actual sequence has not yet been resolved. Simultaneous eruptions are indicated with teeth united by hyphens, i.e. toothcombs.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="left" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">taxon</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">permanent dental eruption sequence</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold><italic>Darwinius masillae</italic></bold>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(M</bold><sub><bold>1</bold></sub><bold>M</bold><sub><bold>2</bold></sub><bold>I</bold><sub><bold>1</bold></sub><bold>P</bold><sub><bold>2</bold></sub><bold>)</bold><bold>(I</bold><sub><bold>2</bold></sub><bold>C M</bold><sub><bold>3</bold></sub><bold>P</bold><sub><bold>4</bold></sub><bold>P</bold><sub><bold>3</bold></sub><bold>)</bold><sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Dymecodon pilirostris</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> [P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] I<sub>1</sub> C P<sub>1</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Tupaia glis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> I<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> [I<sub>1</sub> C] P<sub>3</sub> I<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Acidomomys hebeticus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> (I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>3</sub>) (I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub>)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plesiadapidae [<xref rid="RSOS150340C67" ref-type="bibr">67</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub>] [M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Microcebus murinus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Mirza coquereli</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cheirogaleus major</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cheirogaleus medius</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Allocebus trichotis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Megaladapis edwardsi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P M<sub>3</sub> PP</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Lepilemur mustelinus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Archaeolemur majori</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Archaeolemur edwardsi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> PP M<sub>3</sub> IIP</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Hadropithecus stenognathus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Avahi laniger</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Propithecus verreauxi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Propithecus diadema</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Hapalemur griseus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Lemur catta</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Eulemur mongoz</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Eulemur rufus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Eulemur macaco</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Varecia</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Otolemur crassicaudatus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Sciurocheirus alleni</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Galago senegalensis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Galago gallarum</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Galago moholi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Galagoides demidovii</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Loris tardigradus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Nycticebus javanicus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Nycticebus coucang</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C-M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Perodicticus potto</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>1</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Notharctus tenebrosus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> P<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Adapis parisiensis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> P<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Sivaladapis nagrii</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> P<sub>2</sub> (C P<sub>4</sub>) P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tarsiidae [<xref rid="RSOS150340C76" ref-type="bibr">76</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> P<sub>2</sub>] I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub>-C P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Homunculus patagonicus</italic>* [<xref rid="RSOS150340C77" ref-type="bibr">77</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub>] M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saguinus fuscicollis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C78" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saguinus oedipus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> [I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub>] [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saguinus midas</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saguinus mystax</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saguinus bicolor</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> [I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Leontopithecus</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Callimico goeldii</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> [M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub>] [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cebuella pygmaea</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> [M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub>] [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub>] C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Callithrix jacchus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> [I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] P<sub>3</sub> [P<sub>2</sub> C]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Mico argentatus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> [M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub>] [I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Mico humeralifer</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> [I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Aotus trivirgatus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>3</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cebus capucinus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>2</sub> [C M<sub>3</sub>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cebus albifrons</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>? [C M<sub>3</sub>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Sapajus apella</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saimiri sciureus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Alouatta</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> [P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>3</sub>] C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Stirtonia victoriae</italic>* [<xref rid="RSOS150340C47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub>) M<sub>2</sub> (P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Lagothrix</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub>? P<sub>4</sub>? M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Ateles</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Brachyteles</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>? C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chiropotes</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>? C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cacajao</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub>? P<sub>3</sub>? P<sub>4</sub>? M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pithecia</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Callicebus</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Apidium phiomense</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> (P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub>) C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Parapithecus grangeri</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> (P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub>) C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chlorocebus pygerythrus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Cercopithecus ascanius</italic>* [<xref rid="RSOS150340C82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> [P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Macaca nemestrina</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Macaca mulatta</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Macaca fascicularis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> II M<sub>2</sub> PP M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Paradolichopithecus arvernensis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Papio anubis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> C [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub>] M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Papio cynocephalus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Papio hamadryas hamadryas</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> I<sub>2</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Theropithecus gelada</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C86" ref-type="bibr">86</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Lophocebus albigena</italic>* [<xref rid="RSOS150340C82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> [P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] M<sub>2</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Mandrillus sphinx</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Kuseracolobus aramisi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Mesopithecus pentelicus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>2</sub> PP C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Piliocolobus badius</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> [I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub>] [P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub>] [C M<sub>3</sub>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Procolobus verus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Colobus angolensis</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Colobus guereza</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Presbytis</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Semnopithecus priam</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Trachypithecus</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> [I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub>] P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> [C M<sub>3</sub>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Nasalis larvatus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C89" ref-type="bibr">89</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> [PP C] M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pygathrix</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C89" ref-type="bibr">89</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Victoriapithecus macinnesi</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> PP</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Hylobates lar</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Symphalangus syndactylus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pongo</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Gorilla</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pan troglodytes</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> [P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] M<sub>3</sub> C</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Australopithecus africanus</italic>[<xref rid="RSOS150340C91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> C M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Homo sapiens</italic> (Australian aboriginal) [<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>] I<sub>2</sub> C P<sub>3</sub> [M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub>] M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Homo sapiens</italic> (White American) [<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">[I<sub>1</sub> M<sub>1</sub>] I<sub>2</sub> [C P<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> M<sub>2</sub>] M<sub>3</sub></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p><sup>a</sup>I<sub>2</sub> to P<sub>3</sub> are not erupted.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="RSOS150340TB2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 2.</label><caption><p>Description of the characters used in the ancestral state reconstruction analysis. Characters are treated as unweighted and unordered.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="left" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">no.</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">character</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">states</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of replacement teeth</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: after molar eruption; 1: first erupted replacement tooth erupts before the last erupted molar</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">premolar eruption sequence</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: 2-3-4; 1: 2-4-3; 2: 4-2-3; 3: 4-3-2; 4: absence of P<sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">premolar eruption sequence (if no P<sub>2</sub>)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: 3-4; 0: 4-3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of P<sub>2</sub> relative to M<sub>3</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: P<sub>2</sub> erupts after M<sub>3</sub>; 1: P<sub>2</sub> erupts before M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of P<sub>3</sub> relative to M<sub>3</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: P<sub>3</sub> erupts after M<sub>3</sub>; 1: P<sub>3</sub> erupts before M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of I<sub>1</sub> relative to the earliest premolar</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: I<sub>1</sub> erupts after the earliest premolar; 1: I<sub>1</sub> erupts before the earliest premolar</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">simultaneous eruption of I<sub>1</sub>, I<sub>2</sub>, and C (or I<sub>1</sub> and I<sub>2</sub> only)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: not simultaneous; 1: simultaneous</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">number of incisors erupting after M<sub>2</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: 3; 1: 2; 2: 1; 3: 0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">number of premolars erupting after M<sub>3</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: 3; 1: 2; 2: 1; 3: 0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of the incisors relative to M<sub>3</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: all incisors erupt after M<sub>3</sub>; 1: M<sub>3</sub> erupts between two incisors; 2: all incisors erupt before M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of the incisors relative to the premolars</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: the earliest incisor erupts after the latest premolar; 1: intermediate situation; 2: the latest incisor erupts before the earliest premolar</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of the premolars relative to M*<sub>2</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: all premolars erupt after M<sub>2</sub>; 1: at least one premolar erupts before M<sub>2</sub>. (*) Coded as inapplicable if P<sub>1</sub> is present</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of M<sub>1</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: first tooth to erupt; 1: not the first tooth to erupt</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">eruption of P<sub>4</sub> relative to M<sub>3</sub></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0: P<sub>4</sub> erupts after M<sub>3</sub>; 1: P<sub>4</sub> erupts before M<sub>3</sub></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></p><p>The cladogram (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS150340F2">figure 2</xref>) used in this analysis is a supertree based on Marivaux <italic>et al</italic>. (used for placing <italic>Sivaladapis</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref>]), Gunnell (for <italic>Notharctus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C93" ref-type="bibr">93</xref>]), Arnold <italic>et al</italic>. (for all living primates [94; v. 3], Silcox <italic>et al</italic>. (for plesiadapiforms and <italic>Tupaia</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref>]), Steiper & Seiffert (for <italic>Victoriapithecus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>]), Kay (for <italic>Stirtonia</italic> and <italic>Homunculus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref>]), Kistler <italic>et al</italic>. (for <italic>Hadropithecus</italic> and <italic>Megaladapis</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref>]) and Seiffert <italic>et al</italic>. (for <italic>Adapis</italic>, <italic>Apidium</italic> and <italic>Parapithecus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>]) (see also electronic supplementary material, text S1). Although the trees that we used are considered widely accepted, we acknowledge that there are other phylogenies that might contradict some of the positions in the tree [<xref rid="RSOS150340C28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref>]. The supertree also reflects discussions on phylogenetic relationships from Strasser & Delson (on <italic>Paradolichopithecus</italic> and <italic>Mesopithecus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C99" ref-type="bibr">99</xref>]), Shoshani <italic>et al</italic>. (on <italic>Archaeolemur</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref>]) and Frost (on <italic>Kuseracolobus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref>]). Dental eruption sequences exist for two other platyrrhine species that are not included in the analysis, <italic>Saguinus nigricollis</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref>] and <italic>S. graellsi</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>], but Arnold <italic>et al</italic>.'s [<xref rid="RSOS150340C94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref>] tree did not include them. Because all <italic>Saguinus</italic> species have very similar dental eruption sequences, we are confident that the exclusion of these two species would not alter the reconstruction of the ancestral anthropoid condition. The outgroups used for the ancestral euprimate node were plesiadapiform taxa. Plesiadapiforms were a group of small, arboreal, archaic mammals widespread during the Palaeocene and the Eocene throughout North America, Europe and Asia. Representatives of plesiadapiforms in our tree include plesiadapids and paromomyids. Here, plesiadapiforms are considered stem primates (following [<xref rid="RSOS150340C103" ref-type="bibr">103</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS150340C114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref>]). A representative of Scandentia, <italic>Tupaia glis</italic>, as outgroup for Primates (including plesiadapiformes) has been used. Although ideally we would have also included a dermopteran taxon, no permanent dental eruption sequences for dermopterans have been published. Although the lack of dermopterans in the cladogram would have been problematic if the ancestral primate node was reconstructed, the lowest node reconstructed is the ancestral euprimate node. Because plesiadapiforms are inferred to be closer to Euprimates than any other groups (following Silcox <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref>]), under the Outgroup Algorithm [<xref rid="RSOS150340C115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref>] they have the greatest impact on polarizing the euprimate node, so it is very unlikely for dermopterans to produce a new unequivocal resolution at that node. Also, the most comprehensive relevant study supports Sundatheria (the combined clade of Scandentia and Dermoptera) as the living sister group of Primates [<xref rid="RSOS150340C51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>], rather than Dermoptera alone [<xref rid="RSOS150340C116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref>] or Scandentia alone [<xref rid="RSOS150340C117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref>]. This makes Dermoptera no more relevant than the included scandentian in reconstructing the basal euprimate node. The dental eruption sequence of <italic>Dymecodon pilirostris</italic> (Soricomorpha) has been added as a primitive representation of a mammal dental eruption sequence to further constrain the basal euprimate node. Temporal branch length information for living taxa was taken from Arnold <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref>]. The branch lengths for fossil taxa originate from many sources and the choices of dates of appearance of lineages are reported and explained in electronic supplementary material, table S4, and electronic supplementary material, figure S2.
<fig id="RSOS150340F2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>Phylogenetic relationships of the 97 fossil and extant taxa used in this analysis. The ancestral nodes for Euprimates, stem Strepsirrhini, crown Strepsirrhini, Haplorhini and Anthropoidea are indicated. Combined cladogram from Marivaux <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref>], Gunnell [<xref rid="RSOS150340C93" ref-type="bibr">93</xref>], Arnold <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref>], Silcox <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref>], Steiper & Seiffert [<xref rid="RSOS150340C27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>], Kay [<xref rid="RSOS150340C96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref>], Kistler <italic>et al.</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref>] and Seiffert <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>].</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="rsos150340-g2"></graphic></fig></p><p>Ancestral state reconstructions were executed in the M<sc>esquite</sc> v. 3.01 software package [<xref rid="RSOS150340C118" ref-type="bibr">118</xref>], using parsimony. The generalized parsimony algorithm can be applied to optimization of a character of unknown polarity onto a rooted tree, and no additional algorithmic complications are presented by trees containing polytomies [<xref rid="RSOS150340C55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>]. M<sc>esquite</sc> also allows missing data when using the parsimony algorithm, but cannot do likelihood calculations with gaps or soft polytomies. Because the data include a significant proportion of relevant fossil taxa, which sometimes produce partially complete eruption sequences, it is important to apply software and an algorithm that can accommodate these limitations, making parsimony the best option. Ancestral permanent dental eruption sequences were reconstructed for five hypothetical ancestors: (i) Euprimates, (ii) stem Strepsirrhini, (iii) crown Strepsirrhini, (iv) Haplorhini, and (v) Anthropoidea. For the ancestral state reconstruction, only lower permanent dental eruption sequences were used, because they are more often reported in the literature, thus increasing the number of taxa available for analysis. Canines were not included in the reconstruction because their time of eruption appears to be influenced by sexual dimorphism [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>]. Although some primitive primates retain P<sub>1</sub>, eruption data on first premolars are not included in this analysis because the loss of this tooth early in primate evolution renders this character ambiguous at several nodes. To generate the ancestral eruption sequences, all hypothetical ancestors were assumed to have a P<sub>2</sub>. The ambiguities in ancestral state reconstructions for the characters ‘Eruption of P<sub>2</sub> relative to M<sub>3</sub>’, ‘Eruption of I<sub>1</sub> relative to the earliest premolar’ and ‘Eruption of incisors relative to premolars’ are resolved with restrictions implied by other characters. For the five nodes studied here, the ancestral state reconstructions result in one permanent dental eruption sequence for each hypothetical ancestor. The ancestral reconstruction analysis was also run without including fossil data (see electronic supplementary material, figure S1 and text S2), to evaluate the effect of fossils on the reconstruction.</p><p>As discussed in detail below, several lemurids that were similar to <italic>Darwinius</italic> in body mass and life-history variables were chosen as sources of comparative data. Age-specific body mass data for <italic>Eulemur macaco</italic>, <italic>Eulemur rufus</italic> and <italic>Varecia variegata</italic> (<italic>V. v. variegata</italic>) were taken from the Duke Lemur Center (DLC) database [<xref rid="RSOS150340C119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref>]. Although ‘Ida’ has been inferred to be female [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], because this inference is based on negative evidence (see above), we have followed the conservative course of including both male and female data in our analysis. None of the living species are known to be sexually dimorphic, and use of just the female data led to extremely similar results (not shown). The percentage of adult body mass achieved at ‘Ida's’ age at death was determined using the age-specific mass estimated from the Lowess regressions from the three lemurid species, and adult mean body mass estimates from each regression. Lowess regressions were obtained using PAST [<xref rid="RSOS150340C120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref>]. Dental eruption times for the three lemurids are taken from Smith <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>].</p><p>It is important to note that some of the specimens from which the data were collected in Eaglen [<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>], and subsequently reported in Smith <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>] are currently assigned to other taxa. What Eaglen [<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>] classifies as <italic>Eulemur fulvus</italic> is currently ascribed to <italic>E. rufus</italic> according to the DLC, and consequently will be referred to as <italic>E. rufus</italic> in this paper. Also, the <italic>V. variegata</italic> sample in Eaglen [<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>] is composed of a mixture of individuals of <italic>V. variegata</italic> and hybrids of <italic>V. variegata</italic> and <italic>V. rubra</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref>]. Therefore, in this paper we are assigning the dental eruption sequence for these specimens to the genus <italic>Varecia</italic> in general.</p><p>The dental eruption sequence that we use for <italic>Saimiri</italic> (M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub>) is the same one as that used by Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], as the purpose of this paper is to reassess the viability of the original anthropoid model. However, another eruption sequence is known for <italic>Saimiri</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>], which differs in the relative time of eruption of the third molar (M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub>). While we use Franzen <italic>et al</italic>.'s [<xref rid="RSOS150340C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>] eruption sequence throughout the paper, we discuss in the conclusion how Henderson's [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>] eruption sequence would influence conclusions about the <italic>Saimiri</italic> model.</p></sec><sec id="s3"><label>3.</label><title>Results and discussion</title><sec id="s3a"><label>3.1</label><title>Ancestral reconstruction of permanent dental eruption sequences</title><p>Ancestral dental eruption sequences were reconstructed for five nodes (euprimates, stem strepsirrhines, crown strepsirrhines, haplorhines and anthropoids; <xref ref-type="table" rid="RSOS150340TB3">table 3</xref>), based on the ancestral state reconstruction for the 14 characters (see electronic supplementary material, table S2).
<table-wrap id="RSOS150340TB3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Table 3.</label><caption><p>Reconstructed ancestral permanent dental eruption sequences for five primate nodes (see electronic supplementary material, table S2 for the nodal reconstructions on which these sequences were based). Parentheses () group teeth that in a fossil are either all emerged or all have not emerged yet.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="left" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ancestral node</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ancestral permanent dental eruption sequence</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Euprimates</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">stem Strepsirrhini</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">crown Strepsirrhini</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Haplorhini</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anthropoidea</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">M<sub>1</sub> I<sub>1</sub> I<sub>2</sub> M<sub>2</sub> P<sub>2</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub> M<sub>3</sub></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Darwinius masillae</italic></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">(M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub> I<sub>1</sub> P<sub>2</sub>) (I<sub>2</sub> C M<sub>3</sub> P<sub>4</sub> P<sub>3</sub>)<sup>a</sup></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p><sup>a</sup>I<sub>2</sub> to P<sub>3</sub> are not erupted.
</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>The earliest members of Adapoidea and Omomyoidea are very similar in dental morphology [<xref rid="RSOS150340C49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>], so unsurprisingly there is little variation in eruption sequence inferred for the ancestral nodes. Our ancestral reconstruction suggests two clear trends in the evolution of eruption sequences. The strepsirrhine line is characterized by a primitive dental eruption sequence at the base of stem Strepsirrhini that matches the one inferred for the basal euprimate. Subsequently, this primitive sequence is modified in crown strepsirrhines by the simultaneous eruption of the incisors, along with the canine, in association with the evolution of the toothcomb. The haplorhine line is similarly marked by a primitive basal eruption sequence that resembles the basal euprimate sequence, and then it is characterized by a late eruption of M<sub>3</sub> at the base of anthropoids. There are several genera of anthropoids in which M<sub>3</sub> erupts comparatively early (<italic>Saimiri</italic>, <italic>Aotus</italic>, <italic>Pithecia</italic>, <italic>Pygathrix</italic> and <italic>Presbytis</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C89" ref-type="bibr">89</xref>]), but based on the distribution of this trait on this tree this is inferred here to represent evolutionary events occurring in the context of Anthropoidea, like the loss of M<sub>3</sub> in callitrichines. In contrast to the inferred primitive state for anthropoids, <italic>Darwinius</italic> exhibits early eruption of M<sub>3</sub> suggesting that it was more strepsirrhine-like. These results therefore make it difficult to determine the relationship of adapoids to either stem strepsirrhines or basal haplorhines, because they both present the same dental eruption sequence. However, these results are less consistent with the Adapoid–Anthropoid hypothesis because adapoids appear to lack the delay of M<sub>3</sub> eruption, a synapomorphic characteristic of primitive anthropoids.</p><p>The crown strepsirrhines show another distinctive feature: the presence of a toothcomb. The eruption of a toothcomb results in the almost simultaneous emergence of the incisors and the canine. The eruption of the toothcomb is generally early for crown strepsirrhines [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>], with the exception of <italic>Archaeolemur edwardsi</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>]. However, the pattern of eruption for the toothcomb does not differ markedly from the eruption pattern of incisors for euprimates, stem strepsirrhines or <italic>Darwinius</italic>, all of which share an early and contiguous eruption of incisors.</p><p>The ancestral reconstruction analysis not including fossil taxa provides similar results (electronic supplementary material, table S3), but there is a substantial difference in the final reconstruction. In the analysis that excludes fossils it is not possible to unequivocally reconstruct the primitive premolar eruption sequence for Anthropoidea, with four different states being inferred to be equally parsimonious. This is particularly problematic because the time of eruption of P<sub>2</sub> is crucial for the study of life history of <italic>Darwinius</italic> specifically. Therefore, the inclusion of fossil data in the analysis is required to resolve relevant ancestral state reconstructions.</p></sec><sec id="s3b"><label>3.2</label><title>Reassessment of the <italic>Saimiri</italic> model</title><p>Based on the contrasts between anthropoids and <italic>Darwinius</italic> in the ancestral state reconstruction of dental eruption patterns, <italic>Saimiri</italic> may not be a good model for the growth of <italic>Darwinius</italic>, as previously proposed by Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]. But, contrary to the general anthropoid trend, <italic>Saimiri</italic> is a fast-growing platyrrhine that, like <italic>Darwinius</italic>, exibits an early eruption of M<sub>3</sub> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>]. The ancestral state reconstruction analysis, however, indicates that this early eruption of the third molar appears secondarily in <italic>Saimiri</italic>. Because the hypothesized relationships of <italic>Darwinius</italic> are to stem anthropoids [<xref rid="RSOS150340C30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>], not Platyrrhini generally, or <italic>Saimiri</italic> specifically, this similarity would necessarily be a case of homoplasy. Also, cebids generally show a late eruption of P<sub>2</sub> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>], with the exception of <italic>Cebus albifrons</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>], in which it appears to be quite variable [<xref rid="RSOS150340C72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>]. <italic>Saimiri</italic> especially stands out among the Cebidae for having one of the latest eruptions of the second premolar. Therefore, this pattern contrasts markedly with that observed in <italic>Darwinius</italic>, in which this tooth is already erupted, with five teeth still remaining unerupted. This has profound implications for calculating the age at death, because it is after the eruption of P<sub>2</sub> when the sequence is interrupted by death in <italic>Darwinius</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]. It is worth noting that Henderson [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>] provides another dental eruption sequence for <italic>Saimiri</italic> in which the relative time of eruption of the M<sub>3</sub> is markedly later. One of the most convincing arguments in favour of the <italic>Saimiri</italic> model is that squirrel monkeys have, according to the sequence used in Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], one of the most strepsirrhine-like dental eruption sequences among anthropoids, precisely because of an earlier relative eruption of M<sub>3</sub>. In the light of this fact, if Henderson's [<xref rid="RSOS150340C79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>] sequence is correct, <italic>Saimiri</italic> would make an even less appropriate model.</p><p>By contrast, both stem strepsirrhines and basal haplorhines would make good models for the growth of <italic>Darwinius</italic>, because of their primitive-looking dental sequences. The only non-anthropoid haplorhine taxa in our sample are tarsiids, which exhibit a dental eruption sequence (<xref ref-type="table" rid="RSOS150340TB1">table 1</xref>) which differs from that inferred for the basal haplorrhine (i.e. extremely early eruption of P<sub>2</sub>, lack of I<sub>2</sub>, and simultaneous eruption of M<sub>3</sub> and C), making tarsiers a poor choice as model taxa. On the other hand, stem strepsirrhines and <italic>Darwinius</italic> also share early eruption of M<sub>3</sub> and P<sub>2</sub>. Given that stem strepsirrhines are known only from extinct taxa, without direct information available about their age-specific growth and development, a new growth model based on living strepsirrhines is needed for <italic>Darwinius</italic>.</p><p>Three families of strepsirrhines primitively share a dental eruption sequence similar to that of <italic>Darwinius</italic>: Lemuridae, Galagidae and Cheirogaleidae [<xref rid="RSOS150340C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS150340C74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]. Galagidae and Cheirogaleidae are significantly smaller than caenopithecids [<xref rid="RSOS150340C3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]. Generally, in mammals, most life-history variables are correlated to body mass [<xref rid="RSOS150340C121" ref-type="bibr">121</xref>], making these very small primates inappropriate models for <italic>Darwinius</italic>. On the other hand, lemurids exhibit similar body masses to caenopithecids [<xref rid="RSOS150340C3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>], which makes them a more reasonable model. Dental eruption sequences are known from six lemurids: <italic>Lemur catta</italic>, <italic>Hapalemur griseus</italic>, <italic>E. rufus</italic>, <italic>E. macaco</italic>, <italic>E. mongoz</italic> and <italic>Varecia</italic> sp. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>]. However, <italic>L. catta</italic> and <italic>H. griseus</italic> would make poor models for the growth of <italic>Darwinius</italic> because the eruption of P<sub>2</sub> in these two species occurs much later in the sequence, and, as discussed above, this tooth is of critical importance in determining the age at death of this particular specimen. <italic>Lemur catta</italic> and <italic>H. griseus</italic> also possess a premolar eruption sequence of 4-3-2, which is derived in the context of Lemuridae, instead of the primitive 2-4-3 pattern found in the rest of lemurids and stem strepsirrhines. Among the three <italic>Eulemur</italic> species, <italic>E. mongoz</italic> differs the most from <italic>Darwinius</italic> in having a late eruption of P<sub>2</sub>. It would be preferable to apply a model based on species with earlier P<sub>2</sub> eruptions. Like <italic>E. rufus</italic> and <italic>E. macaco</italic>, <italic>Varecia</italic> has a 2-4-3 premolar eruption pattern and an early P<sub>2</sub> eruption. Additionally, these fast-growing primates are fairly well studied, making them the best living models available for the growth of <italic>Darwinius</italic>.</p><p>The age of eruption of P<sub>2</sub> in <italic>E. rufus</italic> is 1.14 years, 1.05 years in <italic>E. macaco</italic> and 1.06 years in <italic>Varecia</italic>. Therefore, the age at death of <italic>Darwinius</italic> based on this model would have been between 1.05 and 1.14 years, older than previously suggested (9–10 <italic>months</italic>=0.75–0.83 years [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]).</p><p>For estimating body mass at death, we used ages at death of 1.05 years for <italic>E. macaco</italic>, 1.14 years for <italic>E. rufus</italic> and 1.06 years for <italic>Varecia</italic>. Individuals of <italic>E. macaco</italic> that aged similarly to <italic>Darwinius</italic> weigh 75.6% of the adult body mass (approx. 1876 g/2481 g; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS150340F3">figure 3</xref><italic>a</italic>), whereas individuals of <italic>E. rufus</italic> weigh 78% of the adult body mass (approx. 1699 g/2177 g; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS150340F3">figure 3</xref><italic>b</italic>). Finally, <italic>V. variegata</italic> achieves 77.7% of the adult body mass at the relevant age (approx. 2763 g/3556 g; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS150340F3">figure 3</xref><italic>c</italic>). Therefore, our lemurid model suggests that ‘Ida’ would have been between the narrow range of 75.6% and 78% of her adult body mass when she died. Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [17] suggested an estimated body weight at death of 485 g. According to the new lemurid model, the projected adult body mass would be between 622 and 642 g. This is consistent with the adult body mass estimations for other caenopithecids (between 500 and 3500 g [<xref rid="RSOS150340C3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]), and falls entirely below the estimated adult mass by Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>] (650 and 900 g).
<fig id="RSOS150340F3" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>Lowess regressions illustrating patterns of ontogeny for individuals of three lemurid species from birth to the age of 8 years. Smoothing factor of 0.1 for all regressions. (<italic>a</italic>) <italic>Eulemur</italic><italic>macaco</italic>; (<italic>b</italic>) <italic>Eulemur rufus</italic>; and (<italic>c</italic>) <italic>Varecia variegata</italic>. Vertical lines indicate the supposed interruptions of the sequence in <italic>Darwinius</italic>.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="rsos150340-g3"></graphic></fig></p></sec></sec><sec id="s4"><label>4.</label><title>Conclusion</title><p>Our ancestral state reconstruction infers the same dental eruption sequences for basal Euprimates, stem Strepsirrhini and basal Haplorhini. These hypothesized primitive sequences resemble that of <italic>Darwinius</italic> in the early eruption of M<sub>3</sub> and the non-simultaneous eruption of I<sub>1</sub>-I<sub>2</sub>-C in contrast to anthropoids and crown strepsirrhines, respectively. The late eruption of M<sub>3</sub> in anthropoids and the fact that M<sub>3</sub> seems to be the next tooth to erupt in <italic>Darwinius</italic> at the moment of her death suggests that anthropoids likely do not provide the most appropriate model for estimating growth in adapoids, including <italic>Darwinius</italic>. The eruption of P<sub>2</sub> is important for defining the interruption of the sequence in this particular specimen, and the late eruption of P<sub>2</sub> in <italic>Saimiri</italic> suggests that this genus in particular does not represent a good model for <italic>Darwinius</italic>.</p><p>Our results also suggest that eruption sequences carry useful phylogenetic information. Although variable to some extent, higher level primate taxa (e.g. crown Strepsirrhini, Anthropoidea) can be grouped based on different trends in eruption sequences. Therefore, the study of eruption sequences can contribute to our understanding of primate phylogenetic relationships, in a way that allows for the incorporation of fossil material. In this case, the contrast between the inferred late eruption of M<sub>3</sub> in the common ancestor of Anthropoidea, and the advanced stage of development of this tooth in <italic>Darwinius,</italic> could be interpreted as conflicting with the Adapoid–Anthropoid hypothesis.</p><p>The lemurid model for the development of <italic>Darwinius</italic> proposed in this study does not categorically invalidate the <italic>Saimiri</italic> model. However, it is an alternative in closer agreement with the more similar dental eruption sequences found in strepsirrhines. Also, it agrees with the currently most widely supported hypothesis for adapoid relationships: the Adapoid–Strepsirrhine hypothesis. This model suggests an older age at death (1.05–1.14 years, depending on the model used) than previously proposed (0.75–0.83 years [<xref rid="RSOS150340C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]). Our model also suggests a narrower range for the projected adult weight (622–642 g) and entirely below the previously proposed (650–900 g [<xref rid="RSOS150340C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]), consistent with caenopithecid range of body masses. Although the current data on lemurid growth are sufficient for certain species of lemurids, better documentation of data on growth, and development, and eruption sequences for more lemurid species would certainly improve the quality of potential new models.</p></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD1"><caption><title>Figure S1: Phylogenetic relationships of the 79 extant taxa used in this analysis. The ancestral nodes for Euprimates, Strepsirrhini, Haplorhini, and Anthropoidea are indicated.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf" xlink:href="rsos150340supp1.pdf" orientation="portrait" id="d35e5199" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD2"><caption><title>Figure S2: Phylogenetic relationships of the 97 taxa (extant and extinct) used in this analysis. Branch numbers correspond to Table S4, which provides the reference for each branch length.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf" xlink:href="rsos150340supp2.pdf" orientation="portrait" id="d35e5207" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD3"><caption><title>Supplementary tables and text: - Table S1. Character matrix used for the ancestral state reconstruction analysis. - Table S2. Ancestral state reconstruction for five ancestral nodes (Euprimates, stem Strepsirrhini, crown Strepsirrhini, Haplorhini, and Anthropoidea) and 14 characters, including fossil data. - Table S3. Ancestral state reconstruction for four ancestral nodes (Euprimates, Strepsirrhini, Haplorhini, and Anthropoidea) and 14 characters, not including fossil data. - Table S4. Data on branch lengths for fossils and taxa. Branch numbers are from Figure S2. - Text S1. Newick timetree including fossil data. One unit equals 1 million years. - Text S2. Newick timetree not including fossil data. One unit equals 1 million years.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="docx" xlink:href="rsos150340supp3.docx" orientation="portrait" id="d35e5215" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD4"><caption><title>DLC data.xlsx</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="xlsx" xlink:href="rsos150340supp4.xlsx" orientation="portrait" id="d35e5223" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>We are grateful to S. R. Leigh and J. G. Fleagle for providing access to unpublished data. We thank K. D. Rose, M. A. O'Leary and M. Godinot for their insight on adapoid P<sub>2</sub> variability. We thank C. L. Makowski for observations relevant to the assessment of the sex of <italic>Darwinius</italic>. Thanks to K. Padian and anonymous reviewers for comments that substantially improved this paper.</p></ack><fn-group><fn id="FN1"><label>1</label><p>PMO: Geological Museum, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo; WDC-MG: Wyoming Dinosaur Center, Messel Grube collection.</p></fn></fn-group><sec id="s5"><title>Data accessibility</title><p>All supporting data are available as the electronic supplementary material.</p></sec><sec id="s6"><title>Authors' contributions</title><p>S.L.T. collected the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors conceived of the study, participated in the design of the study, participated in data analysis, interpreted the data, revised the content of the article and gave final approval for publication.</p></sec><sec id="s7"><title>Competing interests</title><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></sec><sec id="s8"><title>Funding</title><p>This work was supported by an NSERC Discovery grant to M.T.S.</p></sec><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="RSOS150340C1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sahni</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><year>1984</year><article-title>Dentition of <italic>Sivaladapis nagrii</italic> (Adapidae) from the late Miocene of India</article-title>. <source>Int. J. Primatol</source>. <volume>5</volume>, <fpage>63</fpage>–<lpage>79</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02735148">doi:10.1007/BF02735148</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C2"><label>2</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gebo</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2004</year><article-title>Adapiformes: phylogeny and adaptation</article-title>. In <source>The primate fossil record</source> (ed. <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hartwig</surname><given-names>WC</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>21</fpage>–<lpage>43</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Cambridge, UK</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C3"><label>3</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fleagle</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><source>Primate adaptation and evolution</source>, 3rd edn. <publisher-loc>San Diego, CA</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C4"><label>4</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Wortman</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name></person-group><comment>1903–1904</comment><article-title>Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh collection, Peabody Museum. Part II, primates</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Sci</source>. <volume>15</volume>, <fpage>163</fpage>–<lpage>176</lpage>, <comment>399–414, 419–436; <bold>16</bold>, 345–368; <bold>17</bold>, 23–33, 133–140, 203–214</comment> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2475/ajs.s4-15.87.163">doi:10.2475/ajs.s4-15.87.163</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C5"><label>5</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>1973</year><article-title>Anatomy of the temporal bone in the Oligocene anthropoid <italic>Apidium</italic> and the origin of Anthropoidea</article-title>. <source>Folia Primatol</source>. <volume>19</volume>, <fpage>329</fpage>–<lpage>337</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000155549">doi:10.1159/000155549</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">4768086</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C6"><label>6</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>1984</year><article-title>Primate evolution: evidence from the fossil record, comparative morphology, and molecular biology</article-title>. <source>Yearb. Phys. Anthropol</source>. <volume>27</volume>, <fpage>57</fpage>–<lpage>72</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330270504">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330270504</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C7"><label>7</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>2012</year><article-title>Primates in the Eocene</article-title>. In <source>The world at the time of Messel: puzzles in palaeobiology, palaeoenvironment, and the history of early primates</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Lehman</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schaal</surname><given-names>SFK</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>67</fpage>–<lpage>68</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Frankfurt am Main, Germany</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C8"><label>8</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schoeninger</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><year>1977</year><article-title>The fossil record and primate phylogeny</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol</source>. <volume>6</volume>, <fpage>483</fpage>–<lpage>505</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(77)80059-6">doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(77)80059-6</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C9"><label>9</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1988</year><article-title>New specimens of <italic>Oligopithecus savagei</italic>, early Oligocene primate from the Fayum, Egypt</article-title>. <source>Folia Primatol</source>. <volume>51</volume>, <fpage>182</fpage>–<lpage>208</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000156372">doi:10.1159/000156372</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3151489</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C10"><label>10</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1992</year><article-title>Paleobiology of oligopithecines, the earliest known anthropoid primate</article-title>. <source>Int. J. Primatol</source>. <volume>13</volume>, <fpage>477</fpage>–<lpage>508</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02547829">doi:10.1007/BF02547829</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C11"><label>11</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1989</year><article-title>Description of two genera and species of late Eocene Anthropoidea of Egypt</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>86</volume>, <fpage>9956</fpage>–<lpage>9960</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.86.24.9956">doi:10.1073/pnas.86.24.9956</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2513576</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C12"><label>12</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name></person-group><year>1989</year><article-title>Cranial morphology of <italic>Aegyptopithecus</italic> and <italic>Tarsius</italic> and the question of the tarsier-anthropoidean clade</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol</source>. <volume>79</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>23</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330790103">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330790103</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2502021</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C13"><label>13</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name><name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1994</year><article-title>A whole new world of ancestors: Eocene anthropoideans from Africa</article-title>. <source>Evol. Anthropol</source>. <volume>3</volume>, <fpage>128</fpage>–<lpage>139</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/evan.1360030407">doi:10.1002/evan.1360030407</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C14"><label>14</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name></person-group><year>1990</year><article-title>The phylogenetic position of <italic>Mahgarita stevensi</italic>: protoanthropoid or lemuroid</article-title>? <source>Int. J. Primatol</source>. <volume>11</volume>, <fpage>439</fpage>–<lpage>469</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02196131">doi:10.1007/BF02196131</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C15"><label>15</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name></person-group><year>1994</year><article-title>The different meanings of a tarsioid-anthropoid clade and a new model of anthropoid origin</article-title>. In <source>Anthropoid origins</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Fleagle</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>335</fpage>–<lpage>360</lpage>. <publisher-loc>New York, NY</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Plenum</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C16"><label>16</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fisher</surname><given-names>DC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Uhen</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name></person-group><year>1997</year><article-title>Cladistic analysis and anthropoid origins</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>278</volume>, <fpage>2134</fpage>–<lpage>2136</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5346.2134">doi:10.1126/science.278.5346.2134</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9432721</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C17"><label>17</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Habersetzer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hurum</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>von Koenigswald</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><year>2009</year><article-title>Complete primate skeleton from the middle Eocene of Messel in Germany: morphology and paleobiology</article-title>. <source>PLoS ONE</source><volume>4</volume>, <fpage>e5723</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005723">doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005723</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19492084</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C18"><label>18</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gregory</surname><given-names>WK</given-names></name></person-group><year>1920</year><article-title>On the structure and relations of <italic>Notharctus</italic>, an American Eocene primate</article-title>. <source>Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</source><volume>3</volume>, <fpage>49</fpage>–<lpage>243</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C19"><label>19</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hoffstetter</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><year>1977</year><article-title>Phylogénie des primates: confrontation des résultats obtenus per les diverses voies d'approche du problème</article-title>. <source>Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris</source><volume>4</volume>, <fpage>327</fpage>–<lpage>346</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/bmsap.1977.1886">doi:10.3406/bmsap.1977.1886</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C20"><label>20</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Beard</surname><given-names>KC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dagosto</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gebo</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Godinot</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><year>1988</year><article-title>Interrelationships among primate higher taxa</article-title>. <source>Nature</source><volume>331</volume>, <fpage>712</fpage>–<lpage>714</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/331712a0">doi:10.1038/331712a0</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3344045</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C21"><label>21</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dagosto</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><year>1988</year><article-title>Implications of postcranial evidence for the origin of euprimates</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>17</volume>, <fpage>35</fpage>–<lpage>56</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(88)90048-6">doi:10.1016/0047-2484(88)90048-6</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C22"><label>22</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ross</surname><given-names>CF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name></person-group><year>1997</year><article-title>Anthropoid origins</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>275</volume>, <fpage>797</fpage>–<lpage>804</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5301.797">doi:10.1126/science.275.5301.797</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9012340</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C23"><label>23</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Seiffert</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Perry</surname><given-names>JMG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2009</year><article-title>Convergent evolution of anthropoid-like adaptations in Eocene adapiform primates</article-title>. <source>Nature</source><volume>461</volume>, <fpage>1118</fpage>–<lpage>1122</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08429">doi:10.1038/nature08429</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19847263</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C24"><label>24</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kirk</surname><given-names>EC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ross</surname><given-names>CF</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title><italic>Darwinius masillae</italic> is a strepsirrhine—a reply to Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. (2009)</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>59</volume>, <fpage>567</fpage>–<lpage>573</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.003">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.003</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20188396</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C25"><label>25</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gilbert</surname><given-names>CC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Maiolino</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name></person-group><year>2015</year><article-title>Comment to ‘Primates in the Eocene’ by Gingerich (2012)</article-title>. <source>Paleobio. Paleoenviron.</source><volume>95</volume>, <fpage>237</fpage>–<lpage>241</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12549-015-0184-1">doi:10.1007/s12549-015-0184-1</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C26"><label>26</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Marigó</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Minwer-Barakat</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Moyà-Solà</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><year>2011</year><article-title>New <italic>Anchomomys</italic> (Adapoidea, Primates) from the Robiacian (Middle Eocene) of northeastern Spain. Taxonomic and evolutionary implications</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>60</volume>, <fpage>665</fpage>–<lpage>672</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.12.006">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.12.006</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21315425</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C27"><label>27</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Steiper</surname><given-names>ME</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Seiffert</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name></person-group><year>2012</year><article-title>Evidence for a convergent slowdown in primate molecular rates and its implications for the timing for early primate evolution</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>109</volume>, <fpage>6006</fpage>–<lpage>6011</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1119506109">doi:10.1073/pnas.1119506109</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22474376</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C28"><label>28</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ni</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gebo</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dagosto</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Meng</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tafforeau</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Flynn</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Beard</surname><given-names>KC</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><article-title>The oldest known primate skeleton and early haplorhine evolution</article-title>. <source>Nature</source><volume>498</volume>, <fpage>60</fpage>–<lpage>64</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12200">doi:10.1038/nature12200</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23739424</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C29"><label>29</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Seiffert</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Costeur</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2015</year><article-title>Primate tarsal bones from Egerkingen, Switzerland, attributable to the middle Eocene adapiform <italic>Caenopithecus lemuroides</italic></article-title>. <source>PeerJ</source><volume>3</volume>, <fpage>e1036</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1036">doi:10.7717/peerj.1036</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">26131376</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C30"><label>30</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Habersetzer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hurum</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>2010</article-title><article-title><italic>Darwinius masillae</italic> is a haplorhine—a reply to Williams <italic>et al</italic>. (2010)</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol</source>. <volume>59</volume>, <fpage>574</fpage>–<lpage>579</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.013">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.013</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C31"><label>31</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Seiffert</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title>Astragalar morphology of <italic>Afradapis</italic>, a large adapiform primate from the earliest late Eocene of Egypt</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>143</volume>, <fpage>383</fpage>–<lpage>402</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21328">doi:10.1002/ajpa.21328</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20949610</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C32"><label>32</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Maiolino</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gilbert</surname><given-names>CC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Groenke</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><year>2012</year><article-title>Evidence for a grooming claw in a North American adapiform primate: implications for anthropoid origins</article-title>. <source>PLoS ONE</source><volume>7</volume>, <fpage>e29135</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029135">doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029135</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22253707</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C33"><label>33</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Habersetzer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Scholsser-Sturm</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2012</year><article-title>Palaeopathology and fate of Ida (<italic>Darwinius masillae</italic>, Primates, Mammalia)</article-title>. <source>Palaeodivers. Palaeoenviron.</source><volume>92</volume>, <fpage>567</fpage>–<lpage>572</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12549-012-0102-8">doi:10.1007/s12549-012-0102-8</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C34"><label>34</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sauther</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cuozzo</surname><given-names>FP</given-names></name></person-group><year>2012</year><article-title>Understanding Eocene primate palaeobiology using a comprehensive analysis of living primate ecology, biology, and behaviour</article-title>. <source>Palaeodivers. Palaeoenviron.</source><volume>92</volume>, <fpage>573</fpage>–<lpage>583</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12549-012-0089-1">doi:10.1007/s12549-012-0089-1</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C35"><label>35</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cuozzo</surname><given-names>FP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sauther</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Singleton</surname><given-names>CL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><article-title>Interpreting the paleopathology of <italic>Darwinius masillae</italic>: a reply to Franzen <italic>et al</italic>. (2013)</article-title>. <source>Palaeodivers. Palaeoenviron</source>. <volume>93</volume>, <fpage>385</fpage>–<lpage>387</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12549-013-0125-9">doi:10.1007/s12549-013-0125-9</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C36"><label>36</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Habersetzer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Scholsser-Sturm</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><article-title>Reply to Sauther and Cuozzo 2012</article-title>. <source>Palaeodivers. Palaeoenviron.</source><volume>93</volume>, <fpage>383</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12549-013-0122-z">doi:10.1007/s12549-013-0122-z</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C37"><label>37</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Macho</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>Primate crown molar formation times and life history evolution revisited</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Primatol.</source><volume>55</volume>, <fpage>189</fpage>–<lpage>201</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1054">doi:10.1002/ajp.1054</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11748692</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C38"><label>38</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kelley</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>TM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2003</year><article-title>Age at first molar emergence in early Miocene <italic>Afropithecus turkanensis</italic> and life-history evolution in the Hominoidea</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>44</volume>, <fpage>307</fpage>–<lpage>329</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00005-8">doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00005-8</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12657519</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C39"><label>39</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nargolwalla</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Begun</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dean</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Reid</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kordos</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name></person-group><year>2005</year><article-title>Dental development and life history in <italic>Anapithecus hernyaki</italic></article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>49</volume>, <fpage>99</fpage>–<lpage>121</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.03.008">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.03.008</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15935440</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C40"><label>40</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1989</year><article-title>Dental development as a measure of life history in primates</article-title>. <source>Evolution</source><volume>43</volume>, <fpage>683</fpage>–<lpage>688</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409073">doi:10.2307/2409073</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C41"><label>41</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schultz</surname><given-names>AH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1935</year><article-title>Eruption and decay of the permanent teeth in Primates</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>19</volume>, <fpage>489</fpage>–<lpage>581</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330190417">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330190417</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C42"><label>42</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Crummet</surname><given-names>TL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brandt</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1994</year><article-title>Ages of eruption of primate teeth: a compendium for aging individuals and comparing life histories</article-title>. <source>Yearb. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>37</volume>, <fpage>177</fpage>–<lpage>231</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330370608">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330370608</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C43"><label>43</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Franzen</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2005</year><article-title>The implications of the numerical dating of the Messel fossil deposit (Eocene, Germany) for mammalian biochronology</article-title>. <source>Ann. Paléontol.</source><volume>91</volume>, <fpage>329</fpage>–<lpage>335</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annpal.2005.04.002">doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2005.04.002</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C44"><label>44</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title>Premolar development and eruption in the early Eocene adapoids <italic>Cantius ralstoni</italic> and <italic>Cantius abditus</italic> (Mammalia, Primates)</article-title>. <source>Contrib. Mus. Paleontol. Univ. Mich.</source><volume>32</volume>, <fpage>41</fpage>–<lpage>47</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C45"><label>45</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Byrd</surname><given-names>KE</given-names></name></person-group><year>1979</year><article-title>Sequences and asymmetries of dental development and eruption in the Ceboidea</article-title>. <comment>PhD dissertation</comment>, <publisher-name>University of Washington</publisher-name>, <publisher-loc>USA</publisher-loc>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C46"><label>46</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Byrd</surname><given-names>KE</given-names></name></person-group><year>1981</year><article-title>Sequences of dental ontogeny and callitrichid taxonomy</article-title>. <source>Primates</source><volume>22</volume>, <fpage>103</fpage>–<lpage>118</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02382561">doi:10.1007/BF02382561</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C47"><label>47</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Madden</surname><given-names>RH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Plavcan</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cifelli</surname><given-names>RL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1987</year><article-title><italic>Stirtonia victoriae</italic>, a new species of Miocene Colombian primate</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>16</volume>, <fpage>173</fpage>–<lpage>196</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(87)90075-3">doi:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90075-3</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C48"><label>48</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bown</surname><given-names>TM</given-names></name></person-group><year>1976</year><article-title>Affinities of <italic>Teilhardina</italic> (Primates, Omomyidae) with description of a new species from North America</article-title>. <source>Folia Primatol.</source><volume>25</volume>, <fpage>62</fpage>–<lpage>72</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000155707">doi:10.1159/000155707</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">942662</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C49"><label>49</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rose</surname><given-names>KD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bown</surname><given-names>TM</given-names></name></person-group><year>1991</year><article-title>Additional fossil evidence on the differentiation of the earliest euprimates</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>88</volume>, <fpage>98</fpage>–<lpage>101</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.88.1.98">doi:10.1073/pnas.88.1.98</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11607143</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C50"><label>50</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Luckett</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name></person-group><year>1993</year><article-title>An ontogenetic assessment of dental homologies in therian mammals</article-title>. In <source>Mammal phylogeny: Mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Szalay</surname><given-names>FS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Novacek</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McKenna</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>182</fpage>–<lpage>204</lpage>. <publisher-loc>New York, NY</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C51"><label>51</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>O'Leary</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name></person-group><italic>et al</italic><year>2013</year><article-title>The placental mammal ancestor and the post-K-Pg radiation of placentals</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>339</volume>, <fpage>662</fpage>–<lpage>667</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1229237">doi:10.1126/science.1229237</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23393258</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C52"><label>52</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Omland</surname><given-names>KE</given-names></name></person-group><year>1999</year><article-title>The assumptions and challenges of ancestral state reconstructions</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>48</volume>, <fpage>604</fpage>–<lpage>611</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/106351599260175">doi:10.1080/106351599260175</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C53"><label>53</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Felsenstein</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><year>1985</year><article-title>Phylogenies and the comparative method</article-title>. <source>Am. Nat.</source><volume>125</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>15</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284325">doi:10.1086/284325</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C54"><label>54</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Swofford</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name></person-group><year>1987</year><article-title>Reconstructing ancestral character states under Wagner parsimony</article-title>. <source>Math. Biosci.</source><volume>87</volume>, <fpage>199</fpage>–<lpage>229</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-5564(87)90074-5">doi:10.1016/0025-5564(87)90074-5</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C55"><label>55</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Swofford</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name></person-group><year>1992</year><article-title>Parsimony, character-state reconstructions, and evolutionary inferences</article-title>. In <source>Systematics, historical ecology, and North American freshwater fishes</source> (ed. <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Mayden</surname><given-names>RL</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>186</fpage>–<lpage>223</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Stanford, CA</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Stanford University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C56"><label>56</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pagel</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><year>1999</year><article-title>The maximum likelihood approach to reconstructing ancestral character states of discrete characters on phylogenies</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>48</volume>, <fpage>612</fpage>–<lpage>622</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/106351599260184">doi:10.1080/106351599260184</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C57"><label>57</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Polly</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>Paleontology and the comparative method: ancestral node reconstructions versus observed node values</article-title>. <source>Am. Nat.</source><volume>157</volume>, <fpage>596</fpage>–<lpage>609</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/320622">doi:10.1086/320622</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18707277</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C58"><label>58</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Springer</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Teeling</surname><given-names>EC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Madsen</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Stanhope</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>de Jong</surname><given-names>WW</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>Integrated fossil and molecular data reconstruct bat echolocation</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>98</volume>, <fpage>6241</fpage>–<lpage>6246</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.111551998">doi:10.1073/pnas.111551998</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11353869</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C59"><label>59</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pagel</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Meade</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Barker</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name></person-group><year>2004</year><article-title>Bayesian estimation of ancestral character states on phylogenies</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>53</volume>, <fpage>673</fpage>–<lpage>684</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10635150490522232">doi:10.1080/10635150490522232</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15545248</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C60"><label>60</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Finarelli</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Flynn</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name></person-group><year>2006</year><article-title>Ancestral state reconstruction of body size in the Caniformia (Carnivora, Mammalia): the effects of incorporating data from the fossil record</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>55</volume>, <fpage>301</fpage>–<lpage>313</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10635150500541698">doi:10.1080/10635150500541698</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16611601</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C61"><label>61</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>James</surname><given-names>TY</given-names></name></person-group><italic>et al</italic><year>2006</year><article-title>Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny</article-title>. <source>Nature</source><volume>443</volume>, <fpage>818</fpage>–<lpage>822</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature05110">doi:10.1038/nature05110</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17051209</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C62"><label>62</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sato</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wolsan</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Minami</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hosoda</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sinaga</surname><given-names>MH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hiyama</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yamaguchi</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Suzuki</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name></person-group><year>2009</year><article-title>Deciphering and dating the red panda's ancestry and early adaptive radiation of Musteloidea</article-title>. <source>Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.</source><volume>53</volume>, <fpage>907</fpage>–<lpage>922</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.019">doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.019</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19699810</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C63"><label>63</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Montgomery</surname><given-names>SH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Capellini</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Barton</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mundy</surname><given-names>NI</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title>Reconstructing the ups and downs of primate brain evolution: implications for adaptive hypotheses and <italic>Homo floresiensis</italic></article-title>. <source>BMC Biol.</source><volume>8</volume>, <fpage>9</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-8-9">doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-9</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20105283</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C64"><label>64</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>King</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>MSY</given-names></name></person-group><year>2015</year><article-title>Ancestral state reconstruction, rate heterogeneity, and the evolution of reptile viviparity</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>64</volume>, <fpage>532</fpage>–<lpage>544</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syv005">doi:10.1093/sysbio/syv005</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25616375</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C65"><label>65</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><year>2000</year><article-title>‘Schultz's rule’ and the evolution of tooth emergence and replacement patterns in primates and ungulates</article-title>. In <source>Development, function and evolution of teeth</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Teaford</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ferguson</surname><given-names>MWJ</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>212</fpage>–<lpage>227</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Cambridge, UK</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C66"><label>66</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name></person-group><year>2002</year><article-title>New primitive paromomyid from the Clarkforkian of Wyoming and dental eruption in Plesiadapiformes</article-title>. <source>J. Vert. Paleontol.</source><volume>22</volume>, <fpage>366</fpage>–<lpage>379</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634%282002%29022%5B0366%3ANPPFTC%5D2.0.CO%3B2">doi:10.1671/0272-4634%282002%29022%5B0366%3ANPPFTC%5D2.0.CO%3B2</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C67"><label>67</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>1976</year><article-title>Cranial anatomy and evolution of early Tertiary Plesiadapidae (Mammalia, Primates)</article-title>. <source>Univ. Michigan. Papers Paleontol</source>. <volume>15</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>140</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C68"><label>68</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tattersall</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1974</year><article-title>Craniodental morphology and the systematics of the Malagasy lemurs (Primates, Prosimii)</article-title>. <source>Anthropol. Pap. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</source><volume>52</volume>, <fpage>139</fpage>–<lpage>192</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C69"><label>69</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>GT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mahoney</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Godfrey</surname><given-names>LR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cuozzo</surname><given-names>FP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jungers</surname><given-names>WL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Randira</surname><given-names>GFN</given-names></name></person-group><year>2005</year><article-title>Dental development in <italic>Megaladapis edwardsi</italic> (Primates, Lemuriformes): implications for understanding life history variation in subfossil lemurs</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>49</volume>, <fpage>702</fpage>–<lpage>721</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.08.006">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.08.006</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16256170</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C70"><label>70</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Long</surname><given-names>JO</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cooper</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name></person-group><year>1968</year><article-title>Physical growth and dental eruption in captive-bred squirrel monkeys, <italic>Saimiri sciureus</italic> (Leticia, Colombia)</article-title>. In <source>The squirrel monkey</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Rosenbum</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cooper</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>193</fpage>–<lpage>205</lpage>. <publisher-loc>New York, NY</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C71"><label>71</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gingerich</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>1977</year><article-title>Homologies of the anterior teeth in Indriidae and a functional basis for dental reduction in Primates</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>47</volume>, <fpage>387</fpage>–<lpage>394</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330470307">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330470307</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">931018</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C72"><label>72</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>1983</year><article-title>Dental formulae and dental eruption patterns in Parapithecidae (Primates, Anthropoidea)</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>62</volume>, <fpage>363</fpage>–<lpage>375</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330620403">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330620403</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6421169</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C73"><label>73</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Eaglen</surname><given-names>RH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1985</year><article-title>Behavioral correlates of tooth eruption in Madagascar lemurs</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>66</volume>, <fpage>307</fpage>–<lpage>315</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330660308">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330660308</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C74"><label>74</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1975</year><article-title>Re-evaluation of the morphocline of molar appearance in the Primates</article-title>. <source>Folia Primatol.</source><volume>23</volume>, <fpage>290</fpage>–<lpage>307</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000155678">doi:10.1159/000155678</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">805766</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C75"><label>75</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stehlin</surname><given-names>HG</given-names></name></person-group><year>1912</year><article-title>Die Sáugetiere des schweizerischen Eocaens. Critischer Catalog der Materialen</article-title>. <source>Abh. Schweiz. Paláontol. Ges.</source><volume>38</volume>, <fpage>1165</fpage>–<lpage>1298</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C76"><label>76</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Guthrie</surname><given-names>EH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Frost</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name></person-group><year>2011</year><article-title>Pattern and pace of dental eruption in <italic>Tarsius</italic></article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>145</volume>, <fpage>446</fpage>–<lpage>451</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21525">doi:10.1002/ajpa.21525</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21541928</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C77"><label>77</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Perry</surname><given-names>JMG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Vizcaíno</surname><given-names>SF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bargo</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name></person-group><year>2014</year><article-title>Oldest known cranium of a juvenile New World monkey (Early Miocene, Patagonia, Argentina): implications for the taxonomy and the molar eruption pattern of early platyrrhines</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>74</volume>, <fpage>67</fpage>–<lpage>81</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.03.009">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.03.009</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25081638</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C78"><label>78</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Glassman</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>1983</year><article-title>Growth and development in the saddle-back tamarin: the sequence and timing of dental eruption and epiphyseal union</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Primatol.</source><volume>5</volume>, <fpage>51</fpage>–<lpage>59</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350050106">doi:10.1002/ajp.1350050106</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C79"><label>79</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Henderson</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name></person-group><year>2007</year><article-title>Platyrrhine dental eruption sequences</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>134</volume>, <fpage>226</fpage>–<lpage>239</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20658">doi:10.1002/ajpa.20658</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17596854</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C80"><label>80</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Johnston</surname><given-names>GW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dreizen</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Levy</surname><given-names>BM</given-names></name></person-group><year>1970</year><article-title>Dental development in the cotton ear marmoset (<italic>Callithrix jacchus</italic>)</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>33</volume>, <fpage>41</fpage>–<lpage>48</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330330107">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330330107</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">4988192</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C81"><label>81</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hershkovitz</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><year>1977</year><source>Living New World monkeys</source>, <volume>vol. 1</volume><publisher-loc>Chicago, IL</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>University of Chicago Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C82"><label>82</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Wintheiser</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clauser</surname><given-names>DA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tappen</surname><given-names>NC</given-names></name></person-group><year>1977</year><article-title>Sequence of eruption of permanent teeth and epiphyseal union in three species of African monkeys</article-title>. <source>Fol. Primatol.</source><volume>27</volume>, <fpage>178</fpage>–<lpage>197</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000155786">doi:10.1159/000155786</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C83"><label>83</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Van der Geer</surname><given-names>AAE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dermitzakis</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name></person-group><year>2008</year><article-title>Dental eruption sequence in the Pliocene papionin <italic>Paradolichopithecus arvernensis</italic> (Mammalia: Primates) from Greece</article-title>. <source>J. Vert. Paleontol.</source><volume>28</volume>, <fpage>1238</fpage>–<lpage>1244</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1238">doi:10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1238</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C84"><label>84</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>King</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Godfrey</surname><given-names>LR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>Adaptive and phylogenetic significance of ontogenetic sequences in <italic>Archaeolemur</italic>, subfossil lemur from Madagascar</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>41</volume>, <fpage>545</fpage>–<lpage>576</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2001.0509">doi:10.1006/jhev.2001.0509</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11782109</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C85"><label>85</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dirks</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name></person-group><year>2003</year><article-title>Effect of diet on dental development in four species of catarrhine primates</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Primatol.</source><volume>61</volume>, <fpage>29</fpage>–<lpage>40</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.10106">doi:10.1002/ajp.10106</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12966517</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C86"><label>86</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Swindler</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Beynon</surname><given-names>AS</given-names></name></person-group><year>1993</year><article-title>The development and microstructure of the dentition of <italic>Theropithecus</italic></article-title>. In <source>Theropithecus: <italic>the rise and fall of a primate genus</italic></source> (ed. <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Jablonski</surname><given-names>NG</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>351</fpage>–<lpage>381</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Cambridge, UK</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C87"><label>87</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harvati</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Frost</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name></person-group><year>2007</year><article-title>Dental eruption sequences in fossil colobines and the evolution of primate life histories</article-title>. <source>Int. J. Primatol.</source><volume>28</volume>, <fpage>705</fpage>–<lpage>728</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10764-007-9149-1">doi:10.1007/s10764-007-9149-1</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C88"><label>88</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harvati</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><year>2000</year><article-title>Dental eruption sequence among colobine primates</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>112</volume>, <fpage>69</fpage>–<lpage>85</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200005)112:1<69::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-I">doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200005)112:1<69::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-I</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10766945</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C89"><label>89</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pan</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Oxnard</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><year>2003</year><article-title>Dental variation among Asian colobines (Nonhuman Primates): phylogenetic similarities or functional correspondence?</article-title><source>Zool. Stud.</source><volume>42</volume>, <fpage>93</fpage>–<lpage>105</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C90"><label>90</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dean</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Leakey</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name></person-group><year>2004</year><article-title>Enamel and dentine development and the life history profile of <italic>Victoriapithecus macinnesi</italic> from Maboko Island, Kenya</article-title>. <source>Ann. Anat.</source><volume>186</volume>, <fpage>405</fpage>–<lpage>412</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80072-4">doi:10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80072-4</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15646271</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C91"><label>91</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1994</year><article-title>Sequence of emergence of the permanent teeth in <italic>Macaca</italic>, <italic>Pan</italic>, <italic>Homo</italic>, and <italic>Australopithecus</italic>: its evolutionary significance</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Hum. Biol.</source><volume>6</volume>, <fpage>61</fpage>–<lpage>76</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.1310060110">doi:10.1002/ajhb.1310060110</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C92"><label>92</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Marivaux</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Welcomme</surname><given-names>J-L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Antoine</surname><given-names>P-O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Métais</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Baloch</surname><given-names>IM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Benammi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chaimanee</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ducrocq</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jaeger</surname><given-names>J-J</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>A fossil lemur from the Oligocene of Pakistan</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>294</volume>, <fpage>587</fpage>–<lpage>591</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1065257">doi:10.1126/science.1065257</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11641497</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C93"><label>93</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name></person-group><year>2002</year><article-title>Notharctine primates (Adapiformes) from the early to middle Eocene (Wasatchian-Bridgerian) of Wyoming: transitional species and the origins of <italic>Notharctus</italic> and <italic>Smilodectes</italic></article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>43</volume>, <fpage>353</fpage>–<lpage>380</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2002.0582">doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0582</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12234548</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C94"><label>94</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Arnold</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Matthews</surname><given-names>LJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nunn</surname><given-names>CL</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title>The 10kTrees Website: a new online resource for primate phylogeny</article-title>. <source>Evol. Anthropol.</source><volume>19</volume>, <fpage>114</fpage>–<lpage>118</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/evan.20251">doi:10.1002/evan.20251</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C95"><label>95</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Houde</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><year>2010</year><article-title>Cranial anatomy of Paleocene and Eocene <italic>Labidolemur kayi</italic> (Mammalia: Apatotheria), and the relationships of the Apatemyidae to other mammals</article-title>. <source>Zool. J. Linn. Soc.</source><volume>160</volume>, <fpage>773</fpage>–<lpage>825</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00614.x">doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00614.x</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C96"><label>96</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>RF</given-names></name></person-group><year>2014</year><article-title>Biogeography in deep time—what do phylogenetics, geology, and paleoclimate tell us about early platyrrhine evolution</article-title>? <source>Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.</source><volume>82</volume>, <fpage>358</fpage>–<lpage>374</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.12.002">doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.12.002</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">24333920</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C97"><label>97</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kistler</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name></person-group><italic>et al</italic><year>2015</year><article-title>Comparative and population mitogenomic analyses of Madagascar's extinct, giant ‘subfossil’ lemurs</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>79</volume>, <fpage>45</fpage>–<lpage>54</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.06.016">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.06.016</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25523037</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C98"><label>98</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Springer</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name></person-group><italic>et al</italic><year>2012</year><article-title>Macroevolutionary dynamics and historical biogeography of primate diversification inferred from a species supermatrix</article-title>. <source>PLoS ONE</source><volume>7</volume>, <fpage>e49521</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049521">doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049521</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23166696</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C99"><label>99</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Strasser</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Delson</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name></person-group><year>1987</year><article-title>Cladistic analysis of cercopithecid relationships</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>16</volume>, <fpage>81</fpage>–<lpage>99</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(87)90061-3">doi:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90061-3</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C100"><label>100</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Shoshani</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Groves</surname><given-names>CP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Simons</surname><given-names>EL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name></person-group><year>1995</year><article-title>Primate phylogeny: morphological vs molecular results</article-title>. <source>Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.</source><volume>5</volume>, <fpage>102</fpage>–<lpage>154</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/mpev.1996.0009">doi:10.1006/mpev.1996.0009</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8673281</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C101"><label>101</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Frost</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>New early Pliocene Cercopithecidae (Mammalia: Primates) from Aramis, middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia</article-title>. <source>Am. Mus. Novit.</source><volume>3350</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>36</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0082(2001)350<0001:NEPCMP>2.0.CO;2">doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2001)350<0001:NEPCMP>2.0.CO;2</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C102"><label>102</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chase</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cooper</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name></person-group><year>1969</year><article-title><italic>Saguinus nigricollis</italic>—physical growth and dental eruption in a small population of captive-born individuals</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.</source><volume>30</volume>, <fpage>111</fpage>–<lpage>116</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330300111">doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300111</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C103"><label>103</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>A phylogenetic analysis of the Plesiadapiformes and their relationship to Euprimates and other archontans</article-title>. <comment>PhD dissertation</comment>, <publisher-name>Johns Hopkins University</publisher-name>, <publisher-loc>Baltimore, MD, USA</publisher-loc>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C104"><label>104</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name></person-group><year>2008</year><article-title>The biogeographic origins of primates and euprimates: east, west, north, or south of Eden?</article-title> In <source>Mammalian evolutionary morphology: a tribute to Frederick S. Szalay</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Sargis</surname><given-names>EJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dagosto</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>199</fpage>–<lpage>231</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Dordrecht, The Netherlands</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Springer Science + Business Media B.V</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C105"><label>105</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2002</year><article-title>Grasping primate origins</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>298</volume>, <fpage>1606</fpage>–<lpage>1610</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1078249">doi:10.1126/science.1078249</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12446906</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C106"><label>106</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sargis</surname><given-names>EJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2005</year><article-title>Euarchonta (Dermoptera, Scandentia, Primates)</article-title>. In <source>The rise of placental mammals: origins and relationships of the major extant clades</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Rose</surname><given-names>KD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Archibald</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>127</fpage>–<lpage>144</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Baltimore, MD</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>The Johns Hopkins University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C107"><label>107</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sargis</surname><given-names>EJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2007</year><article-title>Primate origins and supraordinal relationships: morphological evidence</article-title>. In <source>Handbook of paleoanthropology</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Henke</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tattersall</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>831</fpage>–<lpage>859</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Berlin, Germany</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C108"><label>108</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sargis</surname><given-names>EJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><year>2014</year><article-title>Morphological evidence for primate origins and supraordinal relationships</article-title>. In <source>Handbook of paleoanthropology</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Henke</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tattersall</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>27</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Berlin, Germany</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C109"><label>109</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name></person-group><year>2006</year><article-title>Cranial anatomy of the Paleocene plesiadapiform <italic>Carpolestes simpsoni</italic> (Mammalia, Primates) using ultra high-resolution X-ray computed tomography, and the relationships of plesiadapiforms to Euprimates</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>50</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>35</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.06.009">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.06.009</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16236344</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C110"><label>110</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sargis</surname><given-names>EJ</given-names></name></person-group><year>2007</year><article-title>New Paleocene skeletons and the relationship of plesiadapiforms to crown-clade primates</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>104</volume>, <fpage>1159</fpage>–<lpage>1164</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610579104">doi:10.1073/pnas.0610579104</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17229835</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C111"><label>111</label><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Silcox</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name></person-group><year>2008</year><article-title>Plesiadapiformes</article-title>. In <source>Evolution of Tertiary mammals of North America</source> (eds <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Janis</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gunnell</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Uhen</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name></person-group>), pp. <fpage>207</fpage>–<lpage>238</lpage>. <publisher-loc>Cambridge, UK</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C112"><label>112</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chester</surname><given-names>SGB</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><article-title>Systematics of Paleogene Micromomyide (Euarchonta, Primates) from North America</article-title>. <source>J. Hum. Evol.</source><volume>65</volume>, <fpage>109</fpage>–<lpage>142</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.04.006">doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.04.006</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23850536</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C113"><label>113</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sussman</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rasmussen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Raven</surname><given-names>PH</given-names></name></person-group><year>2013</year><article-title>Rethinking primate origins again</article-title>. <source>Am. J. Primatol.</source><volume>75</volume>, <fpage>95</fpage>–<lpage>106</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22096">doi:10.1002/ajp.22096</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23184701</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C114"><label>114</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chester</surname><given-names>SGB</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bloch</surname><given-names>JI</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyer</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clemens</surname><given-names>WA</given-names></name></person-group><year>2015</year><article-title>Oldest known euarchontan tarsals and affinities of Paleocene <italic>Purgatorius</italic> to Primates</article-title>. <source>Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA</source><volume>112</volume>, <fpage>1487</fpage>–<lpage>1492</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421707112">doi:10.1073/pnas.1421707112</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25605875</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C115"><label>115</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Donoghue</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name></person-group><year>1984</year><article-title>Outgroup analysis and parsimony</article-title>. <source>Syst. Zool.</source><volume>33</volume>, <fpage>83</fpage>–<lpage>103</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2413134">doi:10.2307/2413134</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C116"><label>116</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Janečka</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pringle</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wiens</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Zitzmann</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Helgen</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Springer</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Murphy</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name></person-group><year>2007</year><article-title>Molecular and genomic data identify the closest living relative of Primates</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>318</volume>, <fpage>792</fpage>–<lpage>794</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1147555">doi:10.1126/science.1147555</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17975064</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C117"><label>117</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yu</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pearl</surname><given-names>DK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Edwards</surname><given-names>SV</given-names></name></person-group><year>2009</year><article-title>Estimating species phylogenies using coalescence times among sequences</article-title>. <source>Syst. Biol.</source><volume>58</volume>, <fpage>468</fpage>–<lpage>477</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syp031">doi:10.1093/sysbio/syp031</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20525601</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C118"><label>118</label><mixed-citation publication-type="web"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Maddison</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name></person-group><year>2014</year><article-title>Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis</article-title>. <comment>Version 3.01. See <uri xlink:href="http://www.mesquiteproject.org">http://www.mesquiteproject.org</uri></comment>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C119"><label>119</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zehr</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Roach</surname><given-names>RG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Haring</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cameron</surname><given-names>FH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yoder</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name></person-group><year>2014</year><article-title>Life history profiles for 27 strepsirrhine primate taxa generated using captive data from the Duke Lemur Center</article-title>. <source>Sci. Data</source><volume>1</volume>, <fpage>140019</fpage> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2014.19">doi:10.1038/sdata.2014.19</ext-link>)<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">25977776</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C120"><label>120</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hammer</surname><given-names>Ø</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harper</surname><given-names>DAT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ryan</surname><given-names>PD</given-names></name></person-group><year>2001</year><article-title>PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis</article-title>. <source>Paleontol. Electron.</source><volume>4</volume>, <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>9</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="RSOS150340C121"><label>121</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harvey</surname><given-names>PH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clutton-Brock</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name></person-group><year>1985</year><article-title>Life history variation in primates</article-title>. <source>Evolution</source><volume>39</volume>, <fpage>559</fpage>–<lpage>581</lpage>. (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2408653">doi:10.2307/2408653</ext-link>)</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/Archeologie/explor/PaleopathV1/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 000038 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 000038 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/Archeologie
|area= PaleopathV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:4593690
|texte= Life history of the most complete fossil primate skeleton: exploring growth models for Darwinius
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:26473056" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a PaleopathV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.27. |  |