Zoonotic Potential of Influenza A Viruses: A Comprehensive Overview
Identifieur interne : 000092 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 000091; suivant : 000093Zoonotic Potential of Influenza A Viruses: A Comprehensive Overview
Auteurs : Ahmed Mostafa [Égypte] ; Elsayed M. Abdelwhab ; Thomas C. Mettenleiter ; Stephan PleschkaSource :
- Viruses [ 1999-4915 ] ; 2018.
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) possess a great zoonotic potential as they are able to infect different avian and mammalian animal hosts, from which they can be transmitted to humans. This is based on the ability of IAV to gradually change their genome by mutation or even reassemble their genome segments during co-infection of the host cell with different IAV strains, resulting in a high genetic diversity. Variants of circulating or newly emerging IAVs continue to trigger global health threats annually for both humans and animals. Here, we provide an introduction on IAVs, highlighting the mechanisms of viral evolution, the host spectrum, and the animal/human interface. Pathogenicity determinants of IAVs in mammals, with special emphasis on newly emerging IAVs with pandemic potential, are discussed. Finally, an overview is provided on various approaches for the prevention of human IAV infections.
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/v10090497
PubMed: 30217093
PubMed Central: 6165440
Affiliations:
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Zoonotic Potential of Influenza A Viruses: A Comprehensive Overview</title><author><name sortKey="Mostafa, Ahmed" sort="Mostafa, Ahmed" uniqKey="Mostafa A" first="Ahmed" last="Mostafa">Ahmed Mostafa</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany;<email>Ahmed_elsayed@daad-alumni.de</email></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-viruses-10-00497">Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Giza 12622, Egypt</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Égypte</country><wicri:regionArea>Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Giza 12622</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Giza 12622</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" sort="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" uniqKey="Abdelwhab E" first="Elsayed M." last="Abdelwhab">Elsayed M. Abdelwhab</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;<email>Sayed.Abdel-Whab@fli.de</email> (E.M.A.);<email>thomas.mettenleiter@fli.de</email> (T.C.M.)</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" sort="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" uniqKey="Mettenleiter T" first="Thomas C." last="Mettenleiter">Thomas C. Mettenleiter</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;<email>Sayed.Abdel-Whab@fli.de</email> (E.M.A.);<email>thomas.mettenleiter@fli.de</email> (T.C.M.)</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pleschka, Stephan" sort="Pleschka, Stephan" uniqKey="Pleschka S" first="Stephan" last="Pleschka">Stephan Pleschka</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany;<email>Ahmed_elsayed@daad-alumni.de</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">30217093</idno><idno type="pmc">6165440</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6165440</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:6165440</idno><idno type="doi">10.3390/v10090497</idno><date when="2018">2018</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000E38</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000E38</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000E38</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">000E38</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">000092</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Checkpoint">000092</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Zoonotic Potential of Influenza A Viruses: A Comprehensive Overview</title><author><name sortKey="Mostafa, Ahmed" sort="Mostafa, Ahmed" uniqKey="Mostafa A" first="Ahmed" last="Mostafa">Ahmed Mostafa</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany;<email>Ahmed_elsayed@daad-alumni.de</email></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-viruses-10-00497">Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Giza 12622, Egypt</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Égypte</country><wicri:regionArea>Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Giza 12622</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Giza 12622</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" sort="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" uniqKey="Abdelwhab E" first="Elsayed M." last="Abdelwhab">Elsayed M. Abdelwhab</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;<email>Sayed.Abdel-Whab@fli.de</email> (E.M.A.);<email>thomas.mettenleiter@fli.de</email> (T.C.M.)</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" sort="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" uniqKey="Mettenleiter T" first="Thomas C." last="Mettenleiter">Thomas C. Mettenleiter</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;<email>Sayed.Abdel-Whab@fli.de</email> (E.M.A.);<email>thomas.mettenleiter@fli.de</email> (T.C.M.)</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pleschka, Stephan" sort="Pleschka, Stephan" uniqKey="Pleschka S" first="Stephan" last="Pleschka">Stephan Pleschka</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-viruses-10-00497">Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany;<email>Ahmed_elsayed@daad-alumni.de</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Viruses</title><idno type="eISSN">1999-4915</idno><imprint><date when="2018">2018</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Influenza A viruses (IAVs) possess a great zoonotic potential as they are able to infect different avian and mammalian animal hosts, from which they can be transmitted to humans. This is based on the ability of IAV to gradually change their genome by mutation or even reassemble their genome segments during co-infection of the host cell with different IAV strains, resulting in a high genetic diversity. Variants of circulating or newly emerging IAVs continue to trigger global health threats annually for both humans and animals. Here, we provide an introduction on IAVs, highlighting the mechanisms of viral evolution, the host spectrum, and the animal/human interface. Pathogenicity determinants of IAVs in mammals, with special emphasis on newly emerging IAVs with pandemic potential, are discussed. Finally, an overview is provided on various approaches for the prevention of human IAV infections.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hause, B M" uniqKey="Hause B">B.M. Hause</name></author><author><name sortKey="Collin, E A" uniqKey="Collin E">E.A. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Viruses</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Viruses</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">viruses</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Viruses</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1999-4915</issn><publisher><publisher-name>MDPI</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">30217093</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">6165440</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/v10090497</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">viruses-10-00497</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Zoonotic Potential of Influenza A Viruses: A Comprehensive Overview</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mostafa</surname><given-names>Ahmed</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-viruses-10-00497">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-viruses-10-00497">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2103-0922</contrib-id><name><surname>Abdelwhab</surname><given-names>Elsayed M.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-viruses-10-00497">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8385-7899</contrib-id><name><surname>Mettenleiter</surname><given-names>Thomas C.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-viruses-10-00497">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Pleschka</surname><given-names>Stephan</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-viruses-10-00497">1</xref><xref rid="c1-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="corresp">*</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-viruses-10-00497"><label>1</label>Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany;<email>Ahmed_elsayed@daad-alumni.de</email></aff><aff id="af2-viruses-10-00497"><label>2</label>Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Giza 12622, Egypt</aff><aff id="af3-viruses-10-00497"><label>3</label>Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;<email>Sayed.Abdel-Whab@fli.de</email> (E.M.A.);<email>thomas.mettenleiter@fli.de</email> (T.C.M.)</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-viruses-10-00497"><label>*</label>Correspondence: <email>stephan.pleschka@viro.med.uni-giessen.de</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>13</day><month>9</month><year>2018</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>9</month><year>2018</year></pub-date><volume>10</volume><issue>9</issue><elocation-id>497</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>09</day><month>7</month><year>2018</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>13</day><month>9</month><year>2018</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2018 by the authors.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2018</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>).</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Influenza A viruses (IAVs) possess a great zoonotic potential as they are able to infect different avian and mammalian animal hosts, from which they can be transmitted to humans. This is based on the ability of IAV to gradually change their genome by mutation or even reassemble their genome segments during co-infection of the host cell with different IAV strains, resulting in a high genetic diversity. Variants of circulating or newly emerging IAVs continue to trigger global health threats annually for both humans and animals. Here, we provide an introduction on IAVs, highlighting the mechanisms of viral evolution, the host spectrum, and the animal/human interface. Pathogenicity determinants of IAVs in mammals, with special emphasis on newly emerging IAVs with pandemic potential, are discussed. Finally, an overview is provided on various approaches for the prevention of human IAV infections.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Influenza A virus</kwd><kwd>zoonosis</kwd><kwd>pathogenicity</kwd><kwd>evolution</kwd><kwd>pandemic</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Schematic structure of influenza A virus (IAV). The envelope of the IAV particle, which is derived from the host cell plasma membrane, contains three trans-membrane proteins; two surface glycoproteins designated as hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) and the proton channel matrix protein 2 (M2). The matrix protein 1 (M1) underlies the inner surface of the viral envelope and associates with NEP and viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNPs). The eight vRNPs comprise eight negative-strand RNA segments associated with the nucleoprotein (NP) and three RdRp polymerase subunits (PA, PB1, PB2).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g001"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Overview of minigenome assay for IAV. The DNA of four expression plasmids, encoding the PB1, PB2, PA, and NP of IAV under control of polymerase II promoter (Pol-II), are co-transfected into host cell with reporter plasmid, which is carrying the ORF of the reporter gene (e.g., Luciferase, CAT, GFP) in a negative polarity and flanked by the NCRs of an IAV segment. Transcription is controlled by a Pol-I promoter (Pol-I) and a Pol-I terminator (T) to express a specific vRNA-like Pol-I-transcript of the reporter gene. The expression of the viral proteins together with the vRNA-like reporter gene transcript results in the in vitro reconstitution of RNP complexes. The RNP complexes generate the corresponding mRNA, which is then translated into the reporter protein of unique enzymatic, fluorescent or chemiluminescence activity. The represented regions in plasmid constructs are not drawn to scale.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g002"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>Evolution mechanisms of IAV. (<bold>A</bold>) Antigenic Drift: Gradual accumulation of mutations in the genome of IAVs leads to emergence of new virus variants. Mutations in the HA (blue) and NA (red) can affect the antigenic epitopes leading to antigenically new variants. (<bold>B</bold>) Antigenic Shift: The exchange/reassortment of genetic segments between two or more invading IAVs in a host cell can lead to emergence of (antigenically) distinct new subtype(s).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g003"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 4</label><caption><p>Timeline showing influenza pandemics and epidemics caused by IAVs. The “Spanish Flu” of 1918 was the most devastating influenza pandemic in the 20th century and was likely caused by a zoonotic transmission of an H1N1-type IAV from poultry to humans. This strain disappeared in 1957 when the influenza virus A/H2N2, a reassortant of the H1N1 virus and other avian IAVs, appeared and led to the second influenza pandemic—the “Asian Flu.” In 1968, H3N2, a novel reassortant strain between the H2N2-type and an H3-type virus, displaced the H2N2 strain in the human population and led to the “Hong Kong Flu”—the third influenza pandemic. In 1977 the H1N1 strain reemerged, resulting in the “Russian Flu”. In 2009, a new H1N1 reassortant was transmitted from swine to humans leading to the first pandemic of the 21st century—the “Swine Flu.” In parallel, different avian influenza A virus strains (H5-, H6-, H7-, H9-, and H10-types) have occasionally crossed the host barriers causing mild-to-fatal infections in humans.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g004"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f005" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 5</label><caption><p>Documented human cases and fatalities caused by zoonotic AIVs. Zoonotic events by H5Nx, H6N1, H7Nx, H9N2, and H10Nx viruses were reported in the indicated countries. In brackets the number of confirmed cases against the number of fatalities until July 2018 countries are indicated [<xref rid="B44-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>,<xref rid="B91-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">91</xref>,<xref rid="B92-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">92</xref>,<xref rid="B93-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">93</xref>]. Compared to other human isolates of AIVs (black), H5N1 (red), and H7N9 (blue) demonstrated increased zoonotic potential.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g005"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f006" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 6</label><caption><p>H9N2-type influenza A viruses donate their internal genes to other IAVs. Recent studies revealed the contribution of the internal genes of H9N2 in the genesis of various, recently evolved AIV strains with zoonotic potential [<xref rid="B135-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">135</xref>,<xref rid="B138-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">138</xref>,<xref rid="B139-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">139</xref>]. Poultry (chicken pictogram) served as mixing hosts for emergence of these influenza reassortants, which are then transmitted naturally to humans (human pictogram), or evaluated experimentally in ferrets (ferret pictogram), leading to infections/deaths.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g006"></graphic></fig><fig id="viruses-10-00497-f007" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 7</label><caption><p>The targets of anti-influenza agents that are currently licensed or under clinically investigation. Before attachment of the influenza virus particle (IVP) to the host cell, specific neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against conserved domains in HA can prevent viral infection. Enzymatic destruction of the receptor determinant can further prevent IVP-binding to the target cells. After binding of the IVP to host cell sialic-acid receptors the viral life-cycle is continued by receptor-mediated endocytosis, HA-mediated fusion of the viral membrane with vesicular membrane, vRNP uncoating and release into the cytosol. The viral genome is then replicated/transcribed in the nucleus. After the viral mRNA has been translated into proteins some undergo post-translational processing in the cytosol or support genome replication in the nucleus. Newly formed vRNPs are exported from the nucleus and finally progeny virions are assembled and released by budding from the infected cell to infect new cells. These different processes are potential targets for the currently licensed antiviral drugs and others, which are in clinical trials including CR6261, CR8020, MEDI8852, MHAA4549A, VIS-410 (neutralizing Abs); DAS181 (sialidase); Umifenovir (fusion inhibitor); adamantanes (M2 channel blockers); Favipiravir and Ribavirin (RdRp inhibitors); VX-787 (PB2 cap-binding inhibitor); S-033188 (PA endonuclease inhibitor); AVI-7100 (inhibits M1/M2 mRNA-splicing); Nitazoxanide (HA maturation inhibitor); and Oseltamivir, Peramivir, Zanamivir, and Laninamivir (Neuraminidase inhibitors). In addition to its NF-κB inhibition effect, LASAG antagonizes the nuclear export of viral genomes and thereby blocks the assembly and release of mature influenza virus.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="viruses-10-00497-g007"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="viruses-10-00497-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">viruses-10-00497-t001_Table 1</object-id><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>The genome and functional proteins of influenza A virus (IAV).</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Segment</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">vRNA(nt)</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Viral Protein(s)</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Protein</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Molecules per Virion</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Main Functions</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Ref.</th></tr><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(aa)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(kD)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><bold>1</bold></td><td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">2341</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PB2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">759</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30–60</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) recognition and binding to the cellular mRNA cap sequence; (ii) RIG-I-mediated IFN-expression by binding to the mitochondrial antiviral signalling protein (MAVS)</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>,<xref rid="B9-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PB2-S1 *†</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">508</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) inhibition of RIG-I-dependent interferon signaling pathway, (ii) interference with RdRp activity via competitive binding to PB1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B10-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><bold>2</bold></td><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">2341</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PB1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">757</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30–60</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) captures of snatched Cap-structure to prime the viral mRNA transcription, (ii) transcribes vRNA into complementary RNA (cRNA) as template for further vRNA synthesis, (iii) initiates vRNA synthesis</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PB1-F2 †</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">87–90</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) induces apoptosis, (ii) modulates host interferon response, (iii) modulates the susceptibility to secondary bacterial infection</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B11-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>,<xref rid="B13-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="B14-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="B15-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>,<xref rid="B16-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PB1-N40 †</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">718</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">≈80</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">maintains the balance between PB1 and PB1-F2 expression</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B17-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>,<xref rid="B18-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><bold>3</bold></td><td rowspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">2233</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PA</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">716</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">83</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30–60</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RNA endonuclease to cleave small capped RNA structures to be used for viral mRNA synthesis</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PA-X †</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">252</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">modulation of the host response and viral virulence</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B19-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>,<xref rid="B20-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>,<xref rid="B21-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PA-N155 †</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">561</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">62</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Promote viral replication and pathogenicity of IAV</td><td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B22-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>,<xref rid="B23-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PA-N182 †</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">534</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>4</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1778</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HA</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">566</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">77</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">500</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) receptor binding; (ii) membrane fusion; (iii) major antigen</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>5</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1565</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NP</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">498</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1000</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) vRNA binding and protection; (ii) vRNA synthesis by vRNP complex; (iii) nuclear import of vRNP</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>6</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1413</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">454</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">56</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) sialidase activity to release the virion progeny; (ii) help the viral particle to penetrate the mucus barrier of the respiratory tract to reach and infect the host cell</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><bold>7</bold></td><td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">1027</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">M1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">252</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3000</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) nuclear import and export of vRNPs; (ii) viral assembly, budding and morphogenesis</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>,<xref rid="B24-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">M2 *</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20–60</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) Ion channel activity; (ii) uncoating process</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B3-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B6-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>,<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">M3 *†</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B25-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">M4 *†</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">54</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">M42 *†</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Functionally complements M2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><bold>8</bold></td><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">890</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">230</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) vRNP entry by hijacking importin-α; (ii) antagonize cellular antiviral responses including interferons; (iii) support viral mRNA splicing, maturation and translation; (iv) inhibits cellular mRNA maturation and translation</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B8-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>,<xref rid="B26-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>,<xref rid="B27-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>,<xref rid="B28-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>,<xref rid="B29-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>,<xref rid="B30-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NEP/NS2 *</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">121</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">130–200</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(i) important for vRNP nuclear export; (ii) regulates vRNA transcription/replication</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B31-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>,<xref rid="B32-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>,<xref rid="B33-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>,<xref rid="B34-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS3 *†</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">187</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N/A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B35-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>]</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p>N/A means unknown; † refers to auxiliary viral proteins; * refers to viral proteins translated from spliced mRNA; aa: amino acids; kD: kilo Dalton.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="viruses-10-00497-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">viruses-10-00497-t002_Table 2</object-id><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Host range of different hemagglutinin (H1–H18) and neuraminidase (N1–N9) subtypes [<xref rid="B43-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>,<xref rid="B44-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>,<xref rid="B54-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">54</xref>,<xref rid="B68-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>,<xref rid="B69-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>,<xref rid="B70-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>].</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HA-Subtype</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA-Subtype</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Human</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Swine</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Equine</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Domestic Poultry</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Waterfowl Shorebirds</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sea Mammals<break></break>(Seal/Whale)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bat</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1/N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1/N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1/N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1/N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H2/N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H2/N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H2/N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H2/N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3/N3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3/N3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3/N3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H3/N3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H4/N4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H4/N4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H5/N5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H5/N5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H6/N6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H6/N6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H6/N6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H6/N6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7/N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7/N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7/N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7/N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H7/N7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H8/N8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H8/N8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9/H9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9/N9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H9/N9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N10</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N11</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H16</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H17</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H17</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H18</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H18</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="viruses-10-00497-t003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">viruses-10-00497-t003_Table 3</object-id><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Confirmed human infections/fatalities with LPAIV- or HPAIV H7N9 per wave.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wave Number</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Period</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phenotype</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cases</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fatalities</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fatality Rate</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">February 2013–September 2013</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">134</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34%</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">October 2013–September 2014</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">306</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">131</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43%</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">October 2014–September 2015</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">219</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">102</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">47%</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">October 2015–September 2016</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">114</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">47</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">41%</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">October 2016–September 2017</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV/HPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">848</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">295</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35%</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Since October 2017</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LPAIV/HPAIV</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">75%</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="viruses-10-00497-t004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">viruses-10-00497-t004_Table 4</object-id><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Active site residues for all NA-subtypes and genetic resistance markers in viral NA proteins of highlighted non-seasonal human IAVs [<xref rid="B288-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">288</xref>,<xref rid="B290-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">290</xref>,<xref rid="B291-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">291</xref>,<xref rid="B296-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">296</xref>,<xref rid="B300-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">300</xref>,<xref rid="B304-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">304</xref>,<xref rid="B308-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">308</xref>,<xref rid="B309-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">309</xref>,<xref rid="B310-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">310</xref>,<xref rid="B311-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">311</xref>,<xref rid="B312-viruses-10-00497" ref-type="bibr">312</xref>].</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">NA Active Site (N2 Numbering)</th><th rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Influenza Virus Type/Subtype</th><th colspan="9" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Resistance Marker (N2 Numbering)/Location within NA Active Site</th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Catalytic Residues (CR)</th><th rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Framework Residues (FWR)</th><th colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Oseltamivir</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Zanamivir</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Peramivir</th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Laninamivir</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Amino Acid (aa)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Site</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Amino Acid (aa)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Site</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Amino Acid (aa)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Site</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Amino Acid (aa)</th><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Site</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="20" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">118R<break></break>151D<break></break>152R<break></break>224R<break></break>276E<break></break>292R<break></break>371R<break></break>406Y</td><td rowspan="20" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">119E<break></break>156R<break></break>178W<break></break>179S<break></break>198D<break></break>222I<break></break>227E<break></break>274H<break></break>277E<break></break>294N<break></break>425E</td><td rowspan="20" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">Non-seasonal A/H5N1 <sup>†</sup> and A/H7N9</td><td rowspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">A/H5N1</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">V116A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">V116A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119D/G</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119A/D</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119A/D/G</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Q136L</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Q136L</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N294S</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D198G</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">D198G</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119A/D/G + H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222M</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N294S</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>I222M/V + H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">S246N</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">K432T</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119A/D/G + H274Y</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>N294S</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I117V + I314V</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119A/D/G + H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222L + S246N</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR/-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>I222M/V + H274Y</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="8" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">A/H7N9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119A/D</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119A/D/G</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119A/G</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119A</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222K/R</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Q136K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119D</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E119D/G</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T247P</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Q136K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Q136K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H274Y</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T247P</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R152K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E276D</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>E276D</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E276D</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I222K/R</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R292K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R292K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R292K</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E276D</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R371K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">N294S</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R371K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R292K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">E119V + E222V</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FWR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R371K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin;background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R371K</td><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CR</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn><p>Bold refers to aa substitutions that confer high reduced inhibition (HRI) of NAI. Non-bold aa substitutions were shown to be associated with medium reduced inhibition.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>Égypte</li></country></list><tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" sort="Abdelwhab, Elsayed M" uniqKey="Abdelwhab E" first="Elsayed M." last="Abdelwhab">Elsayed M. Abdelwhab</name><name sortKey="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" sort="Mettenleiter, Thomas C" uniqKey="Mettenleiter T" first="Thomas C." last="Mettenleiter">Thomas C. Mettenleiter</name><name sortKey="Pleschka, Stephan" sort="Pleschka, Stephan" uniqKey="Pleschka S" first="Stephan" last="Pleschka">Stephan Pleschka</name></noCountry><country name="Égypte"><noRegion><name sortKey="Mostafa, Ahmed" sort="Mostafa, Ahmed" uniqKey="Mostafa A" first="Ahmed" last="Mostafa">Ahmed Mostafa</name></noRegion></country></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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