Factors Associated with the Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Using Lymphatic Filariasis Transmission Assessment Surveys for Monitoring Soil-Transmitted Helminths: A Case Study in Kenya
Identifieur interne : 001261 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 001260; suivant : 001262Factors Associated with the Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Using Lymphatic Filariasis Transmission Assessment Surveys for Monitoring Soil-Transmitted Helminths: A Case Study in Kenya
Auteurs : Jennifer L. Smith ; Hugh J. W. Sturrock ; Liya Assefa ; Birgit Nikolay ; Sammy M. Njenga ; Jimmy Kihara ; Charles S. Mwandawiro ; Simon J. BrookerSource :
- The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene [ 0002-9637 ] ; 2015.
Abstract
Transmission assessment surveys (TAS) for lymphatic filariasis have been proposed as a platform to assess the impact of mass drug administration (MDA) on soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). This study used computer simulation and field data from pre- and post-MDA settings across Kenya to evaluate the performance and cost-effectiveness of the TAS design for STH assessment compared with alternative survey designs. Variations in the TAS design and different sample sizes and diagnostic methods were also evaluated. The district-level TAS design correctly classified more districts compared with standard STH designs in pre-MDA settings. Aggregating districts into larger evaluation units in a TAS design decreased performance, whereas age group sampled and sample size had minimal impact. The low diagnostic sensitivity of Kato-Katz and mini-FLOTAC methods was found to increase misclassification. We recommend using a district-level TAS among children 8–10 years of age to assess STH but suggest that key consideration is given to evaluation unit size.
Url:
DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0435
PubMed: 25487730
PubMed Central: 4347340
Affiliations:
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Transmission assessment surveys (TAS) for lymphatic filariasis have been proposed as a platform to assess the impact of mass drug administration (MDA) on soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). This study used computer simulation and field data from pre- and post-MDA settings across Kenya to evaluate the performance and cost-effectiveness of the TAS design for STH assessment compared with alternative survey designs. Variations in the TAS design and different sample sizes and diagnostic methods were also evaluated. The district-level TAS design correctly classified more districts compared with standard STH designs in pre-MDA settings. Aggregating districts into larger evaluation units in a TAS design decreased performance, whereas age group sampled and sample size had minimal impact. The low diagnostic sensitivity of Kato-Katz and mini-FLOTAC methods was found to increase misclassification. We recommend using a district-level TAS among children 8–10 years of age to assess STH but suggest that key consideration is given to evaluation unit size.</p>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Am J Trop Med Hyg</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">tpmd</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0002-9637</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1476-1645</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25487730</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4347340</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4269/ajtmh.14-0435</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Factors Associated with the Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Using Lymphatic Filariasis Transmission Assessment Surveys for Monitoring Soil-Transmitted Helminths: A Case Study in Kenya</article-title>
<alt-title alt-title-type="left-running-head">SMITH AND OTHERS</alt-title>
<alt-title alt-title-type="right-running-head">TAS AS A PLATFORM FOR MONITORING SOIL-TRANSMITTED HELMINTHS</alt-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname>
<given-names>Jennifer L.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="COR1">*</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sturrock</surname>
<given-names>Hugh J. W.</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Assefa</surname>
<given-names>Liya</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Nikolay</surname>
<given-names>Birgit</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Njenga</surname>
<given-names>Sammy M.</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kihara</surname>
<given-names>Jimmy</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mwandawiro</surname>
<given-names>Charles S.</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Brooker</surname>
<given-names>Simon J.</given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="AFF1">Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Global Health Group, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Eastern and Southern Africa Centre of International Parasite Control, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="COR1">*Address correspondence to Jennifer L. Smith, Global Health Group, University of California San Francisco, 50 Beale Street, San Francisco, CA 94105. E-mail: <email>Jennifer.Smith@ucsf.edu</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><day>04</day>
<month>2</month>
<year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>04</day>
<month>2</month>
<year>2015</year>
</pub-date>
<pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on the
. </pmc-comment>
<volume>92</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>342</fpage>
<lpage>353</lpage>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>11</day>
<month>7</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>06</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>©The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2015</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>
, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p>Transmission assessment surveys (TAS) for lymphatic filariasis have been proposed as a platform to assess the impact of mass drug administration (MDA) on soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). This study used computer simulation and field data from pre- and post-MDA settings across Kenya to evaluate the performance and cost-effectiveness of the TAS design for STH assessment compared with alternative survey designs. Variations in the TAS design and different sample sizes and diagnostic methods were also evaluated. The district-level TAS design correctly classified more districts compared with standard STH designs in pre-MDA settings. Aggregating districts into larger evaluation units in a TAS design decreased performance, whereas age group sampled and sample size had minimal impact. The low diagnostic sensitivity of Kato-Katz and mini-FLOTAC methods was found to increase misclassification. We recommend using a district-level TAS among children 8–10 years of age to assess STH but suggest that key consideration is given to evaluation unit size.</p>
</abstract>
</article-meta>
</front>
<floats-group><table-wrap id="T1" position="float"><label>Table 1</label>
<caption><p>Overview of survey design characteristics and initial values for transmission assessment survey (TAS) and current recommended approaches for soil-transmitted helminth surveillance</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Design</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Evaluation unit (EU)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number clusters</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total sample per EU</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age range (years)</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Diagnostic</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">TAS</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">District</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥ 30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">308</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6–7/8–10</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gold standard</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aggregated districts</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">≥ 30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">308</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6–7/8–10</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gold standard</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">WHO</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ecological zones</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">250</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5–16</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gold standard</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Standard</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Districts</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">250</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5—16</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gold standard</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN1"><label>*</label>
<p>Number of clusters determined according to TAS design based on population size and vector (<italic>Anopheles</italic>
).</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T2" position="float"><label>Table 2</label>
<caption><p>Components used in the standard TAS evaluation and parameters varied to assess the impact of sample size and diagnostic sensitivity</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Component</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Standard TAS design</th>
<th colspan="3" align="center" rowspan="1">Varied parameters</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Evaluation unit</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Districts</td>
<td colspan="3" rowspan="1">–</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age range</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8–10 years</td>
<td colspan="3" rowspan="1">–</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="1">Sample size</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number clusters: 30+</td>
<td colspan="3" rowspan="1">Number clusters: 30+</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total sample: 308</td>
<td colspan="3" rowspan="1">Total sample: 100, 200, 308, 500</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="6" colspan="1">Diagnostic<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
</td>
<td rowspan="6" colspan="1">Gold standard</td>
<td rowspan="3" colspan="1">Kato-Katz</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>A. lumbricoides</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">63.8 (59.1–68.6)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>T. trichiuria</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">82.2 (80.1–84.5)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hookworm</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">59.5 (56.9–62.2)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="3" colspan="1">mini-FLOTAC</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>A. lumbricoides</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">75.5 (54.0–95.9)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>T. trichiuria</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.2 (33.9–99.4)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hookworm</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">79.2 (72.7–85.9)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN2"><label>*</label>
<p>Lower, midpoint, and upper sensitivity estimates correspond to those reported in <xref ref-type="table" rid="T3">Table 3</xref>
and derived from Nikolay and others (in press).<xref rid="R31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>
.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>TAS = transmission assessment survey.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T3" position="float"><label>Table 3</label>
<caption><p>Performance of TAS, district-based and ecozone-based STH survey designs in coastal and western regions of Kenya described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="T2">Table 2</xref>
. Simulations assume a perfect diagnostic sensitivity and specificity</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="1">Survey method</th>
<th align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">Pre MDA</th>
<th align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">Post MDA</th>
</tr>
<tr><th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean error<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean absolute error<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">†</xref>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proportion districts correctly classified‡</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean error<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mean absolute error<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">†</xref>
</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Proportion districts correctly classified<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">§</xref>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">TAS, 6–7 y</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.86</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.77</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">TAS, 8–10 y</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.88</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.76</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">TAS, aggregate, 6–7 y</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.10</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.71</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.01</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.64</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">TAS, aggregate, 8–10 y</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.11</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.72</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.62</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">STH survey (districts)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.06</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.81</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.65</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">STH survey (ecozones)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.00</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.14</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.63</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.04</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.52</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN4"><label>*</label>
<p>Mean of the estimated prevalence minus the true prevalence.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN5"><label>†</label>
<p>Mean of the absolute value of the estimate prevalence minus the true prevalence.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN6"><label>§</label>
<p>Proportion of times districts were correctly classified in relation to the MDA prevalence thresholds defined in <xref ref-type="table" rid="T1">Table 1</xref>
.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN7"><p>TAS = transmission assessment survey; STH = soil-transmitted helminth; MDA = mass drug administration.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T4" position="float"><label>Table 4</label>
<caption><p>Impact of variation in sample size and diagnostic sensitivity of Kato-Katz and mini-FLOTAC on performance and cost<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref>
</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="1"></th>
<th align="center" colspan="6" rowspan="1">Proportion correctly classified<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">†</xref>
</th>
</tr>
<tr><th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Pre-MDA</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Post-MDA</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Survey costs</th>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sample Size</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kato-Katz</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">mini-FLOTAC</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kato-Katz</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">mini-FLOTAC</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kato-Katz</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">mini-FLOTAC</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">72.1 (69.2, 74.7)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">80.0 (66.2, 82.1)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">71.8 (71.1, 72.1)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">73.2 (70.0, 71.1)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1144</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1589</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">200</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">74.4 (71.7, 76.8)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">81.5 (68.0, 84.8)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">77.0 (75.5, 77.2)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">79.5 (72.6, 76.7)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1191</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1948</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">308</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">75.5 (72.3, 77.5)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">81.8 (68.8, 85.8)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">78.4 (77.3, 79.4)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">81.2 (72.9, 78.6)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1249</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2318</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">500</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.1 (73.8, 77.7)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">82.2 (69.4, 86.9)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">80.0 (78.6, 81.2)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">83.7 (72.9, 81.3)</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1344</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2868</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN8"><label>*</label>
<p>Performance is measured by the proportion of times that districts were correctly classified in relation to standard prevalence thresholds by alternative district-level TAS designs in pre- and post-MDA contexts.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN9"><label>†</label>
<p>Corresponding to midpoint, lower and upper estimates of diagnostic sensitivity.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN10"><p>MDA = mass drug administration.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="T5" position="float"><label>Table 5</label>
<caption><p>Median and 95% confidence interval of the ratio of total cost per district receiving adequate treatment (or better) based on prevalence estimates using Kato-Katz and mini-FLOTAC in pre-MDA and post-MDA contexts, compared with the median total cost per district receiving adequate treatment (or better) using TAS decision rules and Kato-Katz<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">†</xref>
</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" rowspan="3" colspan="1">Sample size</th>
<th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Pre-MDA</th>
<th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Post-MDA</th>
</tr>
<tr><th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Cost ratio (per adequate treatment)</th>
<th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Cost ratio (per adequate treatment)</th>
</tr>
<tr><th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Kato-Katz</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Mini-FLOTAC</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Kato-Katz</th>
<th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">Mini-FLOTAC</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.14</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.01, 1.36</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.08</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.92, 1.44</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.88</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.73, 1.04</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.88</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.76, 1.03</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">200</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.11</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.99, 1.31</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.05</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.91, 1.40</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.85</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.72, 1.02</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.85</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.73, 1.02</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">308</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.10</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.99, 1.30</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.04</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.89, 1.38</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.84</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.70, 1.00</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.84</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.72, 1.01</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">500</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.09</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.99, 1.28</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.03</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.89, 1.36</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.84</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.70, 0.99</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.83</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.71, 1.01</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn id="TFN11"><label>*</label>
<p>Estimates include survey and treatment costs and incorporate diagnostic and sampling uncertainty by modeling the upper and lower 95% confidence interval associated with the low, high and midpoint estimate of diagnostic sensitivity. When the costs for a given prevalence design are equal to the costs of a standard TAS design using a decision rule, then the cost ratio will be one. A cost ratio greater than or less than one indicates respectively higher or lower costs per district correctly classified compared with the standard TAS with decision rule.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN12"><label>†</label>
<p>Corresponding to midpoint, upper and lower estimates of diagnostic sensitivity.</p>
</fn>
<fn id="TFN13"><p>MDA = mass drug administration; TAS = transmission assessment survey.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</floats-group>
</pmc>
<affiliations><list></list>
<tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Assefa, Liya" sort="Assefa, Liya" uniqKey="Assefa L" first="Liya" last="Assefa">Liya Assefa</name>
<name sortKey="Brooker, Simon J" sort="Brooker, Simon J" uniqKey="Brooker S" first="Simon J." last="Brooker">Simon J. Brooker</name>
<name sortKey="Kihara, Jimmy" sort="Kihara, Jimmy" uniqKey="Kihara J" first="Jimmy" last="Kihara">Jimmy Kihara</name>
<name sortKey="Mwandawiro, Charles S" sort="Mwandawiro, Charles S" uniqKey="Mwandawiro C" first="Charles S." last="Mwandawiro">Charles S. Mwandawiro</name>
<name sortKey="Nikolay, Birgit" sort="Nikolay, Birgit" uniqKey="Nikolay B" first="Birgit" last="Nikolay">Birgit Nikolay</name>
<name sortKey="Njenga, Sammy M" sort="Njenga, Sammy M" uniqKey="Njenga S" first="Sammy M." last="Njenga">Sammy M. Njenga</name>
<name sortKey="Smith, Jennifer L" sort="Smith, Jennifer L" uniqKey="Smith J" first="Jennifer L." last="Smith">Jennifer L. Smith</name>
<name sortKey="Sturrock, Hugh J W" sort="Sturrock, Hugh J W" uniqKey="Sturrock H" first="Hugh J. W." last="Sturrock">Hugh J. W. Sturrock</name>
</noCountry>
</tree>
</affiliations>
</record>
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