Review on Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. (Koṭṭaikkarantai)
Identifieur interne : 000B23 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000B22; suivant : 000B24Review on Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. (Koṭṭaikkarantai)
Auteurs : Shakila RamachandranSource :
- Pharmacognosy Reviews [ 0973-7847 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
Url:
DOI: 10.4103/0973-7847.120517
PubMed: 24347924
PubMed Central: 3841994
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PMC:3841994Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Review on <italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. (Koṭṭaikkarantai)</title><author><name sortKey="Ramachandran, Shakila" sort="Ramachandran, Shakila" uniqKey="Ramachandran S" first="Shakila" last="Ramachandran">Shakila Ramachandran</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24347924</idno><idno type="pmc">3841994</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3841994</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3841994</idno><idno type="doi">10.4103/0973-7847.120517</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000B23</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000B23</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Review on <italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. (Koṭṭaikkarantai)</title><author><name sortKey="Ramachandran, Shakila" sort="Ramachandran, Shakila" uniqKey="Ramachandran S" first="Shakila" last="Ramachandran">Shakila Ramachandran</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Pharmacognosy Reviews</title><idno type="ISSN">0973-7847</idno><idno type="eISSN">0976-2787</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p><italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. is from the aroma family Asteraceae. It is also known with other synonyms such as Munditika, Mundi, Shravana, Bhikshu, Tapodhana, Mahashravani, Shravanahva, Shravanashirshaka. It is abundantly distributed in damp areas in plains and also as a weed in the rice fields. In the Indian system of medicine, the plant as a whole plant or its different anatomical parts viz., leaf, stem, bark, root, flower and seed are widely used for curing many diseases. The plant is bitter, stomachic, restorative, alterative, pectoral, demulcent and externally soothing. The whole plant and its anatomical parts have been reported with different types of secondary metabolites which include eudesmanolides, sesquiterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, sesquiterpene acids, flavone glycosides, flavonoid C-glycosides, isoflavone glycoside, sterols, sterol glycoside, alkaloid, peptide alkaloids, amino acids and sugars. The essential oils obtained from the flowers and whole plants were analyzed by different authors and reported the presence of many monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The whole plants, its isolated secondary metabolites and different anatomical parts have been reported for ovicidal, antifeedant, anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antiviral, macrofilaricidal, larvicidal, analgesic, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, antitussive, wound healing, bronchodilatory, mast cell stabilizing activity, anxiolytic, neuroleptic, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant, antioxidant, central nervous system depressant, anti-arthritic, nephroprotective, anticonvulsant activities and many other activities. It is also effective on psoriasis. In the present paper, the plant is reviewed for its phytochemical and pharmacological reports in detail.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nadkarni, Ak" uniqKey="Nadkarni A">AK Nadkarni</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chopra, Rn" uniqKey="Chopra R">RN Chopra</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chopra, Ic" uniqKey="Chopra I">IC Chopra</name></author><author><name sortKey="Handa, Kl" uniqKey="Handa K">KL Handa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kapur, Ld" uniqKey="Kapur L">LD Kapur</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dymock, W" uniqKey="Dymock W">W Dymock</name></author><author><name sortKey="Warden, Cj" uniqKey="Warden C">CJ Warden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hooper, D" uniqKey="Hooper D">D Hooper</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Pharmacogn Rev</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Pharmacogn Rev</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">PRev</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Pharmacognosy Reviews</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0973-7847</issn><issn pub-type="epub">0976-2787</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Medknow Publications & Media Pvt Ltd</publisher-name><publisher-loc>India</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24347924</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3841994</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PRev-7-157</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4103/0973-7847.120517</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Review on <italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. (Koṭṭaikkarantai)</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ramachandran</surname><given-names>Shakila</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><italic>Department of Chemistry, Siddha Central Research Institute (Central Council for Research in Siddha), Anna Hospital Campus, Arumbakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India</italic></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><bold>Address for correspondence:</bold> Mrs. R. Shakila, Siddha Central Research Institute (Central Council for Research in Siddha), Anna Hospital Campus, Arumbakkam, Chennai - 600 106, Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: <email xlink:href="shakilasiva@gmail.com">shakilasiva@gmail.com</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><season>Jul-Dec</season><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>7</volume><issue>14</issue><fpage>157</fpage><lpage>169</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>01</day><month>5</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>10</day><month>5</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>25</day><month>10</month><year>2013</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright: © Pharmacognosy Reviews</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p><italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. is from the aroma family Asteraceae. It is also known with other synonyms such as Munditika, Mundi, Shravana, Bhikshu, Tapodhana, Mahashravani, Shravanahva, Shravanashirshaka. It is abundantly distributed in damp areas in plains and also as a weed in the rice fields. In the Indian system of medicine, the plant as a whole plant or its different anatomical parts viz., leaf, stem, bark, root, flower and seed are widely used for curing many diseases. The plant is bitter, stomachic, restorative, alterative, pectoral, demulcent and externally soothing. The whole plant and its anatomical parts have been reported with different types of secondary metabolites which include eudesmanolides, sesquiterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, sesquiterpene acids, flavone glycosides, flavonoid C-glycosides, isoflavone glycoside, sterols, sterol glycoside, alkaloid, peptide alkaloids, amino acids and sugars. The essential oils obtained from the flowers and whole plants were analyzed by different authors and reported the presence of many monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The whole plants, its isolated secondary metabolites and different anatomical parts have been reported for ovicidal, antifeedant, anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antiviral, macrofilaricidal, larvicidal, analgesic, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, antitussive, wound healing, bronchodilatory, mast cell stabilizing activity, anxiolytic, neuroleptic, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant, antioxidant, central nervous system depressant, anti-arthritic, nephroprotective, anticonvulsant activities and many other activities. It is also effective on psoriasis. In the present paper, the plant is reviewed for its phytochemical and pharmacological reports in detail.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>5,4’- Dimethoxy-3’- prenylbiochanin-7-O-β-D-galactoside</kwd><kwd>7-hydroxy eudesmanolide</kwd><kwd>Koṭṭaikkarantai</kwd><kwd>Munditika churna</kwd><kwd>Veezhi Ennai</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="sec1-1"><title>INTRODUCTION</title><p><italic>Sphaeranthus indicus</italic> Linn. is known as Koṭṭaikkarantai in Tamil. It is a multi-branched aromatic herb 1-2 feet in height, distributed widely in plains all over India and up to an altitude of 50 feet in hills. It is an important medicinal plant used for the treatment of styptic gastric disorders, skin diseases, anthelmintic, glandular swelling, nervous depression, analgesic, antibiotics, antifungal, laxative and diuretic properties. The decoction of the plant is said to be active against bronchitis, asthma, leucoderma, jaundice and scabies. The powdered bark along with whey is useful in the treatment of piles. Flowers have alterative, depurative and stimulant characters. Roots and seeds are anthelmintic. Juice of fresh leaves is taken for cough. The plant is also useful in preservation of food grains as it possess insecticidal property.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref4">4</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>] Earlier, the plant has been reviewed by some authors.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref7">7</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>] However, in the present paper author aims to describe the plant on Siddha as well as Ayurvedic aspects, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects.</p></sec><sec id="sec1-2"><title>REGIONAL NAMES</title><p><italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. is known in different names in different Indian languages as mentioned below:[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>]</p><p><list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Sanskrit: Mundi, Śrāvani Kadamba, Puṣpikā, Alambusta</p></list-item><list-item><p>Assamese: Kamadarus</p></list-item><list-item><p>Bengalese: Surmuriya, Chhagal Nadi, Mudmudiya</p></list-item><list-item><p>Gujarati: Gorakhmundi</p></list-item><list-item><p>Hindi: Mundi</p></list-item><list-item><p>Kannada: Mirnagnee, Atookamanni, Mirangnee</p></list-item><list-item><p>Marathi: Mundi, Baras Bondi</p></list-item><list-item><p>Oriya: Buikadam</p></list-item><list-item><p>Punjabi: Gorakhmundi</p></list-item><list-item><p>Tamil: Kotook, Karandai, Kottakarthai</p></list-item><list-item><p>Telelugu: Bodasaramu, Bodataramu</p></list-item><list-item><p>Urdu: Mundi.</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec id="sec1-3"><title>SIDDHA PROPERTIES</title><p><italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. is used in Siddha system of medicine in the name of Koṭṭaikkarantai. Other properties as described in this system are listed below. It is used as one of the ingredient in the siddha preparation, “Veezhi Ennai (or Veezhi oil).”[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref12">12</xref>] Though this plant finds place in many preparations, this is the only preparation mentioned in the official publication.</p><p><list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Suvai (Taste): Kaippu (Bitter)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Tanmai (Potency): Veppam (Hot)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Gunam: Ilaku (Soft)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Pirivu (Transformation): Kārppu (Pungent)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Ceikai (Action): Uļļalalārri (Demulcent), Uṭarterri (Restorative), Puzhukkolli (Anthelmintic), Uramaakki (Tonic).</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec id="sec1-4"><title>AYURVEDIC PROPERTIES</title><p><list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Rasa: Madhura, Kaṭu, Tikta, Kasāya</p></list-item><list-item><p>Guna: Laghu</p></list-item><list-item><p>Virya: Usna</p></list-item><list-item><p>Vipaka: Kaṭu</p></list-item><list-item><p>Karma: Medhya, Viṭaghna, Vātakaphahara, Arśadosa, Vināśaka.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>]</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec id="sec1-5"><title>IMPORTANT AYURVEDIC FORMULATIONS</title><p>Navaratnarāja, Mṭgānka Rasa, Arka Muṭṭī, Guduchyadi taila, Vatagajankusha rasa, Munditika churna, Guduchi taila.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec1-6"><title>AYURVEDIC THERAPEUTIC USES</title><p>Ganṭamālā, Apaci, Kuṭṭha, Kṭmi, Pāṭṭu, Slipada, Medaroga, Apasmara, Kasa, Mutrakrcchra, Tvaka Roga, Stana Saithalya, Yonirogā, Āmātisara, Āmaroga, Vātaroga, Gudaroga, Plīhāroga, Chardi, Āmavāta, Gātradurgandhya, Sūryāvarta, Ardhāvabhāvabhedaka.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec1-7"><title>DOSE</title><p>3-6 g of the drug.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec1-8"><title>PHARMACOGNOSTIC STUDY</title><p>The physico-chemical parameters and estimation of 7-hydroxy eudesmanolide (1), a major sesquiterpene lactone had been carried ouṭ <italic>S. indicus</italic> was described as a branched, hairy and strongly scented herb; leaves spathulate, sessile; flowers pinkish purple. Leaf shows uni-multicellular and club and clavate type of trichomes. Ring of deltoid vascular bundles and well-developed pith with few pitted cells are found in stem. Metaderm and radially arranged fibers are seen in root; in the cortical region secretory canal are alternatively arranged. Powder shows large number of different types of trichomes, pollen grains in pollen sacs and cruciferous stomata. 7-hydroxy eudesmanolide was quantified (0.0658% w/w) by high performance thin layer chromatography method using the solvent system of n-hexane: diethyl ether (3:7) at λ 213 nm.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref13">13</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec1-9"><title>PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDIES</title><p>Spaeranthine, an alkaloid of molecular formula C<sub>13</sub>H<sub>19</sub>O<sub>5</sub> (m.p. 166-168°C) was isolated from the planṭ The essential oil from the fresh flowering plant was isolated and it was characterized for physical and chemical properties viz., specific gravity at 30° (0.9419 68), refractive index at 20° (1.512), optical rotation (nil), acid value (2.4030), ester value (47.80), ester value after acetylation (74.15).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref14">14</xref>]</p><p>The essential oil from the plant was reported to contain methyl chavicol (12), δ-cadinene (11), α-ionone (2), para-methoxycinnamaldehyde (4), α-terpinene (9), citral (6), geraniol (7), geranyl acetate (8), β-ionone (3), oscimene (10), eugenol (5), sphaeranthene, sphaeranthol, estragole, indicusene.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref16">16</xref>]</p><p>β-Sitosterol, n-triacontanol, phenylurethane, n-pentacosane were isolated from oil.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref17">17</xref>] The alcoholic extract yielded sterols, viz., stigmasterol (13) and β-sitosterol (14).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref18">18</xref>]</p><p>Phytochemical analysis of <italic>S. indicus</italic> yielded three interesting hydroxy lactones (15-17).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>]</p><p>A bicyclic sesquiterpene lactone (18) was isolated from the petroleum ether extract of the aerial part.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>]</p><p>A new sesquiterpene lactone, 7α-hydroxyeudesm-4-en-6, 12-olide (19) and a new sesquiterpene acid, 2-hydroxycostic acid (20), along with the known compounds β-eudesmol (21) and ilicic acid (22) have been isolated from the acetone extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> L.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>]</p><p>A sterol glycoside has been isolated and characterized as β-D-glucoside of (24S)-24-ethylcholesta-4,22-dien-3-β-ol (23).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref22">22</xref>] 7-Hydroxyfrullanolide (7HF) (24), was reported from <italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>] A new sesquiterpene glycoside, sphaeranthanolide (25), has been isolated from the flowers of <italic>S. indicus</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>]</p><fig id="F1" position="float"><graphic xlink:href="PRev-7-157-g001"></graphic></fig><p>Three new eudesmanolides, 11α,13-dihydro-3α,7α-dihydroxyfrullanolide (26), 11α,13-dihydro-7α,13-dihydroxyfrullanolide (27) and 11α,13-dihydro-7α-hydroxy-13-methoxy frullanolide (28) were isolated from the flowers of <italic>S. indicus</italic>. Their structures were determined by 2D nuclear magnetic resonance and other spectroscopic techniques.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>]</p><p>Two <italic>Sphaeranthus</italic> peptide alkaloids (1 and 2) (29,30) have been isolated from flowers.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>]</p><p>Two new eudesmanolides (31 and 32) along with 7α-hydroxyeudesm-4-en-6,12-olide (33) and two sesquiterpenoids, cryptomeridiol (34) and 4-epicryptomeridiol (35) have been isolated from <italic>S. indicus</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>]</p><p>A new 5α,7-dihydroxyeudesmanolide (36) along with two known eudesmanolides (31,32) have been obtained from the photo-oxidation of a known 7-hydroxyeudesmanolide.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>]</p><p>Amino acids, viz., glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, histidine, cysteine, lysine, aspartic acid and glutamic acids and sugars viz., D-arabinose, L-rhamnose, lactose, raffinose, D-galactose, maltose, D-fructose and D-glucose were reported the chemical examination of the leaves of <italic>S. indicus</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref29">29</xref>]</p><p>A new flavone glycoside, 7-hydroxy-3′,4′,5,6-tetramethoxy flavone 7-O-β-D-diglucoside (37) was isolated from the stem.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>] A novel isoflavone glycoside, 5,4’- dimethoxy-3’- prenylbiochanin 7-O-β-D-galactoside (38), was isolated from the leaves of <italic>S. indicus</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>]</p><p>Three new eudesmanoids have been isolated from whole plant and their structures were established as 11α,13-dihydro-3α,7α-dihydroxy-4,5-epoxy-6β,7-eudesmanolide (39), 11α, 13-dihydro-7α-acetoxy-3β-hydroxy-6β,7-eudesm-4-enolide (40) and 3-keto-β-eudesmol (41) by comparison of spectral data with those of other 7α-hydroxyeudesmanolides.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref>]</p><fig id="F2" position="float"><graphic xlink:href="PRev-7-157-g002"></graphic></fig><fig id="F3" position="float"><graphic xlink:href="PRev-7-157-g003"></graphic></fig><p>The hydro distilled essential oil of <italic>S. indicus</italic> was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry. Thirty-eight compounds making up 84.0% of the oil were identified. The major compounds were: 2,5-dimethoxy-ρ-cymene (18.2%), α-agarofuran (11.8%) (46), 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (7.9%) and selin-11-en-4α-ol (12.7%). Other detected compounds were (Z)-3-hexenol, (E)-2-hexenol, α-pinene, camphene (42), 6-methyl 5-hepten-2-one, β-pinene (43), myrcene (44), α-phellandrene (45), ρ-cymene, limonene (47), α-ρ-dimethylstyrene, linalool, camphor (56), borneol (52), terpinen-4-ol, nerol, neral, geraniol, geranial, maaliene, β-cubebene, β-elemene (53), β-caryophyllene, 2,5-dimethoxy-1-isopropenyl-4-isopropylbenzene, α-humulene, dihydroagarofuran (54), indipone (52), caryophyllene oxide (55), globulol, cis-arteannuic alcohol, guaiol (51), trans-arteannuic alcohol, cubenol (49), α-muurolol, α-eudesmol and valianol.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref>]</p><p>A novel flavonoid C-glycoside, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxy- 6-C-glycosylflavone (57), was isolated from the aerial part. Its structure was elucidated by spectroscopic methods.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref34">34</xref>]</p><p>Two new eudesmanolides have been isolated[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref35">35</xref>] from the aerial part and their structures have been established as 11α,13-dihydro-3α,7α-dihydroxyeudesm-4-en-6α,12-olide, 4-en-6β,7α-eudesmanolide, based on the spectral data and in comparison of spectral data with those of reported data of 11α,13-dihydro-3α,7α-dihydroxyfrullanolide,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>] eudesmanolide-4[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>] and γ-cyclocostunolide.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref36">36</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec1-10"><title>PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES</title><sec id="sec2-1"><title>Ovicidal activity</title><p>Sesquiterpene lactone, isolated from a petroleum ether extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic>, was screened for its effects on the hatching of eggs and the metamorphosis of larvae of <italic>Culex quinquefasciatus</italic> at concentration of 50-250 ppm. Rates of fecundity and fertility were found to be affected in the larval-treated adult females. Egg hatching was also significantly lowered. Mortality in the larvae, pupae and adults produced a marked decrease in mosquito populations in laboratory experiments.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref37">37</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-2"><title>Hepatoprotective activity</title><p>The protective effectof methanolic extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. (MES) against CCl<sub>4</sub> induced hepatotoxicity was studied in animal models. It showed a significant protective effect by lowering the serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref38">38</xref>]</p><p>The aqueous (AQS) and methanolic (MES) extracts of flower head of <italic>S. indicus</italic> L. were evaluated for the hepatoprotective and antioxidant effect on acetaminophen (APAP)-induced heptotoxicity in rats. Oral dose of MES (300 mg/kg) showed a significant hepatoprotective effect (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), acid phosphatase (ACP) and ALPthan aqueous extract. MES exhibited significant antioxidant activity showing increasing levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) by reducing malondialdehyde levels.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref39">39</xref>]</p><p>Ethanolic extract in the doses 200 and 300 mg/kg bw, of aerial parts of <italic>S. indicus</italic> L. was investigated for hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol induced liver damage of rat. 300 mg/kg of extract showed significant protection against paracetamol-induced hepatocellular injury.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref40">40</xref>]</p><p>Aqueous extract (200 and 300 mg/kg b/w) of root of <italic>S. indicus</italic> L. was evaluated for hepatoprotective activity against APAP induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The activity of 300 mg/kg of the extract was comparable to standard drug, silymarin (50 mg/kg body weight).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref41">41</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-3"><title>Antitussive activity</title><p>The successive methanol extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> (MESI) exhibited antitussive activity and synergistic effects of sleeping time induced by standard sedatives using Swiss Albino mice. The MESI of (200, 300 and 400 mg/kg) showed maximum inhibition of cough by 71.24%, 76.84% and 77.92% and also exhibited significant synergistic effect (<italic>P</italic> < 0.001) at the dose levels of 200, 250 and 300 mg/kg when compared with control and standard sedative pentobarbitone and diazepam. The MESI produced significant synergistic effects three times greater than that of standard sedatives.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref42">42</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-4"><title>Wound healing activity</title><p>A cream containing ethanolic extract of aerial parts of <italic>S. indicus</italic>, L. (Asteraceae) was evaluated for wound healing activity in guinea pigs. The cream was applied <italic>in-vivo</italic> on the paravertebral area of six excised wounded models once a day for 15 days. The cream significantly enhanced the rate of wound contraction and the period of epithelialization comparable to neomycin.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref43">43</xref>]</p><p>The wound healing activity of ointments comprising various percentage of alcoholic extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> flower head was tested for protection against microbial invasion by providing better tissue formation. The formulation comprising of 2% (w/w) alcoholic extract was found to be superior to control and standard formulation.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref44">44</xref>]</p><p>A randomized placebo controlled single blind study was conducted on 45 patients (<italic>n</italic> = 30 test and <italic>n</italic> = 15 control groups) to test the efficacy and safety of <italic>S. indicus</italic> L., cream of <italic>Lawsonia inermis</italic> L. and <italic>Plumbi oxidum</italic>. The test drug formulations were found to be effective in healing and relieving the symptoms of cervical erosion with cervicitis.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref45">45</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-5"><title>Anxiolytic activity</title><p>The petroleum ether (10 mg/kg), alcohol (10 mg/kg) and water extracts (30 mg/kg) of flowers were tested to assess the anxiolytic activity in mice. Petroleum ether extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> flowers produced prominent anxiolytic activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref46">46</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-6"><title>Neuroleptic activity</title><p>Neuroleptic activity of extract of flowers was evaluated in apomorphine induced cage climbing and catalepsy in mice models. The petroleum ether extract (300 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced total time spent in apomorphine induced cage climbing. Aqueous and alcoholic extracts showed catalepsy while petroleum ether extract was devoid of it.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref47">47</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-7"><title>Immunomodulatory activity</title><p>Immunostimulant activity of sphaeranthanolide was tested by Jerne plaque assay method. This compound was found to be an immune modulator.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>]</p><p>Methanol extract, its petroleum ether, chloroform and remaining methanol fractions, of flower heads were found effective in increasing phagocytic activity, hemagglutination antibody titer and delayed type hypersensitivity, whereas only remaining methanol fraction was found active in normalizing total white blood celllevels in case of cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression in mice. The study, therefore, revealed that the drug holds promise as immunomodulatory agent, which acts by stimulating both humoral as well as cellular immunity and phagocytic function.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref48">48</xref>]</p><p>The bioactive fraction exhibited dose dependent increase in immoral and cell-mediated immunity and offers protection against immunosuppression induced by the cytotoxic agent cyclophosphamide.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref49">49</xref>]</p><p>The petroleum ether extract from the flower heads of <italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. was found to be effective in increasing phagocytic activity, hemagglutination antibody titer and delayed type hypersensitivity. The extract acts by stimulating both humoral and cellular immunity as well as phagocytic function.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref50">50</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-8"><title>Antifeedant activity</title><p>MESI showed antifeedant activity against 4<sup>th</sup> instar larvae of <italic>Spodoptera litura</italic>. Among the compounds isolated from this fraction, 7-hydroxy frullanolide had high antifeedant activity at 1,000-ppm. Deformities in larvae, pupae and adult were also observed.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref51">51</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-9"><title>Anthelmintic activity</title><p>The anthelmintic activities of ethanolic and aqueous extracts (10, 50, 100 mg/ml concentration levels) of the whole plant were tested against <italic>Pheretima posthuma</italic> and <italic>Ascardia galli</italic>. Both extracts exhibited anthelmintic activity in a dose-dependent manner. The most significant activity was observed at the highest concentration of 100 mg/ml against both types of worms.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref52">52</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-10"><title>Analgesic Activity</title><p>The ethanol extracts of the whole plant <italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. exhibited dose dependent analgesic activity with 66.6 and 67.4% of protection when tested with 250 mg and 500 mg/kg b.w. by tail immersion method in rat models using pentazocine 10 mg/kg as standard.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref53">53</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-11"><title>Analgesic and antipyretic activity</title><p>The analgesic and antipyretic activity of the successive taking petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, ethanol and triple distilled water extracts (200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg b.w) of whole plant was screened for analgesic and antipyretic activities on Albino rats by Eddy's hot plate, Tail immersion and Brewer's yeast induced pyrexia method. The petroleum ether, chloroform and ethanol extracts showed significant analgesic activity in both doses as compared to the standard drug diclofenac sodium. The chloroform and ethanol extracts showed potential significant antipyretic activity from 1 h onward whereas aqueous extracts exhibited activity from 2 h onward as compared to the standard drug paracetamol amongst various extracts.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref54">54</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-12"><title>Anti-diabetic activity</title><p>The anti-hyperglycemic effect of <italic>S. indicus</italic> extract was carried out in diabetic rats induced by nicotinamide (120 mg/kg i.p.) and streptozotocin (STZ) (60 mg/kg i.p). Oral administration of alcoholic extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> for 15 days exhibited in significant reduction in blood glucose levels and increases in hepatic glycogen and plasma insulin levels and significant improvement in oral glucose tolerance test. Glibenclamide was used as a reference standard.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref55">55</xref>]</p><p>The ethanol extract of aerial part was evaluated for anti-diabetic activity using the glucose uptake by isolated rat hemi-diaphragm <italic>in-vitro</italic> model. <italic>S. indicus</italic> increased the uptake of glucose by isolated rat hemi-diaphragm significantly (<italic>P</italic> < 0.01) and was found to be more effective than insulin and it will be alternative choice for the treatment of diabetes mellitus caused in the consequences of resistance to stimulatory effect of insulin on glucose transporter type 4 protein.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref56">56</xref>]</p><p>The effect of the methanol extract in dexamethasone-induced insulin resistance in mice was studied. The mice were treated with dexamethasone for 22 days. The <italic>S. indicus</italic> extract showed significant decrease in plasma glucose and serum triglyceride levels at doses, of 400 and 800 mg/kg, p.o. and stimulated insulin assisted and non-insulin assisted glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. The extract significantly restored dexamethasone induced body weight loss thereby suggesting its effect in the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref57">57</xref>]</p><p>Dried petroleum ether (60-80°C) extract of flower head of <italic>S. indicus</italic> was screened for activity against alloxan induced hypoglycemea in Wistar rats. The oral administration of flower head extract at doses of 200 mg/kg lead to a significant blood glucose reduction.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref58">58</xref>]</p><p>The anti-diabetic effect of MES in alloxan induced diabetic rabbits in comparison with 80 mg/kg of diamicron standard was studied. The extract at the dose of 300 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced the blood glucose level, plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides and low density lipoprotein (LDL) in treated rabbits as compared to diabetic rabbits; also significantly increased the level of high density lipoprotein (HDL) (36.95 ± 2.95); SGOT and SGPT also significantly decreased.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref59">59</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-13"><title>Anti-diabetic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant</title><p>The anti-diabetic, antihyperlipidemic and <italic>in-vivo</italic> antioxidant properties of the root in STZ-induced type 1 diabetic rats was studied. The ethanolic extract 100 and 200 mg/kg to the diabetic rats showed significant reduction in blood glucose and increase in body weight compared with diabetic control rats. Both doses showed significant alteration in elevated lipid profile levels, significant increase in SOD, CAT, GPX and decrease in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances levels than diabetic control rats. 200 mg/kg produced significant higher antioxidant activity than 100 mg/kg. These activities are possibly due to the presence of biomarkers gallic acid and quercetin revealed by high performance liquid chromatography analysis of the extract.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref60">60</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-14"><title>Antimicrobial activity</title><p>The bicyclic sesquiterpene lactone isolated from the petroleum ether extract of the aerial part has been found to be potent against <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>, <italic>Escherichia coli</italic>, <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp., <italic>Helminthosporium</italic> sp., and other microorganisms.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>] 7HF, a sesquiterpene lactone showed antimicrobial activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>] Alcoholic and aquous extracts of the plant were highly effective against <italic>Alternaria solani</italic>, <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> and <italic>Penicillium pinophilum</italic> by preventing their growth to a greater extent.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref61">61</xref>] Antimicrobial activity of terphenoidal compound isolated from <italic>S. indicus</italic> showed activity against <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref62">62</xref>] The <italic>in-vitro</italic> antimicrobial activity of aqueous extract of flower was evaluated against coliforms <italic>E. coli</italic> (10,536) and total coliforms by using disc diffusion method. The extracts showed significant inhibition against coliform strains.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref63">63</xref>]</p><p>Leaves, flower stem and roots were extracted separately with methanol, ethanol, chloroform, petroleum ether and hot water and the extracts were screened for its phytochemical constituents. The plant revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, amino acids, mono saccharides and reducing sugar. Leaves extracts showed significant amount of phytochemicals and hence antimicrobial studies of leaves extracts were carried out against bacterial species such as <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp. <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> sp., <italic>Klebsiella</italic> sp., <italic>E. coli</italic>, <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> sp., using filter paper and agar well diffusion method at 4 different concentrations. MES and AQS of leaf showed the highest inhibitory effect compared to all other extracts and it showed good inhibitory activity against <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp., followed by <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> sp. The gram-positive bacteria were found to be more susceptible than gram-negative bacteria. Antifungal activity of methanol and ethanol extracts were tested against <italic>Penicillum</italic> sp., and <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and the growth was found to decreasewith increase in concentration of the extracts.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref64">64</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref65">65</xref>]</p><p>Hexane, benzene, chloroform, ethyl acetate and acetone extracts of the aerial parts and flowers showed activity against <italic>B. subtilis, S. aureus</italic> and <italic>Staphylococcus epidermidis</italic>. Benzene and chloroform extracts of flower and benzene and acetone extracts of aerial parts were not active against <italic>Enterococcus faecalis</italic>; all extracts of flower and aerial part were not active against <italic>E. coli</italic> and <italic>Klebsiella pneumonia</italic> when tested by disc diffusion method.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref66">66</xref>]</p><p>Four new alkaloids have been isolated from the alcoholic extract of flowers. The crude extract showed antibacterial activity against 18 different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Both alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions showed the activity. The isolated two alkaloids showed broad spectrum activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref67">67</xref>]</p><p>Ten Indian medicinal plants were screened for antibacterial activity specific to enteropathogens. Diffusion and dilution methods were used to measure the antibacterial activity. <italic>Allium sativum, Camellia sinensis</italic> and <italic>Chamaesyce hirta</italic> showed higher activity when compared to the rest. They had a minimum bactericidal concentration of <100 μg/ml and gave inhibition zones of more than 2 cm. Among the pathogens studied, <italic>Vibrio cholerae</italic> and <italic>Shigella flexneri</italic> were found to be highly susceptible to the plant extracts.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref68">68</xref>] The essential oil from the leaves exhibited antibacterial activity against <italic>Salmonella paratyphi</italic> A, B and C, <italic>S. flexner</italic>, <italic>Salmonella enteritidis</italic>, <italic>Salmonella typhimurium</italic>, <italic>Shigella sonnei</italic> and <italic>Vibrio cholera</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref69">69</xref>] The fruits showed very good antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref70">70</xref>] The plant also exhibited antifungal activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref71">71</xref>] The petroleum ether, acetone, methanol (90%) and aqueous extracts of flowers also exhibited remarkable antibacterial and strong antifungal activities.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref72">72</xref>]</p><p>The hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, ethanol, methanol and aqueous extract of entire part including flower heads exhibited antimicrobial activity compared with gentamycin and nystatin as standards. The chloroform, methanol and aqueous extracts showed high antibacterial activity against <italic>S. aureus</italic>; chloroform, methanol and ethanol extract against <italic>P. aeroginosa</italic>, methanol, chloroform and hexane against <italic>B. substilus</italic>, aqueous, methanol, ethyl acetate and chloroform against <italic>E. coli</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref73">73</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-15"><title>Antiviral activity</title><p>The methanol extract was found to exhibit inhibitory activity against <italic>Mouse corona</italic> virus and <italic>Herpes simplex</italic> virus at a concentration of 0.4 μg/ml.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref74">74</xref>] The plant also showed antiviral activity against vaccinia and ranikhet viruses.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref75">75</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-16"><title>Macrofilaricidal activity</title><p>The methanolic extract showed macrofilaricidal activity (4 mg/ml) against adult <italic>Setaria digitata</italic>, the cattle filarial worm when tested by worm motility assay method.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref76">76</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-17"><title>Larvicidal action</title><p>Acetone extract of root and leaf caused >50% mortality in an Indian mosquito specie, which acts as a vector of filarial worm. Root extract was more active than leaf extract.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref77">77</xref>] Purified fraction of acetone extract showed mosquito larvicidal effect. Methanolic extract showed repellent and feeding deterrent activities against <italic>Tribolium castaneum</italic> in the lower concentration of 1%; complete feeding deterrent activity at 5 ml and repellent activity at 4 ml dose.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref78">78</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-18"><title>Antioxidant activity</title><p>The free radical scavenging potential of the plant was studied by using different antioxidant models of screening. The ethanolic extract at 1,000 μg/ml showed maximum scavenging of the radical cation, 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) observed up to 41.99% followed by the scavenging of the stable radical 1,1-diphenyl, 2-picryl hydrazyl (33.27%), SOD (25.14%) and nitric oxide radical (22.36%) at the same concentration. However, the extract showed only moderate scavenging activity of iron chelation (14.2%). Total antioxidant capacity of the extract was found to be 160.85 nmol/g ascorbic acid. The results justify the therapeutic applications of the plant in the indigenous system of medicine, augmenting its therapeutic value.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref79">79</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-19"><title>Attenuation effect on prostatic hypertrophy</title><p>The attenuating effect of petroleum ether, ethanolic, aqueous extracts and β-sitosterol on prostatic hyperplasia induced by testosterone in Albino rats. Finasteride was used as a positive control (1 mg/kg p.o.). The petroleum ether extract exhibited the best activity, although the ethanol and aqueous extracts also exhibited significant activity thereby indicating the potential use of <italic>S. indicus</italic> in the treatment of prostatic hyperplasia.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref80">80</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-20"><title>Anxiolytic, central nervous system depressant and anticonvulsant activities</title><p>The hydroalcoholic extract in the doses of 100, 200, 500 mg/kg, p.o. was experimented on induced anxiety, depression and convulsions in rodents; anticonvulsant effect on pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions in mice; and maximal electroshock-induced convulsions in rats. <italic>S. indicus</italic> demonstrated anxiolytic, central nervous depressant and anticonvulsant activities in rodents; thus, supporting the folk medicinal use of this plant in nervous disorders.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref81">81</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-21"><title>Effect on psoriasis</title><p>The effect of <italic>S. indicus</italic> on psoriasis was studied and found to exhibit the potent activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref82">82</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-22"><title>Bronchodilatory effect</title><p>The methanolic extract and its fractions viz. petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform and ethyl acetate exhibited significant protection against bronchospasm, induced by histamine in guinea pigs. Significant protection exhibited by methanolic extract was comparable with the standard chlorophenarmine maleate (2 mg/kg).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref83">83</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-23"><title>Mast cell stabilizing activity</title><p>The protective effect of different extracts of whole plant against the compound 48/80 and sheep serum induced mast cell degranulation was evaluated. The ethanol extract at the dose levels of 150 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg and ethyl acetate extract at the dose levels of 100 mg/kg, 150 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg showed slightly better protection of mast cell degranulation (77-86%) than ketotifen (75%) in the sheep serum model. These extracts also showed better mast cell stabilizing activity (77-88%) than the standard drug (69%) when peritoneal mast cells are treated with compound 48/80. These results suggest that <italic>S. indicus</italic> has potent mast cell stabilizing effects thereby inhibiting mediator release from mast cells.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref84">84</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-24"><title>Antihyperlipidemic activity</title><p>The alcoholic extract of flower heads in atherogenic diet induced hyperlipidemia in rats was investigated for the dose of 500 mg/kg/day, p.o. for 8 days. The extract effectively suppressed the hyperlipidemia by decreasing total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL); increasing the HDL.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref85">85</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-25"><title>Anti-arthritic activity</title><p>The anti-arthritic activity of the petroleum ether extract of the flowers in the doses 10, 30 and 100 mg/kg/day p.o. was investigated against complete Freund's adjuvant induced arthritis in laboratory rats. Indomethacin (2 mg/kg/day p.o.) was the standard drug. The dose of 100 mg/kg/day p.o. showed significant anti-arthritic activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref86">86</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-26"><title>Anti-inflammatory activity</title><p>The anti-inflammatory effect of ethanolic extract was evaluated. The extract in different doses (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) exhibited dose dependent and significant anti-inflammatory activity in acute (carrageenan induced hind paw edema, <italic>P</italic> < 0.05) and chronic (cotton pellet granuloma formation, <italic>P</italic> < 0.05) model of inflammation.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref87">87</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-27"><title>Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity</title><p>The anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of ethanolic extract of <italic>S. indicus</italic> flowers in doses of 300 and 500 mg/kg was tested on Albino mice and rat of either sex. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by measuring the mean decrease in hind paw volume after the sub planter injection of carrageenan. The analgesic activity was tested against acetic acid induced writhing response using Albino rats. At the end of 1 h, the inhibition of paw edema was 42.66 and 50.5% respectively and the % of protection from writhing was 62.79 and 68.21 respectively.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref88">88</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-28"><title>Anti-inflammatory, anti-migratory and anti-proliferative activity</title><p>Chronic inflammation induced hyper-proliferation and migration of keratinocytes are pathological hallmarks of psoriasis. Extracts from <italic>Sphaeranthus</italic> spp. demonstrate pharmacological activity <italic>in-vitro</italic> and <italic>in-vivo</italic>. However, the activity in modulating disease relevant pathways in psoriasis has not been reported. In the current study a standardized herbal extract from <italic>S. indicus</italic> (NPS31807) was used to study the mechanistic activity under conditions of inflammation, keratinocyte proliferation and migration using cell based and gene expression assays. NPS31807 treatment reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines from human macrophages and activated epidermal keratinocytes in a dose dependent manner. Treatment with NPS31807 diminished NFκB and AP-1 transcription activity in human macrophages. Lowered nuclear translocation of p65 sub-unit in macrophages by treatment confirmed reduced activity of NFκB. Gene expression profiling showed attenuated expression of genes involved with inflammation such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling and angiogenesis by NPS31807. Inhibition of angiogenesis and matrix metalloproteinase production in keratinocytes was confirmed using real-time quantitative-polymerase chain reaction assays. Pretreatment with NPS31807 led to significant reduction of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 phosphorylation and mitogen induced cellular migration. NPS31807 induced inhibition of proliferative genes and BrdU uptake in epidermal keratinocytes. In summary, our study provides novel molecular insights into the anti-inflammatory, anti-migratory and anti-proliferative properties of NPS31807. In summary, NPS31807, an extract from <italic>S. indicus</italic> can be used as therapeutic option in inflammatory and auto-immune conditions such as psoriasis.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref89">89</xref>]</p><p>The anti-inflammatory effect <italic>S. indicus</italic> was found to be potent in suppressing the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-8 (IL-8) and TNF-α induced by the culture supernatant of <italic>Propionibacterium acnes</italic> in polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocytes than that of other tested plants, viz., <italic>Rubia cordifolia</italic>, <italic>Curcuma longa</italic>, <italic>Hemidesmus indicus</italic> and <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref90">90</xref>]</p><p>7HF significantly reduced the production (induced/spontaneous) of TNF-α and IL-6 from freshly isolated human mononuclear cells, synovial tissue cells isolated from patients with active rheumatoid arthritis and BALB/c mice. Oral administration of 7HF significantly protected C57BL/6J mice against endotoxin-mediated lethality. In the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) model of murine colitis, oral administration of 7HF prevented DSS-induced weight loss, attenuated rectal bleeding, improved disease activity index and diminished shortening of the colon of C57BL/6J mice. Histological analyses of colonic tissues revealed that 7HF attenuated DSS-induced colonic edema, leukocyte infiltration in the colonic mucosa and afforded significant protection against DSS-induced crypt damage. 7HF was also significantly efficacious in attenuating carrageenan-induced paw edema in Wistar rats after oral administration. In the collagen-induced arthritis in DBA/1J mice, 7HF significantly reduced disease associated increases in articular index and paw thickness, protected against bone erosion and joint space narrowing and prominently diminished joint destruction, hyperproliferative pannus formation and infiltration of inflammatory cells. These results provide evidence that 7HF-mediated inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines functionally results in marked protection in experimental models of acute and chronic inflammation.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref91">91</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-29"><title>Hypolipidemic activity</title><p>The effect of AQS (300 mg/kg/day, i.p) against dexamethasone (10 mg/kg/day, s.c) induced changes in lipid profile was studied in rat. <italic>S. indicus</italic> decreased the serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and VLDL significantly but not HDL; it also reduced atherogenic index significantly thus indicating its lipid lowering effect.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref92">92</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-30"><title>Nephroprotective effect</title><p>The ethanolic extract was screened for nephroprotectivity in gentamicin induced acute renal injury in rats. The extract in the dose of 300 mg/kg was found to increase blood urea, serum creatinine and decrease the total protein and serum albumin of the treated group compared to normal group.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref93">93</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-31"><title>Other activities</title><p>The plant was also found to exhibit anticancer activity and antiprotozoal activity against <italic>Entamoeba histolytica</italic>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref75">75</xref>] The alcoholic extract of the flower exhibited hypotensive, peripheral vasodilatory and cathartic activities.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref94">94</xref>] The extract of the plant was found to inhibit hyaluronidase.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref95">95</xref>] The extract effected toxicity on second and fourth instar larvae of <italic>Calex quinquefasciator</italic> mosquito at 100-500 ppm concentration.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref96">96</xref>] The methanolic extract of dried fruit exhibited nematocidal activity.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref97">97</xref>] The methanolic extract (<4 mg/mL) showed macrofilaricidal activity within an incubation period of 100 min by the worm motility assay against adult <italic>S. digitata</italic>, a cattle filarial worm.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref78">78</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="conclusion" id="sec1-11"><title>CONCLUSION</title><p>From the literature survey it is evident that <italic>S. indicus</italic> Linn. has been exhaustively worked out for both chemical and pharmacological studies. In all the reported pharmacological activities, it is found to be more potent. It finds a broad spectrum of therapeutic usage. As the plant is widely distributed, it could be considered for new drug formulations.</p></sec></body><back><ack><title>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</title><p>Author is thankful to Dr. M. Padma Sorna Subramanian, Research Officer (Botany), SMPG, Mettur for plant photograph, Shri. D. Radhakrishna Reddy for technical help and Research Officer (S) I/c, SCRI for encouragement.</p></ack><fn-group><fn fn-type="supported-by"><p><bold>Source of Support:</bold> Nil</p></fn><fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Conflict of Interest:</bold> None declared</p></fn></fn-group><ref-list><title>REFERENCES</title><ref id="ref1"><label>1</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab>Anonynous</collab><article-title>The Wealth of India: Raw Materials</article-title><year>1976</year><volume>X</volume><publisher-loc>New Delhi</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR</publisher-name><fpage>4</fpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref2"><label>2</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nadkarni</surname><given-names>AK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Indian Materia Medica</article-title><year>2007</year><volume>1</volume><edition>3rd ed</edition><publisher-loc>Bombay</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Popular Prakashan Private Limited</publisher-name><fpage>1163</fpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref3"><label>3</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chopra</surname><given-names>RN</given-names></name><name><surname>Chopra</surname><given-names>IC</given-names></name><name><surname>Handa</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name><name><surname>Kapur</surname><given-names>LD</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Chopras Indigenous Drug of India</article-title><year>1958</year><publisher-loc>Calcutta, India</publisher-loc><publisher-name>U.N. 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