Epidemiology and Individual, Household and Geographical Risk Factors of Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: Results from the First Nationwide Mapping
Identifieur interne : 001287 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 001286; suivant : 001288Epidemiology and Individual, Household and Geographical Risk Factors of Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: Results from the First Nationwide Mapping
Auteurs : Kebede Deribe ; Simon J. Brooker ; Rachel L. Pullan ; Heven Sime ; Abeba Gebretsadik ; Ashenafi Assefa ; Amha Kebede ; Asrat Hailu ; Maria P. Rebollo ; Oumer Shafi ; Moses J. Bockarie ; Abraham Aseffa ; Richard Reithinger ; Jorge Cano ; Fikre Enquselassie ; Melanie J. Newport ; Gail DaveySource :
- The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene [ 0002-9637 ] ; 2015.
Abstract
Although podoconiosis is one of the major causes of tropical lymphoedema and is endemic in Ethiopia its epidemiology and risk factors are poorly understood. Individual-level data for 129,959 individuals from 1,315 communities in 659
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DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0446
PubMed: 25404069
PubMed Central: 4288951
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Epidemiology and Individual, Household and Geographical Risk Factors of Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: Results from the First Nationwide Mapping</title><author><name sortKey="Deribe, Kebede" sort="Deribe, Kebede" uniqKey="Deribe K" first="Kebede" last="Deribe">Kebede Deribe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brooker, Simon J" sort="Brooker, Simon J" uniqKey="Brooker S" first="Simon J." last="Brooker">Simon J. Brooker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pullan, Rachel L" sort="Pullan, Rachel L" uniqKey="Pullan R" first="Rachel L." last="Pullan">Rachel L. Pullan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sime, Heven" sort="Sime, Heven" uniqKey="Sime H" first="Heven" last="Sime">Heven Sime</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gebretsadik, Abeba" sort="Gebretsadik, Abeba" uniqKey="Gebretsadik A" first="Abeba" last="Gebretsadik">Abeba Gebretsadik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Assefa, Ashenafi" sort="Assefa, Ashenafi" uniqKey="Assefa A" first="Ashenafi" last="Assefa">Ashenafi Assefa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kebede, Amha" sort="Kebede, Amha" uniqKey="Kebede A" first="Amha" last="Kebede">Amha Kebede</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hailu, Asrat" sort="Hailu, Asrat" uniqKey="Hailu A" first="Asrat" last="Hailu">Asrat Hailu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rebollo, Maria P" sort="Rebollo, Maria P" uniqKey="Rebollo M" first="Maria P." last="Rebollo">Maria P. Rebollo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shafi, Oumer" sort="Shafi, Oumer" uniqKey="Shafi O" first="Oumer" last="Shafi">Oumer Shafi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bockarie, Moses J" sort="Bockarie, Moses J" uniqKey="Bockarie M" first="Moses J." last="Bockarie">Moses J. Bockarie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aseffa, Abraham" sort="Aseffa, Abraham" uniqKey="Aseffa A" first="Abraham" last="Aseffa">Abraham Aseffa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reithinger, Richard" sort="Reithinger, Richard" uniqKey="Reithinger R" first="Richard" last="Reithinger">Richard Reithinger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cano, Jorge" sort="Cano, Jorge" uniqKey="Cano J" first="Jorge" last="Cano">Jorge Cano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Enquselassie, Fikre" sort="Enquselassie, Fikre" uniqKey="Enquselassie F" first="Fikre" last="Enquselassie">Fikre Enquselassie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Newport, Melanie J" sort="Newport, Melanie J" uniqKey="Newport M" first="Melanie J." last="Newport">Melanie J. Newport</name></author><author><name sortKey="Davey, Gail" sort="Davey, Gail" uniqKey="Davey G" first="Gail" last="Davey">Gail Davey</name></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">25404069</idno><idno type="pmc">4288951</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4288951</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4288951</idno><idno type="doi">10.4269/ajtmh.14-0446</idno><date when="2015">2015</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">003A94</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">003A94</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">003A93</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">003A93</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">001287</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Checkpoint">001287</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Epidemiology and Individual, Household and Geographical Risk Factors of Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: Results from the First Nationwide Mapping</title><author><name sortKey="Deribe, Kebede" sort="Deribe, Kebede" uniqKey="Deribe K" first="Kebede" last="Deribe">Kebede Deribe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brooker, Simon J" sort="Brooker, Simon J" uniqKey="Brooker S" first="Simon J." last="Brooker">Simon J. Brooker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pullan, Rachel L" sort="Pullan, Rachel L" uniqKey="Pullan R" first="Rachel L." last="Pullan">Rachel L. Pullan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sime, Heven" sort="Sime, Heven" uniqKey="Sime H" first="Heven" last="Sime">Heven Sime</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gebretsadik, Abeba" sort="Gebretsadik, Abeba" uniqKey="Gebretsadik A" first="Abeba" last="Gebretsadik">Abeba Gebretsadik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Assefa, Ashenafi" sort="Assefa, Ashenafi" uniqKey="Assefa A" first="Ashenafi" last="Assefa">Ashenafi Assefa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kebede, Amha" sort="Kebede, Amha" uniqKey="Kebede A" first="Amha" last="Kebede">Amha Kebede</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hailu, Asrat" sort="Hailu, Asrat" uniqKey="Hailu A" first="Asrat" last="Hailu">Asrat Hailu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rebollo, Maria P" sort="Rebollo, Maria P" uniqKey="Rebollo M" first="Maria P." last="Rebollo">Maria P. Rebollo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shafi, Oumer" sort="Shafi, Oumer" uniqKey="Shafi O" first="Oumer" last="Shafi">Oumer Shafi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bockarie, Moses J" sort="Bockarie, Moses J" uniqKey="Bockarie M" first="Moses J." last="Bockarie">Moses J. Bockarie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aseffa, Abraham" sort="Aseffa, Abraham" uniqKey="Aseffa A" first="Abraham" last="Aseffa">Abraham Aseffa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Reithinger, Richard" sort="Reithinger, Richard" uniqKey="Reithinger R" first="Richard" last="Reithinger">Richard Reithinger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cano, Jorge" sort="Cano, Jorge" uniqKey="Cano J" first="Jorge" last="Cano">Jorge Cano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Enquselassie, Fikre" sort="Enquselassie, Fikre" uniqKey="Enquselassie F" first="Fikre" last="Enquselassie">Fikre Enquselassie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Newport, Melanie J" sort="Newport, Melanie J" uniqKey="Newport M" first="Melanie J." last="Newport">Melanie J. Newport</name></author><author><name sortKey="Davey, Gail" sort="Davey, Gail" uniqKey="Davey G" first="Gail" last="Davey">Gail Davey</name></author></analytic><series><title level="j">The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</title><idno type="ISSN">0002-9637</idno><idno type="eISSN">1476-1645</idno><imprint><date when="2015">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Although podoconiosis is one of the major causes of tropical lymphoedema and is endemic in Ethiopia its epidemiology and risk factors are poorly understood. Individual-level data for 129,959 individuals from 1,315 communities in 659 <italic>woreda</italic> (districts) were collected for a nationwide integrated survey of lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis. Blood samples were tested for circulating <italic>Wuchereria bancrofti</italic> antigen using immunochromatographic card tests. A clinical algorithm was used to reach a diagnosis of podoconiosis by excluding other potential causes of lymphoedema of the lower limb. Bayesian multilevel models were used to identify individual and environmental risk factors. Overall, 8,110 of 129,959 (6.2%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.1–6.4%) surveyed individuals were identified with lymphoedema of the lower limb, of whom 5,253 (4.0%, 95% CI 3.9–4.1%) were confirmed to be podoconiosis cases. In multivariable analysis, being female, older, unmarried, washing the feet less frequently than daily, and being semiskilled or unemployed were significantly associated with increased risk of podoconiosis. Attending formal education and living in a house with a covered floor were associated with decreased risk of podoconiosis. Podoconiosis exhibits marked geographical variation across Ethiopia, with variation in risk associated with variation in rainfall, enhanced vegetation index, and altitude.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Price, E" uniqKey="Price E">E Price</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Davey, G" uniqKey="Davey G">G Davey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gebrehanna, E" uniqKey="Gebrehanna E">E GebreHanna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adeyemo, A" uniqKey="Adeyemo A">A Adeyemo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rotimi, C" uniqKey="Rotimi C">C Rotimi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Newport, M" uniqKey="Newport M">M Newport</name></author><author><name sortKey="Desta, K" uniqKey="Desta K">K Desta</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Davey, G" uniqKey="Davey G">G 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Am J Trop Med Hyg</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">tpmd</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0002-9637</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1476-1645</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25404069</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4288951</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4269/ajtmh.14-0446</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Epidemiology and Individual, Household and Geographical Risk Factors of Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: Results from the First Nationwide Mapping</article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="left-running-head">DERIBE AND OTHERS</alt-title><alt-title alt-title-type="right-running-head">EPIDEMIOLOGY AND RISK FACTORS OF PODOCONIOSIS</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Deribe</surname><given-names>Kebede</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="COR1">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Brooker</surname><given-names>Simon J.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Pullan</surname><given-names>Rachel L.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sime</surname><given-names>Heven</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Gebretsadik</surname><given-names>Abeba</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Assefa</surname><given-names>Ashenafi</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kebede</surname><given-names>Amha</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Hailu</surname><given-names>Asrat</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rebollo</surname><given-names>Maria P.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Shafi</surname><given-names>Oumer</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bockarie</surname><given-names>Moses J.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Aseffa</surname><given-names>Abraham</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Reithinger</surname><given-names>Richard</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Cano</surname><given-names>Jorge</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Enquselassie</surname><given-names>Fikre</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Newport</surname><given-names>Melanie J.</given-names></name></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Davey</surname><given-names>Gail</given-names></name></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="AFF1">Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer, Brighton, United Kingdom; School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; School of Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Center for Neglected Tropical Diseases, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Armauer Hansen Research Institute/ALERT, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; RTI International, Washington, DC</aff><author-notes><corresp id="COR1">*Address correspondence to Kebede Deribe, Brighton & Sussex Medical School and School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 2082/1250, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. E-mail: <email>kebededeka@yahoo.com</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><day>07</day><month>1</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>07</day><month>1</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on the
<volume>92</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>148</fpage><lpage>158</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>17</day><month>7</month><year>2014</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>15</day><month>9</month><year>2014</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>©The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2015</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Although podoconiosis is one of the major causes of tropical lymphoedema and is endemic in Ethiopia its epidemiology and risk factors are poorly understood. Individual-level data for 129,959 individuals from 1,315 communities in 659 <italic>woreda</italic> (districts) were collected for a nationwide integrated survey of lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis. Blood samples were tested for circulating <italic>Wuchereria bancrofti</italic> antigen using immunochromatographic card tests. A clinical algorithm was used to reach a diagnosis of podoconiosis by excluding other potential causes of lymphoedema of the lower limb. Bayesian multilevel models were used to identify individual and environmental risk factors. Overall, 8,110 of 129,959 (6.2%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.1–6.4%) surveyed individuals were identified with lymphoedema of the lower limb, of whom 5,253 (4.0%, 95% CI 3.9–4.1%) were confirmed to be podoconiosis cases. In multivariable analysis, being female, older, unmarried, washing the feet less frequently than daily, and being semiskilled or unemployed were significantly associated with increased risk of podoconiosis. Attending formal education and living in a house with a covered floor were associated with decreased risk of podoconiosis. Podoconiosis exhibits marked geographical variation across Ethiopia, with variation in risk associated with variation in rainfall, enhanced vegetation index, and altitude.</p></abstract></article-meta><notes notes-type="disclaimer"><p>Disclaimer: We declare that we have no competing interests.</p></notes></front><floats-group><table-wrap id="T1" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Descriptive statistics of people with podoconiosis ≥ 15 years of age in Ethiopia<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variable</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gender Female</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3045 (58.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Male</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2208 (42.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age group: 15–24</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">538 (10.24)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 25–34</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">918 (17.48)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 35–44</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1119 (21.30)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 45–54</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1064 (20.26)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 55–64</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">868 (16.52)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> > = 65</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">746 (14.20)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Marital status</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Unmarried</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">557 (10.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Married</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3722 (70.9)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Divorced</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">272 (5.2)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Widowed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">702 (13.4)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Duration of podoconiosis Mean (SD)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">25.04 (14.58)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shoe wearing duration in years Mean (SD)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">22.42 (14.76)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Disease stage</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Stage 1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">875 (16.7)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Stage 2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2562 (48.8)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Stage 3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1399 (26.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Stage 4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">308 (5.9)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Stage 5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">109 (2.1)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Occupation professional<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">1</xref></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">68 (1.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Semiskilled<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">2</xref></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3488 (66.2)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unemployed<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">3</xref></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1705 (32.5)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Residence rural</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4467 (85.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Urban</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">786 (15.0)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Ever attended school</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1087 (20.7)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4166 (79.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Literacy no formal education</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4166 (79.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Primary (1–8)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">906 (17.2)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Secondary (9+)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">181 (3.4)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Family history of leg swelling</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Yes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1192 (22.7)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> No</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4061 (77.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number in family with leg swelling, dead or alive (<italic>N</italic> = 1192), Mean (SD)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.44 (1.73)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">857 (71.9)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">222 (18.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">74 (6.2)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> >3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">39 (3.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age at first noticing the swelling Mean (SD)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">24.67 (15.06)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> < 10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">630 (12.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 10–19</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1395 (26.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 20–29</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1335 (25.4)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 30–39</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">898 (17.1)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 40–49</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">567 (10.8)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> ≥ 50</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">428 (8.1)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Years lived with swelling</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> < 10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1817 (34.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 10–19</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1478 (28.1)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 20–29</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">918 (17.5)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 30–39</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">555 (10.6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> 40–49</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">318 (6.1)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> > = 50</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">167 (3.2)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN1"><label>*</label><p>In total 5,253 individuals with podoconiosis were identified among 129,559 surveyed individuals.</p></fn><fn id="TFN2"><label>1</label><p>Certified professional.</p></fn><fn id="TFN3"><label>2</label><p>Not-certified.</p></fn><fn id="TFN4"><label>3</label><p>Currently not employed and dependent on others for living.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="T2" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Summary statistics of the reduced set of climatic and environmental covariates included in model building</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variable</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Median (range)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Climate</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Mean annual temperature (°C)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">19.0 (10.0–31.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Annual rainfall (mm)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1042 (139–2090)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="1">Environmental</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Altitude (meters)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1895 (−105 to 3238)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Savannah or Grasslands<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">†</xref> (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.67%</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Urban classification (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">26.8% urban</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Population density (km<sup>2)</sup></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">129.0 (0.82–92863)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Enhanced vegetation index (EVI)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.27 (0.04–0.56)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Distance to nearest surface water (km)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.4 (0–144)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Fine soil texture (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">43.13%</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> pH of the water in the soil</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.20 (4.60–9.3)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Slope of the land (°)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.67 (0.01–17.75)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Clay content (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">35.5 (17–60)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Sand content (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">30 (10–71)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Silt content (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">32 (9–50)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> High activity soil (%)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.56%</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN5"><label>*</label><p>Proportion of sites for binary variables (Savannah/Grasslands, urban classification, fine soil texture, clay content, sand content, silt content, heavy activity soil).</p></fn><fn id="TFN6"><label>†</label><p>Reclassified from global land cover.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="T3" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Adjusted odds m of individual, household, and geographical risk factors of podoconiosis using a Bayesian model and data from 1,313 villages throughout Ethiopia</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Variable</th><th align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Category</th><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Adjusted 95% Bayesian credible intervals (BCI)</th></tr><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OR (95% BCI)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Sex</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Male</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Female</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3 (1.2–1.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age in years (continuous)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.02 (1.02–1.03)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" colspan="1">Education</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">No formal education</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Primary 1–8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6 (0.6–0.7)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Secondary 9–12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.3 (0.3–0.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Post-secondary > 2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.1 (0.1–0.2)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Marital status</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Married</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unmarried</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.4 (1.3–1.5)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Religion</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Muslim</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.4 (3.1–3.6)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">How often do you wash your legs?</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Daily or more often</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Two-three times a week</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.9 (0.8–1.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Weekly or less often</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.9 (2.4–3.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Occupation:</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Professional</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Semiskilled</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.4 (1.9–3.0)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unemployed</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.2 (1.7–2.8)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Type of floor</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mud/earth</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cement/wood/plastic</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.3 (0.3–0.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Enhanced vegetation index (EVI)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 0.2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.2–0.4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6 (0.5–0.6)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">> 0.4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.4 (0.3–0.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Mean annual rainfall</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,000</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">> = 1,000</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.1 (1.0–1.1)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Altitude</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">< 1,000</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,000–2,800</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3 (1.2–1.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">> 2,800</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.8 (1.5–2.1)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Range of the spatial effect [range in km]</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">31.1 (6.1–198.0)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spatial variance</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.253 (0.252–0.490)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN7"><label>*</label><p>Significant.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list></list><tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Aseffa, Abraham" sort="Aseffa, Abraham" uniqKey="Aseffa A" first="Abraham" last="Aseffa">Abraham Aseffa</name><name sortKey="Assefa, Ashenafi" sort="Assefa, Ashenafi" uniqKey="Assefa A" first="Ashenafi" last="Assefa">Ashenafi Assefa</name><name sortKey="Bockarie, Moses J" sort="Bockarie, Moses J" uniqKey="Bockarie M" first="Moses J." last="Bockarie">Moses J. Bockarie</name><name sortKey="Brooker, Simon J" sort="Brooker, Simon J" uniqKey="Brooker S" first="Simon J." last="Brooker">Simon J. Brooker</name><name sortKey="Cano, Jorge" sort="Cano, Jorge" uniqKey="Cano J" first="Jorge" last="Cano">Jorge Cano</name><name sortKey="Davey, Gail" sort="Davey, Gail" uniqKey="Davey G" first="Gail" last="Davey">Gail Davey</name><name sortKey="Deribe, Kebede" sort="Deribe, Kebede" uniqKey="Deribe K" first="Kebede" last="Deribe">Kebede Deribe</name><name sortKey="Enquselassie, Fikre" sort="Enquselassie, Fikre" uniqKey="Enquselassie F" first="Fikre" last="Enquselassie">Fikre Enquselassie</name><name sortKey="Gebretsadik, Abeba" sort="Gebretsadik, Abeba" uniqKey="Gebretsadik A" first="Abeba" last="Gebretsadik">Abeba Gebretsadik</name><name sortKey="Hailu, Asrat" sort="Hailu, Asrat" uniqKey="Hailu A" first="Asrat" last="Hailu">Asrat Hailu</name><name sortKey="Kebede, Amha" sort="Kebede, Amha" uniqKey="Kebede A" first="Amha" last="Kebede">Amha Kebede</name><name sortKey="Newport, Melanie J" sort="Newport, Melanie J" uniqKey="Newport M" first="Melanie J." last="Newport">Melanie J. Newport</name><name sortKey="Pullan, Rachel L" sort="Pullan, Rachel L" uniqKey="Pullan R" first="Rachel L." last="Pullan">Rachel L. Pullan</name><name sortKey="Rebollo, Maria P" sort="Rebollo, Maria P" uniqKey="Rebollo M" first="Maria P." last="Rebollo">Maria P. Rebollo</name><name sortKey="Reithinger, Richard" sort="Reithinger, Richard" uniqKey="Reithinger R" first="Richard" last="Reithinger">Richard Reithinger</name><name sortKey="Shafi, Oumer" sort="Shafi, Oumer" uniqKey="Shafi O" first="Oumer" last="Shafi">Oumer Shafi</name><name sortKey="Sime, Heven" sort="Sime, Heven" uniqKey="Sime H" first="Heven" last="Sime">Heven Sime</name></noCountry></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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