Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract
Identifieur interne : 000A29 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000A28; suivant : 000A30Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract
Auteurs : Astrid A. T. M. Bosch ; Giske Biesbroek ; Krzysztof Trzcinski ; Elisabeth A. M. Sanders ; Debby BogaertSource :
- PLoS Pathogens [ 1553-7366 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
Respiratory infectious diseases are mainly caused by viruses or bacteria that often interact with one another. Although their presence is a prerequisite for subsequent infections, viruses and bacteria may be present in the nasopharynx without causing any respiratory symptoms. The upper respiratory tract hosts a vast range of commensals and potential pathogenic bacteria, which form a complex microbial community. This community is assumed to be constantly subject to synergistic and competitive interspecies interactions. Disturbances in the equilibrium, for instance due to the acquisition of new bacteria or viruses, may lead to overgrowth and invasion. A better understanding of the dynamics between commensals and pathogens in the upper respiratory tract may provide better insight into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases. Here we review the current knowledge regarding specific bacterial–bacterial and viral–bacterial interactions that occur in the upper respiratory niche, and discuss mechanisms by which these interactions might be mediated. Finally, we propose a theoretical model to summarize and illustrate these mechanisms.
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057
PubMed: 23326226
PubMed Central: 3542149
Links to Exploration step
PMC:3542149Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract</title><author><name sortKey="Bosch, Astrid A T M" sort="Bosch, Astrid A T M" uniqKey="Bosch A" first="Astrid A. T. M." last="Bosch">Astrid A. T. M. Bosch</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Biesbroek, Giske" sort="Biesbroek, Giske" uniqKey="Biesbroek G" first="Giske" last="Biesbroek">Giske Biesbroek</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Trzcinski, Krzysztof" sort="Trzcinski, Krzysztof" uniqKey="Trzcinski K" first="Krzysztof" last="Trzcinski">Krzysztof Trzcinski</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanders, Elisabeth A M" sort="Sanders, Elisabeth A M" uniqKey="Sanders E" first="Elisabeth A. M." last="Sanders">Elisabeth A. M. Sanders</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bogaert, Debby" sort="Bogaert, Debby" uniqKey="Bogaert D" first="Debby" last="Bogaert">Debby Bogaert</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">23326226</idno><idno type="pmc">3542149</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3542149</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3542149</idno><idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000A29</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000A29</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract</title><author><name sortKey="Bosch, Astrid A T M" sort="Bosch, Astrid A T M" uniqKey="Bosch A" first="Astrid A. T. M." last="Bosch">Astrid A. T. M. Bosch</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Biesbroek, Giske" sort="Biesbroek, Giske" uniqKey="Biesbroek G" first="Giske" last="Biesbroek">Giske Biesbroek</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Trzcinski, Krzysztof" sort="Trzcinski, Krzysztof" uniqKey="Trzcinski K" first="Krzysztof" last="Trzcinski">Krzysztof Trzcinski</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanders, Elisabeth A M" sort="Sanders, Elisabeth A M" uniqKey="Sanders E" first="Elisabeth A. M." last="Sanders">Elisabeth A. M. Sanders</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bogaert, Debby" sort="Bogaert, Debby" uniqKey="Bogaert D" first="Debby" last="Bogaert">Debby Bogaert</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">PLoS Pathogens</title><idno type="ISSN">1553-7366</idno><idno type="eISSN">1553-7374</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Respiratory infectious diseases are mainly caused by viruses or bacteria that often interact with one another. Although their presence is a prerequisite for subsequent infections, viruses and bacteria may be present in the nasopharynx without causing any respiratory symptoms. The upper respiratory tract hosts a vast range of commensals and potential pathogenic bacteria, which form a complex microbial community. This community is assumed to be constantly subject to synergistic and competitive interspecies interactions. Disturbances in the equilibrium, for instance due to the acquisition of new bacteria or viruses, may lead to overgrowth and invasion. A better understanding of the dynamics between commensals and pathogens in the upper respiratory tract may provide better insight into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases. Here we review the current knowledge regarding specific bacterial–bacterial and viral–bacterial interactions that occur in the upper respiratory niche, and discuss mechanisms by which these interactions might be mediated. Finally, we propose a theoretical model to summarize and illustrate these mechanisms.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Black, Re" uniqKey="Black R">RE Black</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cousens, S" uniqKey="Cousens S">S Cousens</name></author><author><name sortKey="Johnson, Hl" uniqKey="Johnson H">HL Johnson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lawn, Je" uniqKey="Lawn J">JE Lawn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rudan, I" uniqKey="Rudan I">I Rudan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vergison, A" uniqKey="Vergison A">A Vergison</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dagan, R" uniqKey="Dagan R">R Dagan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Arguedas, A" uniqKey="Arguedas A">A Arguedas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bonhoeffer, J" uniqKey="Bonhoeffer J">J Bonhoeffer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cohen, R" uniqKey="Cohen R">R Cohen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Watson, Kbh" uniqKey="Watson K">KBH Watson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carville, Kma" uniqKey="Carville K">KMA Carville</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bowman, Jba" uniqKey="Bowman J">JBA Bowman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacoby, P" uniqKey="Jacoby P">P Jacoby</name></author><author><name sortKey="Riley, Tv" uniqKey="Riley T">TV Riley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Blaser, Mj" uniqKey="Blaser M">MJ Blaser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Falkow, S" uniqKey="Falkow S">S Falkow</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Murphy, T" uniqKey="Murphy T">T Murphy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bakaletz, L" uniqKey="Bakaletz L">L Bakaletz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smeesters, P" uniqKey="Smeesters P">P Smeesters</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hardin, G" uniqKey="Hardin G">G Hardin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Spor, A" uniqKey="Spor A">A Spor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koren, O" uniqKey="Koren O">O Koren</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ley, R" uniqKey="Ley R">R Ley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Grice, E" uniqKey="Grice E">E Grice</name></author><author><name sortKey="Segre, J" uniqKey="Segre J">J Segre</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bogaert, D" uniqKey="Bogaert D">D Bogaert</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Groot, R" uniqKey="De Groot R">R De Groot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hermans, Pw" uniqKey="Hermans P">PW Hermans</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Garcia Rodriguez, Ja" uniqKey="Garcia Rodriguez J">JA Garcia-Rodriguez</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fresnadillo Martinez, Mj" uniqKey="Fresnadillo Martinez M">MJ Fresnadillo Martinez</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Margolis, E" uniqKey="Margolis E">E Margolis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yates, A" uniqKey="Yates A">A Yates</name></author><author><name sortKey="Levin, B" uniqKey="Levin B">B Levin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chesson, P" uniqKey="Chesson P">P Chesson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brogden, Ka" uniqKey="Brogden K">KA Brogden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Guthmiller, Jm" uniqKey="Guthmiller J">JM Guthmiller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Ce" uniqKey="Taylor C">CE Taylor</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kwambana, B" uniqKey="Kwambana B">B Kwambana</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barer, M" uniqKey="Barer M">M Barer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bottomley, C" uniqKey="Bottomley C">C Bottomley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adegbola, R" uniqKey="Adegbola R">R Adegbola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Antonio, M" uniqKey="Antonio M">M Antonio</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jourdain, S" uniqKey="Jourdain S">S Jourdain</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smeesters, Pr" uniqKey="Smeesters P">PR Smeesters</name></author><author><name sortKey="Denis, O" uniqKey="Denis O">O Denis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dramaix, M" uniqKey="Dramaix M">M Dramaix</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sputael, V" uniqKey="Sputael V">V Sputael</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mackenzie, G" uniqKey="Mackenzie G">G Mackenzie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Leach, A" uniqKey="Leach A">A Leach</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carapetis, J" uniqKey="Carapetis J">J Carapetis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fisher, J" uniqKey="Fisher J">J Fisher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Morris, P" uniqKey="Morris P">P Morris</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brook, I" uniqKey="Brook I">I Brook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gober, Ae" uniqKey="Gober A">AE Gober</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lafontaine, Er" uniqKey="Lafontaine E">ER Lafontaine</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wall, D" uniqKey="Wall D">D Wall</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vanlerberg, Sl" uniqKey="Vanlerberg S">SL Vanlerberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Donabedian, H" uniqKey="Donabedian H">H Donabedian</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sledjeski, Dd" uniqKey="Sledjeski D">DD Sledjeski</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tano, K" uniqKey="Tano K">K Tano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Olofsson, C" uniqKey="Olofsson C">C Olofsson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grahn H Kansson, E" uniqKey="Grahn H Kansson E">E Grahn-Håkansson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Holm, Se" uniqKey="Holm S">SE Holm</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tano, K" uniqKey="Tano K">K Tano</name></author><author><name sortKey="H Kansson, Eg" uniqKey="H Kansson E">EG Håkansson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Holm, Se" uniqKey="Holm S">SE Holm</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hellstrom, S" uniqKey="Hellstrom S">S Hellström</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tano, K" uniqKey="Tano K">K Tano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hellstrom, S" uniqKey="Hellstrom S">S Hellström</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Regev Yochay, G" uniqKey="Regev Yochay G">G Regev-Yochay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Trzcinski, K" uniqKey="Trzcinski K">K Trzcinski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thompson, Cm" uniqKey="Thompson C">CM Thompson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Malley, R" uniqKey="Malley R">R Malley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lipsitch, M" uniqKey="Lipsitch M">M Lipsitch</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pericone, Cd" uniqKey="Pericone C">CD Pericone</name></author><author><name sortKey="Overweg, K" uniqKey="Overweg K">K Overweg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hermans, Pwm" uniqKey="Hermans P">PWM Hermans</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Margolis, E" uniqKey="Margolis E">E Margolis</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Regev Yochay, G" uniqKey="Regev Yochay G">G Regev-Yochay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Malley, R" uniqKey="Malley R">R Malley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rubinstein, E" uniqKey="Rubinstein E">E Rubinstein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Raz, M" uniqKey="Raz M">M Raz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dagan, R" uniqKey="Dagan R">R Dagan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shakhnovich, Ea" uniqKey="Shakhnovich E">EA Shakhnovich</name></author><author><name sortKey="King, Sj" uniqKey="King S">SJ King</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cundell, D" uniqKey="Cundell D">D Cundell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gerard, N" uniqKey="Gerard N">N Gerard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gerard, C" uniqKey="Gerard C">C Gerard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Idanpaan Heikkila, I" uniqKey="Idanpaan Heikkila I">I Idanpaan-Heikkila</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tuomanen, E" uniqKey="Tuomanen E">E Tuomanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shchepetov, M" uniqKey="Shchepetov M">M Shchepetov</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chong, Sth" uniqKey="Chong S">STH Chong</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tanaka, N" uniqKey="Tanaka N">N Tanaka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fukuyama, S" uniqKey="Fukuyama S">S Fukuyama</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fukuiwa, T" uniqKey="Fukuiwa T">T Fukuiwa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kawabata, M" uniqKey="Kawabata M">M Kawabata</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sagara, Y" uniqKey="Sagara Y">Y Sagara</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Goldenberg, Hb" uniqKey="Goldenberg H">HB Goldenberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccool, Tl" uniqKey="Mccool T">TL McCool</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lysenko, E" uniqKey="Lysenko E">E Lysenko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ratner, A" uniqKey="Ratner A">A Ratner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nelson, A" uniqKey="Nelson A">A Nelson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, J" uniqKey="Weiser J">J Weiser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lysenko, Es" uniqKey="Lysenko E">ES Lysenko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lijek, Rs" uniqKey="Lijek R">RS Lijek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brown, Sp" uniqKey="Brown S">SP Brown</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Madhi, Sa" uniqKey="Madhi S">SA Madhi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adrian, P" uniqKey="Adrian P">P Adrian</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kuwanda, L" uniqKey="Kuwanda L">L Kuwanda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cutland, C" uniqKey="Cutland C">C Cutland</name></author><author><name sortKey="Albrich, Wc" uniqKey="Albrich W">WC Albrich</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bogaert, D" uniqKey="Bogaert D">D Bogaert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nouwen, J" uniqKey="Nouwen J">J Nouwen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hermans, Pwm" uniqKey="Hermans P">PWM Hermans</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Belkum, A" uniqKey="Van Belkum A">A van Belkum</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tan, Tt" uniqKey="Tan T">TT Tan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Morgelin, M" uniqKey="Morgelin M">M Mörgelin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Forsgren, A" uniqKey="Forsgren A">A Forsgren</name></author><author><name sortKey="Riesbeck, K" uniqKey="Riesbeck K">K Riesbeck</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pettigrew, Mm" uniqKey="Pettigrew M">MM Pettigrew</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gent, Jf" uniqKey="Gent J">JF Gent</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pyles, Rb" uniqKey="Pyles R">RB Pyles</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miller, Al" uniqKey="Miller A">AL Miller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nokso Koivisto, J" uniqKey="Nokso Koivisto J">J Nokso-Koivisto</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mccullers, Ja" uniqKey="Mccullers J">JA McCullers</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mccullers, Ja" uniqKey="Mccullers J">JA McCullers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rehg, Je" uniqKey="Rehg J">JE Rehg</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wang, Jh" uniqKey="Wang J">JH Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kwon, Hj" uniqKey="Kwon H">HJ Kwon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jang, Yj" uniqKey="Jang Y">YJ Jang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ishizuka, S" uniqKey="Ishizuka S">S Ishizuka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yamaya, M" uniqKey="Yamaya M">M Yamaya</name></author><author><name sortKey="Suzuki, T" uniqKey="Suzuki T">T Suzuki</name></author><author><name sortKey="Takahashi, H" uniqKey="Takahashi H">H Takahashi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ida, S" uniqKey="Ida S">S Ida</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sajjan, Us" uniqKey="Sajjan U">US Sajjan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jia, Y" uniqKey="Jia Y">Y Jia</name></author><author><name sortKey="Newcomb, Dc" uniqKey="Newcomb D">DC Newcomb</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bentley, Jk" uniqKey="Bentley J">JK Bentley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lukacs, Nw" uniqKey="Lukacs N">NW Lukacs</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Whiteman, Sc" uniqKey="Whiteman S">SC Whiteman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bianco, A" uniqKey="Bianco A">A Bianco</name></author><author><name sortKey="Knight, Ra" uniqKey="Knight R">RA Knight</name></author><author><name sortKey="Spiteri, Ma" uniqKey="Spiteri M">MA Spiteri</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wang, Jh" uniqKey="Wang J">JH Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kwon, Hj" uniqKey="Kwon H">HJ Kwon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lee, Bj" uniqKey="Lee B">BJ Lee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jang, Yj" uniqKey="Jang Y">YJ Jang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Verkaik, Nj" uniqKey="Verkaik N">NJ Verkaik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nguyen, Dt" uniqKey="Nguyen D">DT Nguyen</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Vogel, Cp" uniqKey="De Vogel C">CP de Vogel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moll, Ha" uniqKey="Moll H">HA Moll</name></author><author><name sortKey="Verbrugh, Ha" uniqKey="Verbrugh H">HA Verbrugh</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hament, J" uniqKey="Hament J">J Hament</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aerts, Pc" uniqKey="Aerts P">PC Aerts</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fleer, A" uniqKey="Fleer A">A Fleer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Dijk, H" uniqKey="Van Dijk H">H Van Dijk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmsen, T" uniqKey="Harmsen T">T Harmsen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hament, J" uniqKey="Hament J">J Hament</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aerts, Pc" uniqKey="Aerts P">PC Aerts</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fleer, A" uniqKey="Fleer A">A Fleer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Dijk, H" uniqKey="Van Dijk H">H Van Dijk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmsen, T" uniqKey="Harmsen T">T Harmsen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Avadhanula, V" uniqKey="Avadhanula V">V Avadhanula</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rodriguez, Ca" uniqKey="Rodriguez C">CA Rodriguez</name></author><author><name sortKey="Devincenzo, Jp" uniqKey="Devincenzo J">JP DeVincenzo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, Y" uniqKey="Wang Y">Y Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Webby, Rj" uniqKey="Webby R">RJ Webby</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yokota, S" uniqKey="Yokota S">S Yokota</name></author><author><name sortKey="Okabayashi, T" uniqKey="Okabayashi T">T Okabayashi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yoto, Y" uniqKey="Yoto Y">Y Yoto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hori, T" uniqKey="Hori T">T Hori</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tsutsumi, H" uniqKey="Tsutsumi H">H Tsutsumi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Raza, Mw" uniqKey="Raza M">MW Raza</name></author><author><name sortKey="Blackwell, Cc" uniqKey="Blackwell C">CC Blackwell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Elton, Ra" uniqKey="Elton R">RA Elton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weir, Dm" uniqKey="Weir D">DM Weir</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Avadhanula, V" uniqKey="Avadhanula V">V Avadhanula</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, Y" uniqKey="Wang Y">Y Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Portner, A" uniqKey="Portner A">A Portner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Adderson, E" uniqKey="Adderson E">E Adderson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jiang, Z" uniqKey="Jiang Z">Z Jiang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nagata, N" uniqKey="Nagata N">N Nagata</name></author><author><name sortKey="Molina, E" uniqKey="Molina E">E Molina</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bakaletz, Lo" uniqKey="Bakaletz L">LO Bakaletz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hawkins, H" uniqKey="Hawkins H">H Hawkins</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hakansson, A" uniqKey="Hakansson A">A Hakansson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kidd, A" uniqKey="Kidd A">A Kidd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wadell, G" uniqKey="Wadell G">G Wadell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sabharwal, H" uniqKey="Sabharwal H">H Sabharwal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Svanborg, C" uniqKey="Svanborg C">C Svanborg</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kukavica Ibrulj, I" uniqKey="Kukavica Ibrulj I">I Kukavica-Ibrulj</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hamelin, M" uniqKey="Hamelin M">M Hamelin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Prince, Ga" uniqKey="Prince G">GA Prince</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gagnon, C" uniqKey="Gagnon C">C Gagnon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bergeron, Y" uniqKey="Bergeron Y">Y Bergeron</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stark, Jm" uniqKey="Stark J">JM Stark</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stark, Ma" uniqKey="Stark M">MA Stark</name></author><author><name sortKey="Colasurdo, Gn" uniqKey="Colasurdo G">GN Colasurdo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Levine, Am" uniqKey="Levine A">AM LeVine</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mcgillivary, G" uniqKey="Mcgillivary G">G McGillivary</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mason, Km" uniqKey="Mason K">KM Mason</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jurcisek, Ja" uniqKey="Jurcisek J">JA Jurcisek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Peeples, Me" uniqKey="Peeples M">ME Peeples</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bakaletz, Lo" uniqKey="Bakaletz L">LO Bakaletz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Goulding, J" uniqKey="Goulding J">J Goulding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Godlee, A" uniqKey="Godlee A">A Godlee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vekaria, S" uniqKey="Vekaria S">S Vekaria</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hilty, M" uniqKey="Hilty M">M Hilty</name></author><author><name sortKey="Snelgrove, R" uniqKey="Snelgrove R">R Snelgrove</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peltola, Vt" uniqKey="Peltola V">VT Peltola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Murti, Kg" uniqKey="Murti K">KG Murti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccullers, Ja" uniqKey="Mccullers J">JA McCullers</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Plotkowski, Mc" uniqKey="Plotkowski M">MC Plotkowski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Puchelle, E" uniqKey="Puchelle E">E Puchelle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beck, G" uniqKey="Beck G">G Beck</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacquot, J" uniqKey="Jacquot J">J Jacquot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hannoun, C" uniqKey="Hannoun C">C Hannoun</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Diavatopoulos, Da" uniqKey="Diavatopoulos D">DA Diavatopoulos</name></author><author><name sortKey="Short, Kr" uniqKey="Short K">KR Short</name></author><author><name sortKey="Price, Jt" uniqKey="Price J">JT Price</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wilksch, Jj" uniqKey="Wilksch J">JJ Wilksch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brown, Le" uniqKey="Brown L">LE Brown</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pittet, La" uniqKey="Pittet L">LA Pittet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hall Stoodley, L" uniqKey="Hall Stoodley L">L Hall-Stoodley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rutkowski, Mr" uniqKey="Rutkowski M">MR Rutkowski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmsen, Ag" uniqKey="Harmsen A">AG Harmsen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lee, Ln" uniqKey="Lee L">LN Lee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dias, P" uniqKey="Dias P">P Dias</name></author><author><name sortKey="Han, D" uniqKey="Han D">D Han</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yoon, S" uniqKey="Yoon S">S Yoon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shea, A" uniqKey="Shea A">A Shea</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Iverson, A" uniqKey="Iverson A">A Iverson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyd, K" uniqKey="Boyd K">K Boyd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mcauley, J" uniqKey="Mcauley J">J McAuley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Plano, L" uniqKey="Plano L">L Plano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hart, M" uniqKey="Hart M">M Hart</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Small, C" uniqKey="Small C">C Small</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shaler, Cr" uniqKey="Shaler C">CR Shaler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccormick, S" uniqKey="Mccormick S">S McCormick</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jeyanathan, M" uniqKey="Jeyanathan M">M Jeyanathan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Damjanovic, D" uniqKey="Damjanovic D">D Damjanovic</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Suzuki, K" uniqKey="Suzuki K">K Suzuki</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bakaletz, Lo" uniqKey="Bakaletz L">LO Bakaletz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Michaels, Rh" uniqKey="Michaels R">RH Michaels</name></author><author><name sortKey="Myerowitz, Rl" uniqKey="Myerowitz R">RL Myerowitz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wiertsema, Sp" uniqKey="Wiertsema S">SP Wiertsema</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chidlow, Gr" uniqKey="Chidlow G">GR Chidlow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kirkham, Ls" uniqKey="Kirkham L">LS Kirkham</name></author><author><name sortKey="Corscadden, Kj" uniqKey="Corscadden K">KJ Corscadden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mowe, En" uniqKey="Mowe E">EN Mowe</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Moore, Hcbs" uniqKey="Moore H">HCBS Moore</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacoby, P" uniqKey="Jacoby P">P Jacoby</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Aba" uniqKey="Taylor A">ABA Taylor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harnett, G" uniqKey="Harnett G">G Harnett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bowman, Jba" uniqKey="Bowman J">JBA Bowman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pitk Ranta, A" uniqKey="Pitk Ranta A">A Pitkäranta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roivainen, M" uniqKey="Roivainen M">M Roivainen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Blomgren, K" uniqKey="Blomgren K">K Blomgren</name></author><author><name sortKey="Peltola, J" uniqKey="Peltola J">J Peltola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kaijalainen, T" uniqKey="Kaijalainen T">T Kaijalainen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vareille, M" uniqKey="Vareille M">M Vareille</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kieninger, E" uniqKey="Kieninger E">E Kieninger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Edwards, Mr" uniqKey="Edwards M">MR Edwards</name></author><author><name sortKey="Regamey, N" uniqKey="Regamey N">N Regamey</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Sluijs, Kf" uniqKey="Van Der Sluijs K">KF van der Sluijs</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Elden, Ljr" uniqKey="Van Elden L">LJR van Elden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nijhuis, M" uniqKey="Nijhuis M">M Nijhuis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schuurman, R" uniqKey="Schuurman R">R Schuurman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pater, Jm" uniqKey="Pater J">JM Pater</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Flier, M" uniqKey="Van Der Flier M">M van der Flier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chhun, N" uniqKey="Chhun N">N Chhun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wizemann, T" uniqKey="Wizemann T">T Wizemann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Min, J" uniqKey="Min J">J Min</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccarthy, J" uniqKey="Mccarthy J">J McCarthy</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Heilmann, C" uniqKey="Heilmann C">C Heilmann</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tan, Tt" uniqKey="Tan T">TT Tan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nordstrom, T" uniqKey="Nordstrom T">T Nordström</name></author><author><name sortKey="Forsgren, A" uniqKey="Forsgren A">A Forsgren</name></author><author><name sortKey="Riesbeck, K" uniqKey="Riesbeck K">K Riesbeck</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sajjan, U" uniqKey="Sajjan U">U Sajjan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, Q" uniqKey="Wang Q">Q Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhao, Y" uniqKey="Zhao Y">Y Zhao</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gruenert, Dc" uniqKey="Gruenert D">DC Gruenert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hershenson, Mb" uniqKey="Hershenson M">MB Hershenson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ganz, T" uniqKey="Ganz T">T Ganz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wang, Jh" uniqKey="Wang J">JH Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lee, Sh" uniqKey="Lee S">SH Lee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kwon, Hj" uniqKey="Kwon H">HJ Kwon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jang, Yj" uniqKey="Jang Y">YJ Jang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Sluijs, Kf" uniqKey="Van Der Sluijs K">KF van der Sluijs</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Elden, Ljr" uniqKey="Van Elden L">LJR van Elden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nijhuis, M" uniqKey="Nijhuis M">M Nijhuis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schuurman, R" uniqKey="Schuurman R">R Schuurman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Florquin, S" uniqKey="Florquin S">S Florquin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peltola, Vtp" uniqKey="Peltola V">VTP Peltola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccullers, Ja" uniqKey="Mccullers J">JA Mccullers</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Alymova, Iv" uniqKey="Alymova I">IV Alymova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Portner, A" uniqKey="Portner A">A Portner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Takimoto, T" uniqKey="Takimoto T">T Takimoto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boyd, Kl" uniqKey="Boyd K">KL Boyd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Babu, Ys" uniqKey="Babu Y">YS Babu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mccullers, Ja" uniqKey="Mccullers J">JA McCullers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bartmess, Kc" uniqKey="Bartmess K">KC Bartmess</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hedlund, M" uniqKey="Hedlund M">M Hedlund</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aschenbrenner, Lm" uniqKey="Aschenbrenner L">LM Aschenbrenner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jensen, K" uniqKey="Jensen K">K Jensen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, Jl" uniqKey="Larson J">JL Larson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fang, F" uniqKey="Fang F">F Fang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kadioglu, A" uniqKey="Kadioglu A">A Kadioglu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weiser, Jn" uniqKey="Weiser J">JN Weiser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Paton, Jc" uniqKey="Paton J">JC Paton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Andrew, Pw" uniqKey="Andrew P">PW Andrew</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Sluijs, Kf" uniqKey="Van Der Sluijs K">KF van der Sluijs</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Poll, T" uniqKey="Van Der Poll T">T van der Poll</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lutter, R" uniqKey="Lutter R">R Lutter</name></author><author><name sortKey="Juffermans, Np" uniqKey="Juffermans N">NP Juffermans</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schultz, Mj" uniqKey="Schultz M">MJ Schultz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mcnamee, La" uniqKey="Mcnamee L">LA McNamee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Harmsen, Ag" uniqKey="Harmsen A">AG Harmsen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Colamussi, Ml" uniqKey="Colamussi M">ML Colamussi</name></author><author><name sortKey="White, Mr" uniqKey="White M">MR White</name></author><author><name sortKey="Crouch, E" uniqKey="Crouch E">E Crouch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hartshorn, Kl" uniqKey="Hartshorn K">KL Hartshorn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Engelich, G" uniqKey="Engelich G">G Engelich</name></author><author><name sortKey="White, M" uniqKey="White M">M White</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hartshorn, Kl" uniqKey="Hartshorn K">KL Hartshorn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shahangian, A" uniqKey="Shahangian A">A Shahangian</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chow, Ek" uniqKey="Chow E">EK Chow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tian, X" uniqKey="Tian X">X Tian</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kang, Jr" uniqKey="Kang J">JR Kang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ghaffari, A" uniqKey="Ghaffari A">A Ghaffari</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sun, K" uniqKey="Sun K">K Sun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Metzger, Dw" uniqKey="Metzger D">DW Metzger</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Didierlaurent, A" uniqKey="Didierlaurent A">A Didierlaurent</name></author><author><name sortKey="Goulding, J" uniqKey="Goulding J">J Goulding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Patel, S" uniqKey="Patel S">S Patel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Snelgrove, R" uniqKey="Snelgrove R">R Snelgrove</name></author><author><name sortKey="Low, L" uniqKey="Low L">L Low</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kuss, Sk" uniqKey="Kuss S">SK Kuss</name></author><author><name sortKey="Best, Gt" uniqKey="Best G">GT Best</name></author><author><name sortKey="Etheredge, Ca" uniqKey="Etheredge C">CA Etheredge</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pruijssers, Aj" uniqKey="Pruijssers A">AJ Pruijssers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frierson, Jm" uniqKey="Frierson J">JM Frierson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kane, M" uniqKey="Kane M">M Kane</name></author><author><name sortKey="Case, Lk" uniqKey="Case L">LK Case</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kopaskie, K" uniqKey="Kopaskie K">K Kopaskie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kozlova, A" uniqKey="Kozlova A">A Kozlova</name></author><author><name sortKey="Macdearmid, A" uniqKey="Macdearmid A">A MacDearmid</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jartti, T" uniqKey="Jartti T">T Jartti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jartti, L" uniqKey="Jartti L">L Jartti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Peltola, V" uniqKey="Peltola V">V Peltola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Waris, M" uniqKey="Waris M">M Waris</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ruuskanen, O" uniqKey="Ruuskanen O">O Ruuskanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Benten, I" uniqKey="Van Benten I">I van Benten</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koopman, L" uniqKey="Koopman L">L Koopman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Niesters, B" uniqKey="Niesters B">B Niesters</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hop, W" uniqKey="Hop W">W Hop</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Middelkoop, B" uniqKey="Van Middelkoop B">B van Middelkoop</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jansen, Rr" uniqKey="Jansen R">RR Jansen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wieringa, J" uniqKey="Wieringa J">J Wieringa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koekkoek, Sm" uniqKey="Koekkoek S">SM Koekkoek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Visser, Ce" uniqKey="Visser C">CE Visser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pajkrt, D" uniqKey="Pajkrt D">D Pajkrt</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kusel, M" uniqKey="Kusel M">M Kusel</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Klerk, Nh" uniqKey="De Klerk N">NH de Klerk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Holt, Pg" uniqKey="Holt P">PG Holt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kebadze, T" uniqKey="Kebadze T">T Kebadze</name></author><author><name sortKey="Johnston, Sl" uniqKey="Johnston S">SL Johnston</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Berkley, Ja" uniqKey="Berkley J">JA Berkley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Munywoki, P" uniqKey="Munywoki P">P Munywoki</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ngama, M" uniqKey="Ngama M">M Ngama</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kazungu, S" uniqKey="Kazungu S">S Kazungu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Abwao, J" uniqKey="Abwao J">J Abwao</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mathisen, M" uniqKey="Mathisen M">M Mathisen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Strand, T" uniqKey="Strand T">T Strand</name></author><author><name sortKey="Valentiner Branth, P" uniqKey="Valentiner Branth P">P Valentiner-Branth</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chandyo, R" uniqKey="Chandyo R">R Chandyo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Basnet, S" uniqKey="Basnet S">S Basnet</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fry, A" uniqKey="Fry A">A Fry</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lu, X" uniqKey="Lu X">X Lu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Olsen, S" uniqKey="Olsen S">S Olsen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chittaganpitch, M" uniqKey="Chittaganpitch M">M Chittaganpitch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sawatwong, P" uniqKey="Sawatwong P">P Sawatwong</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Singleton, Rj" uniqKey="Singleton R">RJ Singleton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bulkow, Lr" uniqKey="Bulkow L">LR Bulkow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Miernyk, K" uniqKey="Miernyk K">K Miernyk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Debyle, C" uniqKey="Debyle C">C DeByle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pruitt, L" uniqKey="Pruitt L">L Pruitt</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Der Zalm, Mm" uniqKey="Van Der Zalm M">MM van der Zalm</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Ewijk, Be" uniqKey="Van Ewijk B">BE van Ewijk</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wilbrink, B" uniqKey="Wilbrink B">B Wilbrink</name></author><author><name sortKey="Uiterwaal, Cspm" uniqKey="Uiterwaal C">CSPM Uiterwaal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wolfs, Tfw" uniqKey="Wolfs T">TFW Wolfs</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Garcia Garcia, M" uniqKey="Garcia Garcia M">M Garcia-Garcia</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calvo, C" uniqKey="Calvo C">C Calvo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pozo, F" uniqKey="Pozo F">F Pozo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Perez Brena, P" uniqKey="Perez Brena P">P Perez-Brena</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bracamonte, T" uniqKey="Bracamonte T">T Bracamonte</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Winther, B" uniqKey="Winther B">B Winther</name></author><author><name sortKey="Alper, Cm" uniqKey="Alper C">CM Alper</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mandel, Em" uniqKey="Mandel E">EM Mandel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Doyle, Wj" uniqKey="Doyle W">WJ Doyle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hendley, Jo" uniqKey="Hendley J">JO Hendley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Winther, B" uniqKey="Winther B">B Winther</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hayden, Fg" uniqKey="Hayden F">FG Hayden</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hendley, Jo" uniqKey="Hendley J">JO Hendley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Thavagnanam, S" uniqKey="Thavagnanam S">S Thavagnanam</name></author><author><name sortKey="Christie, Sn" uniqKey="Christie S">SN Christie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Doherty, Gm" uniqKey="Doherty G">GM Doherty</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coyle, Pv" uniqKey="Coyle P">PV Coyle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shields, Md" uniqKey="Shields M">MD Shields</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Martin, Et" uniqKey="Martin E">ET Martin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fairchok, Mp" uniqKey="Fairchok M">MP Fairchok</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kuypers, J" uniqKey="Kuypers J">J Kuypers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Magaret, A" uniqKey="Magaret A">A Magaret</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zerr, Dm" uniqKey="Zerr D">DM Zerr</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Falsey, Ar" uniqKey="Falsey A">AR Falsey</name></author><author><name sortKey="Formica, Ma" uniqKey="Formica M">MA Formica</name></author><author><name sortKey="Treanor, Jj" uniqKey="Treanor J">JJ Treanor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Walsh, Ee" uniqKey="Walsh E">EE Walsh</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kalu, Su" uniqKey="Kalu S">SU Kalu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Loeffelholz, M" uniqKey="Loeffelholz M">M Loeffelholz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beck, E" uniqKey="Beck E">E Beck</name></author><author><name sortKey="Patel, Ja" uniqKey="Patel J">JA Patel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Revai, K" uniqKey="Revai K">K Revai</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peltola, V" uniqKey="Peltola V">V Peltola</name></author><author><name sortKey="Waris, M" uniqKey="Waris M">M Waris</name></author><author><name sortKey="Osterback, R" uniqKey="Osterback R">R Österback</name></author><author><name sortKey="Susi, P" uniqKey="Susi P">P Susi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ruuskanen, O" uniqKey="Ruuskanen O">O Ruuskanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bogaert, D" uniqKey="Bogaert D">D Bogaert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Keijser, B" uniqKey="Keijser B">B Keijser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huse, S" uniqKey="Huse S">S Huse</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rossen, J" uniqKey="Rossen J">J Rossen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Veenhoven, R" uniqKey="Veenhoven R">R Veenhoven</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pettigrew, Mm" uniqKey="Pettigrew M">MM Pettigrew</name></author><author><name sortKey="Laufer, As" uniqKey="Laufer A">AS Laufer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gent, Jf" uniqKey="Gent J">JF Gent</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kong, Y" uniqKey="Kong Y">Y Kong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fennie, Kp" uniqKey="Fennie K">KP Fennie</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Longtin, J" uniqKey="Longtin J">J Longtin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bastien, M" uniqKey="Bastien M">M Bastien</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gilca, R" uniqKey="Gilca R">R Gilca</name></author><author><name sortKey="Leblanc, E" uniqKey="Leblanc E">E Leblanc</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Serres, G" uniqKey="De Serres G">G de Serres</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS Pathog</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS Pathog</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plospath</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS Pathogens</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1553-7366</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1553-7374</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name><publisher-loc>San Francisco, USA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">23326226</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3542149</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PPATHOGENS-D-12-01710</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Biology</subject><subj-group><subject>Ecology</subject><subj-group><subject>Community Ecology</subject><subj-group><subject>Community Assembly</subject><subject>Community Structure</subject><subject>Species Interactions</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Species Extinction</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Medicine</subject><subj-group><subject>Epidemiology</subject><subj-group><subject>Infectious Disease Epidemiology</subject><subject>Pediatric Epidemiology</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Infectious Diseases</subject><subj-group><subject>Viral Diseases</subject><subj-group><subject>Human Bocavirus Infection</subject><subject>Human Metapneumovirus Infection</subject><subject>Human Parainfluenza Virus Infection</subject><subject>Influenza</subject><subject>Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection</subject><subject>Viral Pneumonia</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Bacterial Diseases</subject><subject>Infectious Disease Control</subject><subject>Infectious Disease Modeling</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group><subject>Public Health</subject><subj-group><subject>Child Health</subject><subject>Health Screening</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bosch</surname><given-names>Astrid A. T. M.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Biesbroek</surname><given-names>Giske</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Trzcinski</surname><given-names>Krzysztof</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sanders</surname><given-names>Elisabeth A. M.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bogaert</surname><given-names>Debby</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center-Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands</addr-line></aff><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Hobman</surname><given-names>Tom C.</given-names></name><role>Editor</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="edit1"><addr-line>University of Alberta, Canada</addr-line></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email>d.bogaert@umcutrecht.nl</email></corresp><fn fn-type="COI-statement"><p>DB and KT declare to have received consulting fees from Pfizer. EAMS declares to have received unrestricted research support from Pfizer and Baxter, consulting fees from Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline, lecturing fees from Pfizer, and grant support for vaccine studies from Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline. None of the fees or grants listed here were received for the research described in this paper. For all other authors no conflicts of interest were declared. This does not alter our adherence to all <italic>PLOS Pathogens</italic> policies on sharing data and materials.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>1</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>10</day><month>1</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>9</volume><issue>1</issue><elocation-id>e1003057</elocation-id><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2013 Bosch et al</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Bosch et al</copyright-holder><license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly credited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Respiratory infectious diseases are mainly caused by viruses or bacteria that often interact with one another. Although their presence is a prerequisite for subsequent infections, viruses and bacteria may be present in the nasopharynx without causing any respiratory symptoms. The upper respiratory tract hosts a vast range of commensals and potential pathogenic bacteria, which form a complex microbial community. This community is assumed to be constantly subject to synergistic and competitive interspecies interactions. Disturbances in the equilibrium, for instance due to the acquisition of new bacteria or viruses, may lead to overgrowth and invasion. A better understanding of the dynamics between commensals and pathogens in the upper respiratory tract may provide better insight into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases. Here we review the current knowledge regarding specific bacterial–bacterial and viral–bacterial interactions that occur in the upper respiratory niche, and discuss mechanisms by which these interactions might be mediated. Finally, we propose a theoretical model to summarize and illustrate these mechanisms.</p></abstract><funding-group><funding-statement>This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through NWO-VENI Grant 91610121 and ZonMW Grant 91209010. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.</funding-statement></funding-group><counts><page-count count="11"></page-count></counts></article-meta></front><body><sec id="s1"><title>Introduction</title><sec id="s1a"><title>Colonization as a Crucial Step in the Pathogenesis of Respiratory Disease</title><p>Acute respiratory infections, in particular pneumonia, remain one of the most important causes of death in both adults and children, with an estimated 3.5 million deaths worldwide in 2008. Sharp peaks in mortality due to respiratory infections are observed during infancy and late adulthood. With approximately 1.4–1.8 million fatal cases per year in children under the age of five, pneumonia causes more fatalities than AIDS, malaria, and measles combined <xref rid="ppat.1003057-World1" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Black1" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref>. Although pneumonia is the most important cause of death, acute middle ear infections also cause a major burden to global health. At the age of three years, up to 80% of children have suffered at least one episode of acute otitis media, while more than 40% have experienced more than six recurrences by the age of seven, even in high-income countries <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Vergison1" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref>. Associated sequelae and direct and indirect costs have important socioeconomic consequences for public health care.</p><p>The human upper respiratory tract is the reservoir of a diverse community of commensals and potential pathogens (pathobionts), including <italic>Streptococcus pneumoniae</italic> (pneumococcus), <italic>Haemophilus influenzae</italic>, <italic>Moraxella catarrhalis</italic>, and <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Watson1" ref-type="bibr">[4]</xref>, which occasionally turn into pathogens causing infectious diseases. To cause respiratory disease, bacteria first need to colonize the nasopharyngeal niche. Colonization of this niche is a dynamic process: acquisition and elimination of species, interactions among microbes and between microbes and the host, and interference by environmental factors are suggested to cause a dynamic and complex microbial interplay. In a balanced state, this ecosystem as a part of the complete human microbiome is assumed to play a major beneficial role for the human host <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Blaser1" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref>. However, imbalances in this respiratory microbial community can contribute to acquisition of a new bacterial or viral pathogen, carriage of multiple potential pathogenic bacteria, or a viral co-infection <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Murphy1" ref-type="bibr">[6]</xref>. Subsequently, imbalances in the ecosystem may result in overgrowth and invasion by bacterial pathogens, causing respiratory or invasive diseases, especially in children with an immature immune system.</p><p>The focus of this review is to describe current knowledge on microbial interactions between commonly detected bacterial and viral pathogens in the upper respiratory tract, with a focus on the mechanisms by which these interactions are potentially mediated. We will conclude by incorporating the presented information into a single theoretical model of interplay between viral and bacterial species, which we believe to be a crucial first step in the pathogenesis of respiratory and invasive diseases.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s2"><title>Bacterial Interactions</title><p>In 1960, Hardin <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hardin1" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref> stated that completely competitive species cannot colonize the same ecological niche, indicating that one microorganism has the possibility of fully extinguishing another. However, the concept of colonization is now thought to be more complex and dependent on several factors. For example, the skin and any mucosal surface of the body are colonized directly after birth by a wide range of bacteria. These bacterial communities evolve into a complex ecosystem during the first years of life, varying greatly among individuals and over time <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Spor1" ref-type="bibr">[8]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Grice1" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>. Similarly, the microbiome of the upper respiratory tract appears to be influenced by the host genetic background, age, and factors that determine environmental exposure, such as social status, antibiotic use, vaccination, season, smoking, and the pattern of social contacts, such as day care attendance or number of siblings <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Bogaert1" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-GarciaRodriguez1" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref>. Furthermore, site-specific factors and characteristics of the microbe itself also play a role. By colonizing a niche, a microbe should be able to survive local clearance mechanisms (i.e., mucus, ciliae), attach to the epithelium, rely on locally available nutrients, and bypass surveillance by the host immune system. Another essential condition for colonization is to outcompete inhabitants that were already present in the upper respiratory tract <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Margolis1" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Chesson1" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>. To this end, microbes have developed a range of different interaction tools that lead to both negative and positive interactions. Positive associations are assumed to exist when one microorganism generates a favorable condition for another via mutualism, commensalism, symbiosis, or by helping to evade the host immune system. Negative associations may be due to direct interspecies interactions (via ammensalism or predation), when organisms directly compete for the same niche, or when host immune responses disproportionally affect one of the competing microorganisms.</p><p><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic>, <italic>H. influenzae</italic>, <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic>, and <italic>S. aureus</italic> are commonly recognized etiological agents in respiratory tract infections. However, colonization by these species is also very common under healthy circumstances, with high colonization rates in children in particular <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Bogaert1" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-GarciaRodriguez1" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Brogden1" ref-type="bibr">[14]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Mackenzie1" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref>. Since these frequent colonizers all share the nasopharynx as their natural niche, it is likely that these species interact with one another even during healthy states. Margolis and colleagues <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Margolis1" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref> demonstrated the existence of such interactions in vivo by introducing <italic>H. influenzae</italic> into the nasopharynx of neonatal rats that had or had not been pre-colonized by <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic>. The authors reported an increase in <italic>H. influenzae</italic> density when <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> was present, suggesting synergism between these bacterial species. However, when these two species were inoculated in the reverse order, inhibition was observed, indicating competition between both species. This discrepancy was found to be both strain-specific and site-specific within the nasal cavity.</p><p>Besides interactions between potential pathogenic bacteria, there is currently also considerable interest in possible interactions between commensals and potential pathogenic microbes. Commensals are thought to play an important role in preventing respiratory and invasive disease. Possible mechanisms by which commensals might prevent disease are inhibition of colonization and expansion of potential pathogens, immune modulation, and stimulation of mucosal maturation and barrier function <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Blaser1" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref>. Most research on colonization resistance in the nasopharyngeal niche by commensals has been performed on alpha-haemolytic (AHS) and beta-haemolytic (BHS) streptococcal species <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Brook1" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Tano3" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>. An overview of the available evidence regarding interactions between pathobionts and between pathobionts and commensal bacteria can be found in Table S1 and Figure S1 in <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="ppat.1003057.s001">Text S1</xref>.</p><sec id="s2a"><title>Bacterial Mechanisms of Interaction</title><p>To date, several mechanisms have been proposed to explain bacterial–bacterial interactions observed in the upper respiratory tract. An overview of these mechanisms is illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="ppat-1003057-g001">Figure 1</xref>.</p><fig id="ppat-1003057-g001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057.g001</object-id><label>Figure 1</label><caption><title>Bacterial–bacterial interactions.</title><p>The composition of nasopharyngeal microbiota is constantly subject to interactions between species. Bacterial species can interact with other bacterial species by competition and synergism. Synergism can be characterized by, for instance, the production of components that favors another species, as shown for the production of outer membrane vesicles. These may contain factors that are able to inactivate complement factor C3, thereby allowing another species to escape the immune system. Production of substances by one species, for example hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), may eliminate its competitor. The immune system may also be involved in competition, as one bacterium has fewer escape mechanisms to evade the immune system than another and therefore may use co-inhabitants to survive, whereas the reverse phenomenon (i.e., one species may trigger the immune system to combat the other species) may also occur. In addition, since PhC (phosphorylcholine) is shown to be immunogenic and some species may be able to switch off PhC expression whereas others cannot, there might be a selective advantage. Another form of competition involves competition for the same host receptor, as demonstrated for PhC and its receptor platelet activating factor receptor (PAFr). Moreover, one species may use neuraminidase to cut off the sialic acids (SA) that other bacteria may require for attachment to host receptors, therefore inhibiting adherence of the other bacterial species. H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, hydrogen peroxide; PAFr, platelet activating factor receptor; PhC, phosphorylcholine; NA, neuraminidase; SA, sialic acid (SA); rSA, receptor for sialic acids; Ab, antibodies.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ppat.1003057.g001"></graphic></fig><p>One well-studied mechanism used by bacteria to compete with other species is the production of hydrogen peroxidase (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), which is lethal for most bacteria. <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> is exceptionally tolerant to H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and produces concentrations that are bactericidal even for bacteria that produce the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>-neutralizing enzyme, catalase, such as <italic>S. aureus</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-RegevYochay1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pericone1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>. Genetically modified pneumococcal strains that are unable to produce H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> therefore also lose this ability to kill other strains <xref rid="ppat.1003057-RegevYochay1" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pericone1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>, demonstrating how reliant pneumococcal strains are on this system for survival. On the other hand, in vivo experiments with pneumococcus strains that do not produce H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> showed no impact on the survival of other species; however, since different strains were used in those studies, phenotypic differences could be responsible for discrepancies between in vitro and in vivo results <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Margolis2" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-RegevYochay2" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>.</p><p>Another strategy used by competing species to interfere with each other is targeting structures that mediate adherence to the epithelium of the competing microorganism. For example, neuraminidase expressed by the pneumococcus is able to cut off cell surface–expressed sialic acids of some <italic>H. influenzae</italic> strains, thereby preventing attachment to the surface of airway cells and subsequent colonization <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Shakhnovich1" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>.</p><p>A third, well-described interaction mechanism involves phosphorylcholine, a cell-surface molecule that mediates bacterial adherence to host cell receptors. Phosphorylcholine is expressed by both <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Cundell1" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Weiser1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>, and seems to contribute to the competitive effect between these two species through its immunogenicity <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Tanaka1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>. Pre-exposure to one of the two species induces the production of antibodies against phosphorylcholine, thereby promoting clearance of the other co-colonizing species <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Tanaka1" ref-type="bibr">[30]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Goldenberg1" ref-type="bibr">[31]</xref>. Since in vitro studies have shown that phosphorylcholine is necessary for the survival of pneumococci but not <italic>H. influenzae</italic>, the latter may switch off phosphorylcholine expression to give it an advantage over <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Weiser1" ref-type="bibr">[29]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Goldenberg1" ref-type="bibr">[31]</xref>.</p><p>The host immune system is also involved in interspecies competition, as has been elegantly shown in vivo by Lysenko et al. <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lysenko1" ref-type="bibr">[32]</xref>. When <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> was co-colonized with an <italic>H. influenzae</italic> strain, the density of <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> was lower than when inoculated alone, and this proved to be fully dependent on complement- and neutrophil-mediated killing of pneumococci <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lysenko1" ref-type="bibr">[32]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lysenko2" ref-type="bibr">[33]</xref>. In addition to innate immunity, the components of the adaptive immune system may play a role in microbial interactions. This is supported by a large epidemiological study that reported a significant negative association between <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>S. aureus</italic> in HIV-uninfected, but not HIV-infected, children <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Madhi1" ref-type="bibr">[34]</xref>. Furthermore, HIV infection has been associated with increased pneumococcal carriage rates compared with unaffected individuals. Therefore, it is suggested that a possible failure of the adaptive immune system, mainly CD4 T-cell-mediated <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Bogaert2" ref-type="bibr">[35]</xref> and decreased mucosal immunity <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Madhi1" ref-type="bibr">[34]</xref>, may contribute to the absence of a negative association between <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>S. aureus</italic> in immunocompromised HIV-infected hosts.</p><p>Alternatively, one bacterium can also promote the co-colonization of another bacterium, for example by inducing immune evasion, as has been described for <italic>H. influenzae</italic> and <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic>. <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic> is able to release outer membrane vesicles (“blebs”) containing ubiquitous surface proteins. Using different processes, these proteins are able to deactivate complement factor C3, which is a crucial amplifier of the complement system. <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic> may release these vesicles during co-colonization with <italic>H. influenzae</italic>, thereby protecting <italic>H. influenzae</italic> from complement-mediated killing <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Tan1" ref-type="bibr">[36]</xref>. A summary of evidence regarding bacterial–bacterial mechanisms occurring at the respiratory tract is given in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="ppat-1003057-g001">Figure 1</xref>. It should be noted, however, that the presence of one bacterial strain may affect the outcome of competition between other bacteria <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lysenko2" ref-type="bibr">[33]</xref>, and therefore interaction patterns between species are probably far more complex than the “simple” interaction between two species. In addition, in vitro and in vivo studies revealed discrepancies in the presence and direction of interspecies interactions, for example in the interaction between <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pericone1" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lysenko1" ref-type="bibr">[32]</xref>, supporting an important role for host factors in the observed interspecies interactions.</p><p>In summary, it is plausible that microbial interactions are multifactorial and involve a complex interplay between multiple host factors and bacterial characteristics that may have important consequences for both the composition and stability of the microbial community itself and susceptibility to disease <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pettigrew1" ref-type="bibr">[37]</xref>.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s3"><title>Viral–Bacterial Interaction</title><p>Interactions between viruses and bacteria in the pathogenesis of respiratory infections have been extensively reported in the literature. Perhaps the most well-known viral–bacterial interaction is the synergism between influenza virus and <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers1" ref-type="bibr">[38]</xref>. Although an influenza virus infection alone can be fatal, mortality increases dramatically when a bacterial super-infection occurs, as in the case of the “Spanish flu” pandemic in 1918–1919 when millions of people died, most from secondary pneumococcal pneumonia <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers1" ref-type="bibr">[38]</xref>. This is further underlined by animal experiments showing that death occurred in 35% and 15% of mice infected with either influenza virus or pneumococcus, respectively, whereas 100% of mice infected with both pathogens simultaneously succumbed to infection within one day <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers2" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>. Besides synergism between influenza virus and <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic>, other interactions between viral and bacterial species have been described in the literature, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="ppat-1003057-t001">Table 1</xref><xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers2" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pitkranta1" ref-type="bibr">[69]</xref>.</p><table-wrap id="ppat-1003057-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057.t001</object-id><label>Table 1</label><caption><title>Viral–bacterial interaction based on data available from human, animal, and in vitro studies.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="ppat-1003057-t001-1" xlink:href="ppat.1003057.t001"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Virus</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bacterium</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Association</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Human Studies Asymptomatic Children</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Animal Studies</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">In Vitro Studies</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Murine</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Type Epithelium</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Human rhinovirus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wiertsema1" ref-type="bibr">[67]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Ishizuka1" ref-type="bibr">[41]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>H. influenzae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Otitis-prone <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Primary airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sajjan1" ref-type="bibr">[42]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sajjan1" ref-type="bibr">[42]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Whiteman1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. aureus</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang2" ref-type="bibr">[44]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>M. catarrhalis</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Otitis-prone <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pitkranta1" ref-type="bibr">[69]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Human metapneumovirus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-KukavicaIbrulj1" ref-type="bibr">[54]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Verkaik1" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>RSV</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Stark1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasopharyngeal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament2" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Small airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Yokota1" ref-type="bibr">[49]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>H.influenzae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chinchillas <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McGillivary1" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasopharyngeal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Raza1" ref-type="bibr">[50]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Small airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula2" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jiang1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Influenza virus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers2" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-KukavicaIbrulj1" ref-type="bibr">[54]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Goulding1" ref-type="bibr">[57]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Diavatopoulos1" ref-type="bibr">[60]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tracheal explants (ex vivo) <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pittet1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Small airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>H. influenzae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Lee1" ref-type="bibr">[62]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Small airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. aureus</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Iverson1" ref-type="bibr">[63]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Small1" ref-type="bibr">[64]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Parainfluenza virus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bronchial <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Small airway <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>M. catarrhalis</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wiertsema1" ref-type="bibr">[67]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Adenovirus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>S. pneumoniae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nasopharyngeal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hakansson1" ref-type="bibr">[53]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alveolar basal <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hakansson1" ref-type="bibr">[53]</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>H. influenzae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Otitis-prone <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chinchilla <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Suzuki1" ref-type="bibr">[65]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>M. catarrhalis</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Coronavirus</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>H. influenzae</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>+</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rats <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Michaels1" ref-type="bibr">[66]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt101"><label></label><p>Virus (column one) and respective bacterium (column two) for which interactions were observed (column three), and source of evidence: from human studies (column four), animal studies (column five), or in vitro studies (column six) showing type of epithelium tested.</p></fn><fn id="nt102"><label></label><p>NA, data not available from literature.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>The mechanisms by which viruses influence bacterial colonization and invasion are very diverse. We have summarized the known mechanisms in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="ppat-1003057-g002">Figure 2a and 2b</xref> and will discuss each of these mechanisms below.</p><fig id="ppat-1003057-g002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057.g002</object-id><label>Figure 2</label><caption><title>Viral–bacterial interactions.</title><p>(A) Viral–bacterial interaction on the respiratory epithelial surface. Viral presence is thought to predispose the respiratory niche to bacterial colonization by different mechanisms. First, viruses may render the epithelium more susceptible to bacterial colonization by altering the mucosal surfaces. Ciliae may be damaged, leading to decreased mucociliar function of the respiratory epithelium. Additionally, due to viral-induced damage and loss of integrity of the epithelium layer, bacterial colonization may be enhanced and translocation may be increased. Virus-infected cells may decrease the expression of antimicrobial peptides, as shown for β-defensins, thereby affecting the natural defense of the host epithelium. Viral neuraminidase (NA) activity is able to cleave sialic acids residues, thereby giving access to bacterial receptors that were covered by these residues. Finally, viruses may induce bacterial colonization and replication both directly and indirectly, the latter by inducing upregulation of various receptors required for bacterial adherence, including PAFr, CAECAM-1, P5F, ICAM-1, and G-protein. PAFr, platelet activating factor receptor; ICAM-1, intracellular adhesion molecule 1; P5 fimbriae, outer membrane protein P5-homologous fimbriae; CAECAM-1, carcinoembryonic adhesion molecule-1; PhC, phosphorylcholine; SA, sialic acids; rSA, receptor for sialic acids; NA, neuraminidase; mRNA, messenger RNA, AMPs, antimicrobial peptides. (B) Viral–bacterial interaction in relation to the host immune system. Viruses may also induce changes in immune function favorable to bacterial invasion: fewer NK cells may be recruited into the tissue and their functionality may be suboptimal as a consequence of viral infection. Virus-induced IFN-α and IFN-β may impair recruitment and functionality of neutrophils, and subsequently induce apoptosis of neutrophils recruited to combat the viral invader. Furthermore, IFN-γ seems to negatively affect the activity of macrophages. Viral-infected monocytes appear less effective in ingesting and killing bacteria, predisposing them to bacterial overgrowth and invasion. Viral infection seems to impair TLR pathways, induce production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, and decrease the concentration of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α, generally affecting adequate immune responses to bacterial infections. Black arrows indicate increased (↑) or decreased (↓) activity or functionality of a cytokine. IFN, interferon; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TLR, toll like receptor; IL, interleukin; NK cell, natural killer cell.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ppat.1003057.g002"></graphic></fig><sec id="s3a"><title>Viral Predisposition to Bacterial Adherence</title><p>Since attachment of a pathogen to mucosal surfaces is the first step towards respiratory disease, and viral infection alters the defense of the host epithelium in general <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Vareille1" ref-type="bibr">[70]</xref>, it has been postulated that viral presence may render the epithelium more susceptible to bacterial colonization <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Bogaert1" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>. Mouse studies have shown that viral predisposition to bacterial attachment not only occurs in case of a simultaneous infection, but also up to a week after initial viral infection <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Stark1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref> or even after full recovery from influenza infection <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>. Moreover, Hakansson et al. <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hakansson1" ref-type="bibr">[53]</xref> demonstrated that not all viral types and bacterial species and strains interact to the same extent; only pneumococcal strains with high adhesive capacity were able to adhere to human respiratory epithelium infected with adenovirus, and this effect was restricted to types of adenoviruses generally able to cause respiratory disease in humans.</p></sec><sec id="s3b"><title>Disruption of the Epithelium Barrier</title><p>The epithelial layer of the respiratory tract mucosa is the first line of defense against a bacterial invader: loss of barrier function could therefore lead to entry of pathogens. Viruses generally replicate intracellularly and can subsequently disarrange cellular processes or kill infected cells through metabolic exhaustion or direct lysis. Induced cell death may in turn lead to denudation of the epithelial layer <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Plotkowski1" ref-type="bibr">[59]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Suzuki1" ref-type="bibr">[65]</xref>, exposing the basement membrane. <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> was found to bind strongly to fibronectin, which is prominently exposed at the basement membrane after denudation of epithelium <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderFlier1" ref-type="bibr">[72]</xref>. Similarly, <italic>S. aureus</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Heilmann1" ref-type="bibr">[73]</xref> and <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Tan2" ref-type="bibr">[74]</xref> have been shown to bind to extracellular matrix proteins, suggesting that these species might also benefit from virus-induced damage to epithelium. Furthermore, the binding capacities of bacteria to fibronectin appear to be strongly influenced by the amount of exposed fibronectin and exposure duration <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderFlier1" ref-type="bibr">[72]</xref>, and since viral presence may directly induce upregulation of fibronectin expression, as has been shown for rhinovirus, this will additionally enhance pathobiont binding <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>.</p><p>Another consequence of disrupted epithelium is the loss of epithelial integrity and decreased inhibition of bacterial translocation. This has been clearly shown for rhinovirus-induced paracellular migration of <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sajjan2" ref-type="bibr">[75]</xref>. Viruses may also induce damage to ciliated cells, resulting in decreased mucociliar velocity and impaired bacterial clearance <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pittet1" ref-type="bibr">[61]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Suzuki1" ref-type="bibr">[65]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s3c"><title>Upregulation of Adhesion Proteins</title><p>Viral presence in the infected cells may alter the expression of antimicrobial peptides, also known as defensins <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Ganz1" ref-type="bibr">[76]</xref>, secreted in the respiratory mucosa <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McGillivary1" ref-type="bibr">[56]</xref>, which are key innate immune components that directly eliminate pathogenic bacteria <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Ganz1" ref-type="bibr">[76]</xref>. Viral infection also triggers a pro-inflammatory response that leads to upregulation of adhesion proteins in a range of cells, including epithelial cells. These adhesion proteins act as receptors that allow immune cells to bind to virus-infected cells and combat the viral invader. This is illustrated by the upregulation of eukaryotic cell surface receptors such as intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), outer membrane protein P5-homologous fimbriae (P5 fimbriae), carcinoembryonic adhesion molecule-1 (CEACAM-1), and platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFr) in different cell types upon infection with a virus such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or para-influenza virus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jiang1" ref-type="bibr">[52]</xref>. Several bacterial species are able to adhere to a diverse group of these adhesion proteins on the surface of host cells <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Cundell1" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Ishizuka1" ref-type="bibr">[41]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang3" ref-type="bibr">[77]</xref>. For example, rhinovirus is able to induce upregulation of ICAM-1 needed for its own invasion as well as for adhesion of <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Whiteman1" ref-type="bibr">[43]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>. Moreover, some strains of <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic> express the natural PAFr-ligand phosphorylcholine, which also allows them to attach to, and invade, host cells. Increased PAFr expression in reaction to a viral infection may therefore facilitate adherence of both <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic><xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wang1" ref-type="bibr">[40]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Ishizuka1" ref-type="bibr">[41]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>. However, influenza viruses might form an exception, as in vitro studies have found that influenza virus did not alter the expression of several receptors, including ICAM-, CAECAM, and PAFr <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>. In particular, conflicting data have been reported for a potential role of PAFr in the protection against influenza-related bacterial superinfection in mouse models <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers2" ref-type="bibr">[39]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs2" ref-type="bibr">[78]</xref>, though this might be explained by strain-related differences as well as the timing and order of viral and bacterial exposure <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs2" ref-type="bibr">[78]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s3d"><title>Production of Viral Factors</title><p>Influenza virus is thought to increase bacterial adherence by alternative mechanisms, such as the ability to produce neuraminidase (NA). NA produced by influenza and para-influenza viruses creates an entry point for bacteria into host cells by cleaving sialic acids residues, thereby exposing bacterial receptors on the surface of the upper respiratory tract <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Peltola2" ref-type="bibr">[79]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers3" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>. This is supported by several in vitro and animal studies, including studies on the effects of NA inhibitors <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Peltola1" ref-type="bibr">[58]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McCullers3" ref-type="bibr">[81]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hedlund1" ref-type="bibr">[82]</xref>. Although some bacteria such as <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> naturally express NA <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kadioglu1" ref-type="bibr">[83]</xref>, the contribution of bacterial NA to viral replication seems to be negligible, most likely due to poor enzymatic activity and stringent binding requirements of bacterial NA compared to viral NA <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs3" ref-type="bibr">[84]</xref>.</p><p>RSV, on the other hand, does not produce NA. Instead, adherence of bacteria to RSV-infected cells is thought to be directly mediated by expression of RSV-protein G <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament1" ref-type="bibr">[46]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Hament2" ref-type="bibr">[47]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula2" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>. Blockade of G-protein activity, however, does not completely reduce excess bacterial colonization in RSV-infected cells in vitro <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula2" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref>. This implies that other mechanisms might be involved during viral–bacterial co-occurrence, such as upregulation of additional receptors like ICAM-1 and PAFr <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1" ref-type="bibr">[48]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula2" ref-type="bibr">[51]</xref> or other indirect pathways.</p></sec><sec id="s3e"><title>Dysfunction of Immune System Components</title><p>As described above, viral-induced expression of adhesion molecules may support adhesion of neutrophils, monocytes, and other immune cells to virus-infected cells. This may increase recruitment and activation of pro-inflammatory immune cells. However, respiratory viruses may also directly affect the immune system, for example by impairment of neutrophil function, decreased oxidative burst <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Stark1" ref-type="bibr">[55]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McNamee1" ref-type="bibr">[85]</xref>, and enhanced neutrophil apoptosis, thereby increasing susceptibility to bacterial superinfection <xref rid="ppat.1003057-McNamee1" ref-type="bibr">[85]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Engelich1" ref-type="bibr">[87]</xref>. Additionally, some strains of influenza virus infection may predispose to superinfection by <italic>S. aureus</italic> due to ineffective natural killer (NK) cell recruitment and activation <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Small1" ref-type="bibr">[64]</xref>. Viral infection may also alter monocyte function, resulting in lower surface expression of CD receptors <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Raza1" ref-type="bibr">[50]</xref>. In addition, viral presence also affects the production and biological activity of cytokines <xref rid="ppat.1003057-KukavicaIbrulj1" ref-type="bibr">[54]</xref>. For example, virus-induced interferon (IFN)-α and IFN-β induce impaired neutrophils responses due to inadequate production of neutrophil chemoattractants <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Shahangian1" ref-type="bibr">[88]</xref>. In addition, IFN-γ downregulates the activity of macrophages <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sun1" ref-type="bibr">[89]</xref>, thus impairing bacterial clearance in its initial phase. It has also been shown that blockage of IFN-γ decreases susceptibility to secondary bacterial pneumonia in mice <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sun1" ref-type="bibr">[89]</xref>. Moreover, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production is downregulated during viral infection, which may also lead to increased susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Raza1" ref-type="bibr">[50]</xref>. Respiratory viruses can also interact with toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways, preventing appropriate routing of immune responses <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Didierlaurent1" ref-type="bibr">[90]</xref>. This is, for example, illustrated by data obtained from a co-infection model with influenza virus and <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic> in mice, where excessive immunosuppressive interleukin (IL)-10 production following co-infection has been observed, which was associated with enhanced bacterial colonization and increased mortality <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs1" ref-type="bibr">[71]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s3f"><title>Unidirectional or Bidirectional Synergism</title><p>Most studies point towards a unidirectional viral predisposition to bacterial colonization. However, there are some clues that a preceding bacterial infection may also increase susceptibility to a consecutive viral infection. For example, Sajjan et al. <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Sajjan1" ref-type="bibr">[42]</xref> showed that <italic>H. influenzae</italic> is able to stimulate expression of ICAM-1 and TLR-3 on human airway epithelial cells, providing an entry point for rhinovirus. Another report suggested that human bronchial epithelial cells pre-incubated with pneumococcus, but not with <italic>H. influenzae</italic>, <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic>, or <italic>S. aureus</italic>, were more susceptible to human metapneumovirus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Verkaik1" ref-type="bibr">[45]</xref>. Moreover, it might also be possible that microbial interactions may disturb the equilibrium of the microbiota, creating an opportunity for viral invasion and transmission. This was recently underlined by Kuss et al. <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kuss1" ref-type="bibr">[91]</xref>, who showed that transmission of an enteric virus was less successful when the intestinal microbiota of mice were disbalanced by antibiotic treatment. Importantly, viruses might even be capable of using their microbial environment to escape immune clearance <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kane1" ref-type="bibr">[92]</xref>. Little information exists, however, regarding bacterial predisposition to viral disease, and further research is needed to unravel the extent to which bacteria enhance viral presence.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s4"><title>Asymptomatic Presence of Viruses In Vivo</title><p>The impact of viral presence could be far more extensive than currently thought. In addition to bacterial commensals, viruses are also commonly found in the nasopharynx of asymptomatic individuals. With the introduction of viral PCR techniques, it has become feasible to detect and distinguish between respiratory viruses in larger epidemiological studies. A concise review showed that up to 68% of respiratory samples from asymptomatic individuals were positive for respiratory viruses <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jartti1" ref-type="bibr">[93]</xref>. When specifying these numbers for symptom-free children, studies have reported presence rates of 16%–33% in developed communities <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanBenten1" ref-type="bibr">[94]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kusel1" ref-type="bibr">[96]</xref> and 4%–52% in developing communities <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Berkley1" ref-type="bibr">[97]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Singleton1" ref-type="bibr">[100]</xref>. Interestingly, children in some native populations, such as Australian Aboriginals and Alaska Yup'ik Eskimos, are known to be more susceptible to diseases caused by respiratory pathogens, and also seem to more frequently carry respiratory viruses during healthy periods <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Singleton1" ref-type="bibr">[100]</xref>. A detailed overview of data on the asymptomatic presence of viruses is presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="ppat-1003057-t002">Table 2</xref>.</p><table-wrap id="ppat-1003057-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057.t002</object-id><label>Table 2</label><caption><title>Viral detection in respiratory samples in asymptomatic children.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="ppat-1003057-t002-2" xlink:href="ppat.1003057.t002"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Season<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt103">a</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Number<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt104">b</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Risk Group</td><td colspan="10" align="left" rowspan="1">Viral Findings</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="10" align="left" rowspan="1"><italic>n</italic> (%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Picorna</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AdV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HBoV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RSV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">hMPV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CoV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PIV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Polyoma Viruses</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HRV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">EV</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wiertsema1" ref-type="bibr">[67]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Autumn, winter, spring</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 m–3 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28 (42%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (7.6%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (6.1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13 (20%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (9.1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (1.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (6.1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (9.1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">WU 9 (14%); KI 1 (1.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Fry1" ref-type="bibr">[99]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (24%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">51</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1–4 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7 (14%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">69</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5–19 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9 (13%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Winter</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (18%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (9%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (6%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (18%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (6%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1–2 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (16%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2–6 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14 (15%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (2%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">570</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><2 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94 (17%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20 (3.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (0.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (3.6%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (0.6%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (1.8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">436</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><2 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">At risk</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">103 (24%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37 (8.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (0.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (1.8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6 (3.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (0.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (1.8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Mathisen1" ref-type="bibr">[98]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Autumn, winter</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">272</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><3 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rural</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (1.1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0.4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (0.7%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (1.8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Berkley1" ref-type="bibr">[97]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">57</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><12 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rural</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Singleton1" ref-type="bibr">[100]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">425</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><3 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">At risk</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">140 (33%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">68 (16%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18 (4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29 (7%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2009 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanderZalm1" ref-type="bibr">[101]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Autumn, winter, spring</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><7 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14 (22%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-GarciaGarcia1" ref-type="bibr">[102]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">116</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><14 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 (9.5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (4.3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (1.7%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0.8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0·8%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2008 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Longtin1" ref-type="bibr">[112]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Autumn, winter, spring</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">≤3 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43 (43%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2007 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Autumn, winter, spring</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">269</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.5–9.3 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29 (11%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2006 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kusel1" ref-type="bibr">[96]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">456</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><1 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">High risk of atopy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">52 (11%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 (5%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20 (4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2006 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther2" ref-type="bibr">[104]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">All year<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt105">c</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">410</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1–9 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37 (9%)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="nt106">d</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2004 <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanBenten1" ref-type="bibr">[94]</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 m</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12 (17%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (3%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (4%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (1%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18 (28%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.5 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10 (26%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">49</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 y</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Healthy</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7 (14%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (2%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt103"><label>a</label><p>Related to geographical area.</p></fn><fn id="nt104"><label>b</label><p>Number of samples tested.</p></fn><fn id="nt105"><label>c</label><p>Stratified for season.</p></fn><fn id="nt106"><label>d</label><p>Picornavirus general.</p></fn><fn id="nt107"><label></label><p>M, months of age; Y, years of age; HRV, human rhinoviruses; EV, entero viruses; AdV, adeno viruses; HBoV, human bocavirus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; hMPV, human metapneumovirus; CoV, corona viruses; IV, influenza viruses; PIV, para-influenza viruses; NS, not specified.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>Differences between studies are likely to be explained by inclusion criteria and heterogeneity of populations due to differences in age, sample size, genetic background, season of sampling, lifestyle, and environmental circumstances, as well as health status and registration of respiratory symptoms prior to or following sampling.</p><p>The interpretation of viral presence in human respiratory samples is therefore becoming increasingly complex. In children, Singleton et al. <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Singleton1" ref-type="bibr">[100]</xref> proposed dividing respiratory viruses into two groups, depending on their viral contribution to disease. The contributing factor to illness of a given viral pathogen was estimated by the proportion of all hospitalized cases related to this virus divided by its presence rate in asymptomatic children. Group 1 includes viruses with a significantly greater contribution to respiratory symptoms, including RSV, metapneumovirus, certain para-influenza viruses, and influenza viruses. Group 2 viruses, including human rhinoviruses, adenoviruses, and coronaviruses, are less likely to be the single causative pathogen of disease in children. The exact role of these group 2 viruses in the pathogenesis of respiratory infections remains unanswered, but it seems plausible that they might have a more subtle or indirect role in the pathogenesis of respiratory infections. In general, however, presence rates of viruses are higher in symptomatic individuals compared to asymptomatic individuals. Moreover, most of these viruses are associated with an increased presence or density of bacterial pathogens, supporting a role for overgrowth of, and/or invasion by, pathogenic bacteria and, consequently, the development of respiratory infections.</p><p>Interestingly, it has also been shown that up to 27% of asymptomatic healthy children carry multiple respiratory viruses in their nasopharynx at any given time <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanBenten1" ref-type="bibr">[94]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Berkley1" ref-type="bibr">[97]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Fry1" ref-type="bibr">[99]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref>. For example, RSV-positive samples were also positive for rhinovirus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref> or bocavirus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Wiertsema1" ref-type="bibr">[67]</xref>. Additionally, co-incidence of multiple “innocuous” viruses was frequently observed, such as co-occurrence of rhinovirus with adenovirus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Fry1" ref-type="bibr">[99]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-GarciaGarcia1" ref-type="bibr">[102]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref> or coronavirus <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther1" ref-type="bibr">[103]</xref> in children without respiratory symptoms. So far, study sizes have been too small to determine whether viral co-occurrence in asymptomatic children is an accidental or season-related event, or, alternatively, whether the presence of virus A predisposes to the acquisition of virus B. New studies are needed to elucidate the possibility of true synergism between viruses and the extent to which this contributes to the pathogenesis of respiratory infections.</p><p>The asymptomatic presence of viruses in the nasopharynx may be explained by several mechanisms <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jartti1" ref-type="bibr">[93]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref>. First, one cannot rule out the possibility that the PCR detection of the virus preceded a symptomatic episode, i.e., viral presence was observed during the incubation period <xref rid="ppat.1003057-vanBenten1" ref-type="bibr">[94]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther2" ref-type="bibr">[104]</xref>. Second, in studies that involve young children, parental registration of the infant health status might be a major confounder, as the presence of minor respiratory symptoms like a runny nose may be underestimated. Third, viral presence might indicate a true subclinical infection. A recent study <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Jansen1" ref-type="bibr">[95]</xref> revealed that the median viral load of rhinovirus was significantly lower in asymptomatic children than in symptomatic children, with a total absence of clinical symptoms when the viral load was below a certain threshold. Another study analyzed the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids of asymptomatic children attending elective surgery to reveal the effect of viral presence on the immune system. The authors found that viral presence was associated with significantly higher neutrophil counts, but not macrophage, lymphocyte, and eosinophil counts <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Thavagnanam1" ref-type="bibr">[105]</xref>. This may imply that a low viral load only triggers a minor inflammatory response without causing respiratory symptoms. Fourth, the duration of viral shedding varies greatly between studies and seems to be strongly dependant on viral species, selected patient population, and method of detection <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther2" ref-type="bibr">[104]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Martin1" ref-type="bibr">[106]</xref>–<xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kalu1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>. Therefore, detected viruses may mark an expiring infection. Finally, prolonged detection of viral presence may be due to the sequential presence of different serotypes of the same viral species <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Winther2" ref-type="bibr">[104]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Peltola3" ref-type="bibr">[109]</xref>. For example, for adenovirus, it was recently shown that prolonged or repeated persistence of viral nucleic acids might actually be caused by both persistent viral shedding and consecutive infection with different serotypes/strains <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kalu1" ref-type="bibr">[108]</xref>. However, few other studies discriminate between the exact serotypes of the viruses found in the nasopharynx of asymptomatic children <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Fry1" ref-type="bibr">[99]</xref>. Most likely, interplay of these factors will influence the presence of viral species in the nasopharynx of healthy asymptomatic children, though the clinical relevance of these findings remains unclear and needs further investigation.</p></sec><sec id="s5"><title>Viral–Bacterial Interaction in Asymptomatic Humans</title><p>It is becoming clear that viruses present in the nasopharynx of asymptomatic individuals can facilitate both colonization of bacteria and further viral presence. For example, several cohort studies of asymptomatic children have found a positive correlation between the presence of adenovirus and rhinovirus and both <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic> and <italic>H. influenzae</italic> (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="ppat-1003057-t001">Table 1</xref> for summary of these and other studies) <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Moore1" ref-type="bibr">[68]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pitkranta1" ref-type="bibr">[69]</xref>. However, due to the cross-sectional design of most of these studies, it remains unclear whether this reflects a true cause-effect relationship, and if so, in what direction these effects occur. To unravel the sequence of the observed effects, longitudinal studies with intensive follow-up during health and disease are needed.</p></sec><sec id="s6"><title>Model for Interspecies Interaction</title><p>In this review, we have synthesized as much knowledge as possible on interspecies interaction between potential pathogenic agents as well as non-pathogenic commensals. We have described different mechanisms by which these interactions may be facilitated, including direct bacterial effectors, viral-induced bacterial adhesion, viral-derived disruption of the epithelium, production of viral products, and interference with the host immune system. We have incorporated all available knowledge on in vitro research, animal experiments, and human data into a single theoretical model of interspecies interplay (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="ppat-1003057-g003">Figure 3</xref>). The majority of data available on microbial interactions has been collected from experimental setting and epidemiological surveillances of combinations of a limited number of microorganisms. Recently, we described the extreme complexity of the microbial population in the upper respiratory niche, with high diversity of bacteria and high variability between individuals <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Bogaert3" ref-type="bibr">[110]</xref>. Moreover, Pettigrew et al. showed that nasal microbiome communities differ according to the health status of young children (i.e., healthy or presence of acute respiratory symptoms) <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Pettigrew2" ref-type="bibr">[111]</xref>, although due to the cross-sectional approach, it remains unclear whether this reflects a true cause-effect relation and in which direction this may occur. In addition to a bacterial microbiome, the presence of a diverse community of viruses (or viriome) in the upper respiratory niche may further increase the complexity of interactions within this ecosystem. We have attempted to accommodate these intricate interferences in our model. Ultimately, these interactions may strongly influence the dynamics within the complete microbial population of the respiratory niche and may lead to an imbalanced state with potential overgrowth of pathogens and progression towards consecutive disease. In particular, a role for viral co-infection in the observed dynamics within this microbiome deserves further investigation; viruses and microbiota may each influence the pathogenicity and consecutive development of infections of the other, as has recently been suggested for gut microbiota <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kuss1" ref-type="bibr">[91]</xref>, <xref rid="ppat.1003057-Kane1" ref-type="bibr">[92]</xref>.</p><fig id="ppat-1003057-g003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057.g003</object-id><label>Figure 3</label><caption><title>Proposed model of bacterial and viral interactions.</title><p>This model represents the cumulative dynamics of bacterial and viral interactions occurring within the nasopharyngeal niche during asymptomatic episodes as observed in all cumulative literature references. All available information on the four main potential pathogenic bacteria (<italic>Streptococcus pneumoniae</italic>, <italic>Haemophilus influenzae</italic>, <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>, and <italic>Moraxella catarrhalis</italic>) and seven common respiratory viruses (rhinoviruses (hRV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), adenoviruses (AdV), coronavirus (CoV), influenza viruses (IV), para-influenza viruses (PIV), and human metapneumovirus (hMPV)) are depicted. Red lines represent a negative association of co-colonization (competition), blue lines represent a positive association of co-colonization (synergism). For all depicted associations, evidence is available from human (surveillance) studies, except for those indicated with ‡, where evidence is only available from in vitro and/or animal studies.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ppat.1003057.g003"></graphic></fig><p>Despite some discrepancies between in vivo and in vitro data, our model does provide a better understanding of the complex interspecies interactions within the respiratory niche. Inconsistencies between in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as between different study populations, underline the involvement of additional factors such as host immunity, genetic background, the commensal environment, available nutrients, and environmental circumstances.</p><p>For a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the positive and negative interactions observed among species of the nasopharyngeal niche, intensive in vitro and in vivo research as well as longitudinal epidemiological studies using advanced data analyses are warranted. Special interest should be addressed to bacterial carriage and viral presence in asymptomatic children, for the upper respiratory niche may also function as an important reservoir of potential pathogenic bacteria and viral species in the community. New and more detailed knowledge regarding this complex interplay may help us to reconsider how we define the causative mechanisms of respiratory diseases.</p><p>In conclusion, this review summarizes the current knowledge on the mechanisms underlying bacterial and viral interactions in the respiratory tract. Although colonization of both respiratory bacteria and viruses is mostly asymptomatic, synergistic and competitive interspecies interactions appear to occur, potentially influencing and disturbing the natural equilibrium of the complex microbiota at the nasopharyngeal niche. We propose a multidimensional interaction model that underlines the complexity of interactions between potential pathogenic bacteria and respiratory viruses. Completing this model of interspecies interaction in the future will provide a better understanding of the dynamics of the complete respiratory ecosystem and may provide us with new insights into the potential role of an imbalanced equilibrium in the pathogenesis of respiratory disease—possibly the true key to disease.</p><boxed-text id="ppat-1003057-box001" position="float" orientation="portrait"><sec id="s7a"><title>Search Strategy and Selection Criteria</title><p>Relevant studies for this review were identified by searching PubMed and the reference lists of selected articles. Only articles published in English were included. We screened titles and abstracts on relevance: if relevant, we included the article in the construction of this review. Because we were specifically focusing on asymptomatic carriage of respiratory pathogenic species in children, we excluded studies based on symptomatic children, adults, and antimicrobial studies.</p><p>We searched for papers studying the four most important bacterial pathogens of respiratory tract infections known to interact with other microorganisms and viruses, namely <italic>S. pneumoniae</italic>, <italic>H. influenzae</italic>, <italic>S. aureus</italic>, and <italic>M. catarrhalis</italic> (search terms: “pneumococ*”, <italic>“Streptococcus pneumoniae”, “s. pneumoni*”, “Haemophilus influenzae”, “H. influenzae”, “Hemophilus influenzae”, “Staphylococcus aureus”, “S. aureus”</italic>, “staphylococ*”, <italic>“Moraxella catarrhalis”, “M. catarrhalis”, “Moraxella catarrhalis”</italic>). Respiratory viruses were defined by the following criteria (search terms: “adenovirus”, “adeno virus”, “boca”, “bocavirus”, “WU”, “Wupolyomavirus”, “WU-polyomavirus”, “KY”, “ky-polyomavirus”, “ky polyomavirus”, “influenza virus”, “influenza”, ”influenzavirus”, “parainfluenza virus”, para-influenzavirus”, “para influenza virus”, “corona-virus”, “coronavirus”, “corona virus”, “enterovirus”, “entero virus”, “parechovirus”, “parecho virus”, “RSV”, “respiratory syncytial virus”, “metapneumovirus”, “meta-pneumovirus”, “meta pneumovirus”, “rhinovirus”, “rhino virus”).</p><p>For the bacterial interactions, we used the search terms for the four bacteria of interest individually and combined. We combined these terms with the following search terms “interaction”, “co-exist*”, “interference”, “co-occurrence”, ”co-colonisation”, “synergism”, “antagonism”, “bactericidal”, “correlation”. We also performed a global search for mechanisms by which interactions may occur and searched in more detail for hydrogen peroxidase, phosphorylcholine, neuraminidase, and the host immune system.</p><p>With a focus on viral–bacterial interactions, we performed searches with the search terms for the four bacteria and 13 viruses described above. We combined different search terms to create a complete overview.</p><p>For studies on the asymptomatic presence of viruses, we performed a search with the viral search terms described above and combined them with “asymptomat*”, “without symptoms”, “health*”, “child*”, “infant*”, “human”.</p><p>To our knowledge, we have considered all relevant studies in the present review. However, when extensive literature was available, we decided to refer to a limited number of representative papers based on relevance, study size, and study design.</p></sec></boxed-text></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="s8"><title>Supporting Information</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="ppat.1003057.s001"><label>Text S1</label><caption><p>Supporting information, including Table S1 (Bacterial–bacterial interaction) and Figure S1 (Proposed model of bacterial interactions at the upper respiratory tract).</p><p>(DOC)</p></caption><media xlink:href="ppat.1003057.s001.doc"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><p>We thank Beth Groom for helpful discussion on the manuscript.</p></ack><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="ppat.1003057-World1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">World Health Organization Geneva, Health Statistics and Informatics Department (2011) Causes of death 2008. In: World health statistics 2011. 170 pages, ISBN 978 92 4 156419 9 (NLM classification: WA 900.1). pp. 57–76. Available: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/EN_WHS2011_Full.pdf">http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/EN_WHS2011_Full.pdf</ext-link>. Accessed 7 December 2012.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Black1"><label>2</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Black</surname><given-names>RE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cousens</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Johnson</surname><given-names>HL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lawn</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rudan</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: A systematic analysis. child health epidemiology reference group of WHO and UNICEF</article-title>. <source>Lancet</source><volume>375(9730)</volume><fpage>1969</fpage>–<lpage>1987</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20466419</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Vergison1"><label>3</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Vergison</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dagan</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Arguedas</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bonhoeffer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cohen</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Otitis media and its consequences: Beyond the earache</article-title>. <source>Lancet Infect Dis</source><volume>10(3)</volume><fpage>195</fpage>–<lpage>203</lpage> 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70012-8.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20185098</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Watson1"><label>4</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Watson</surname><given-names>KBH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Carville</surname><given-names>KMA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bowman</surname><given-names>JBA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jacoby</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Riley</surname><given-names>TV</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Upper respiratory tract bacterial carriage in aboriginal and non-aboriginal children in a semi-arid area of western Australia</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>25(9)</volume><fpage>782</fpage>–<lpage>790</lpage> 10.1097/01.inf.0000232705.49634.68.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16940834</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Blaser1"><label>5</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Blaser</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Falkow</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota</article-title>? <source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source><volume>7(12)</volume>:<fpage>887</fpage>–<lpage>894</lpage> 10.1038/nrmicro2245.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19898491</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Murphy1"><label>6</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Murphy</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bakaletz</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smeesters</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Microbial interactions in the respiratory tract</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>28(10)</volume>:<fpage>S121</fpage>–<lpage>S126</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19918134</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Hardin1"><label>7</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hardin</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name> (<year>1960</year>) <article-title>The competitive exclusion principle</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>131(3409)</volume>:<fpage>1292</fpage>–<lpage>1297</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14399717</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Spor1"><label>8</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Spor</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Koren</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ley</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Unravelling the effects of the environment and host genotype on the gut microbiome</article-title>. <source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source><volume>9(4)</volume>:<fpage>279</fpage>–<lpage>290</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21407244</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Grice1"><label>9</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Grice</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Segre</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>The skin microbiome</article-title>. <source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source><volume>9(4)</volume>:<fpage>244</fpage>–<lpage>253</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21407241</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Bogaert1"><label>10</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bogaert</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>De Groot</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hermans</surname><given-names>PW</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: The key to pneumococcal disease</article-title>. <source>Lancet Infect Dis</source><volume>4</volume>: <fpage>144</fpage>–<lpage>154</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14998500</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-GarciaRodriguez1"><label>11</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Garcia-Rodriguez</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fresnadillo Martinez</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Dynamics of nasopharyngeal colonization by potential respiratory pathogens</article-title>. <source>J Antimicrob Chemother</source><volume>50(suppl_3)</volume>:<fpage>59</fpage>–<lpage>74</lpage> 10.1093/jac/dkf506.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Margolis1"><label>12</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Margolis</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yates</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Levin</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>The ecology of nasal colonization of streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae and staphylococcus aureus: The role of competition and interactions with host's immune response</article-title>. <source>BMC Microbiology</source><volume>10(1)</volume>:<fpage>59</fpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20178591</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Chesson1"><label>13</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Chesson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>General theory of competitive coexistence in spatially-varying environments</article-title>. <source>Theor Popul Biol</source><volume>58(3)</volume>:<fpage>211</fpage>–<lpage>237</lpage> 10.1006/tpbi.2000.1486.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11120650</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Brogden1"><label>14</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Brogden</surname><given-names>KA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Guthmiller</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>CE</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Human polymicrobial infections</article-title>. <source>Lancet</source><volume>365(9455)</volume>:<fpage>253</fpage>–<lpage>255</lpage> 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17745-9.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15652608</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kwambana1"><label>15</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kwambana</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Barer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bottomley</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Adegbola</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Antonio</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Early acquisition and high nasopharyngeal co-colonisation by streptococcus pneumoniae and three respiratory pathogens amongst Gambian new-borns and infants</article-title>. <source>BMC Infect Dis</source><volume>11(1)</volume>:<fpage>175</fpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21689403</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Jourdain1"><label>16</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Jourdain</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smeesters</surname><given-names>PR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Denis</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dramaix</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sputael</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Differences in nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage in preschool children from different socio-economic origins</article-title>. <source>Clin Microbiol Infect</source><volume>17(6)</volume>:<fpage>907</fpage>–<lpage>914</lpage> 10.1111/j.14690691.2010.03410.x.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20977542</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Mackenzie1"><label>17</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Mackenzie</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Leach</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Carapetis</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fisher</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Morris</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Epidemiology of nasopharyngeal carriage of respiratory bacterial pathogens in children and adults: Cross-sectional surveys in a population with high rates of pneumococcal disease</article-title>. <source>BMC Infect Dis</source><volume>10(1)</volume>:<fpage>304</fpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20969800</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Brook1"><label>18</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Brook</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gober</surname><given-names>AE</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Increased recovery of moraxella catarrhalis and haemophilus influenzae in association with group A β-haemolytic streptococci in healthy children and those with pharyngo-tonsillitis</article-title>. <source>J Med Microbiol</source><volume>55(8)</volume>:<fpage>989</fpage>–<lpage>992</lpage> 10.1099/jmm.0.46325-0.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16849717</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Lafontaine1"><label>19</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lafontaine</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wall</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Vanlerberg</surname><given-names>SL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Donabedian</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sledjeski</surname><given-names>DD</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title><italic>Moraxella catarrhalis</italic> coaggregates with <italic>streptococcus pyogenes</italic> and modulates interactions of <italic>S. pyogenes</italic> with human epithelial cells</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>72</volume>: <fpage>6689</fpage>–<lpage>6693</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15501804</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tano1"><label>20</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tano</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Olofsson</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Grahn-Håkansson</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Holm</surname><given-names>SE</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>In vitro inhibition of S. pneumoniae, nontypable H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis by alpha-hemolytic streptococci from healthy children</article-title>. <source>Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol</source><volume>47(1)</volume>:<fpage>49</fpage>–<lpage>56</lpage> DOI: 10.1016/S0165-5876(98)00174-8.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10206394</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tano2"><label>21</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tano</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Håkansson</surname><given-names>EG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Holm</surname><given-names>SE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hellström</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Bacterial interference between pathogens in otitis media and alpha-haemolytic streptococci analysed in an in vitro model</article-title>. <source>Acta Otolaryngol</source><volume>122(1)</volume>:<fpage>78</fpage>–<lpage>85</lpage> 10.1080/00016480252775788.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11876603</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tano3"><label>22</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tano</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hellström</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Bacterial adherence to pharyngeal cells: In vitro studies with alpha-haemolytic streptococci and haemophilus influenzae</article-title>. <source>Acta Otolaryngol</source><volume>122(7)</volume>:<fpage>745</fpage>–<lpage>751</lpage> 10.1080/00016480260349827.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12484652</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-RegevYochay1"><label>23</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Regev-Yochay</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Trzcinski</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Thompson</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Malley</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lipsitch</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Interference between streptococcus pneumoniae and staphylococcus aureus: In vitro hydrogen peroxide-mediated killing by streptococcus pneumoniae</article-title>. <source>J Bacteriol</source><volume>188(13)</volume>:<fpage>4996</fpage>–<lpage>5001</lpage> 10.1128/JB.00317-06.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16788209</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Pericone1"><label>24</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Pericone</surname><given-names>CD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Overweg</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hermans</surname><given-names>PWM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>Inhibitory and bactericidal effects of hydrogen peroxide production by streptococcus pneumoniae on other inhabitants of the upper respiratory tract</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>68(7)</volume>:<fpage>3990</fpage>–<lpage>3997</lpage> 10.1128/IAI.68.7.3990-3997.2000.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10858213</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Margolis2"><label>25</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Margolis</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Hydrogen peroxide-mediated interference competition by streptococcus pneumoniae has no significant effect on staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization of neonatal rats</article-title>. <source>J Bacteriol</source><volume>191(2)</volume>:<fpage>571</fpage>–<lpage>575</lpage> 10.1128/JB.00950-08.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19011027</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-RegevYochay2"><label>26</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Regev-Yochay</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Malley</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rubinstein</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Raz</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dagan</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>In vitro bactericidal activity of streptococcus pneumoniae and bactericidal susceptibility of staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from cocolonized versus noncocolonized children</article-title>. <source>J Clin Microbiol</source><volume>46(2)</volume>:<fpage>747</fpage>–<lpage>749</lpage> 10.1128/JCM.01781-07.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18039795</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Shakhnovich1"><label>27</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Shakhnovich</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>King</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Neuraminidase expressed by streptococcus pneumoniae desialylates the lipopolysaccharide of neisseria meningitidis and haemophilus influenzae: A paradigm for interbacterial competition among pathogens of the human respiratory tract</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>70(12)</volume>:<fpage>7161</fpage>–<lpage>7164</lpage> 10.1128/IAI.70.12.7161-7164.2002.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12438402</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Cundell1"><label>28</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Cundell</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gerard</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gerard</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Idanpaan-Heikkila</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tuomanen</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name> (<year>1995</year>) <article-title>Streptococcus pneumoniae anchor to activated human cells by the receptor for platelet-activating factor</article-title>. <source>Nature</source><volume>377(6548)</volume>:<fpage>435</fpage>–<lpage>438</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7566121</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Weiser1"><label>29</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Shchepetov</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chong</surname><given-names>STH</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>Decoration of lipopolysaccharide with phosphorylcholine: A phase-variable characteristic of haemophilus influenzae</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>65</volume>: <fpage>943</fpage>–<lpage>950</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9038301</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tanaka1"><label>30</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tanaka</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fukuyama</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fukuiwa</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kawabata</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sagara</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Intranasal immunization with phosphorylcholine induces antigen specific mucosal and systemic immune responses in mice</article-title>. <source>Vaccine</source><volume>25(14)</volume>:<fpage>2680</fpage>–<lpage>2687</lpage> 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.10.014.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17270319</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Goldenberg1"><label>31</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Goldenberg</surname><given-names>HB</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McCool</surname><given-names>TL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Cross-reactivity of human immunoglobulin G2 recognizing phosphorylcholine and evidence for protection against major bacterial pathogens of the human respiratory tract</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>190(7)</volume>:<fpage>1254</fpage>–<lpage>1263</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15346335</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Lysenko1"><label>32</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lysenko</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ratner</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nelson</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>The role of innate immune responses in the outcome of interspecies competition for colonization of mucosal surfaces</article-title>. <source>PLoS Pathog</source><volume>1(1)</volume>:<fpage>e1</fpage><comment>doi:<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0010001">10.1371/journal.ppat.0010001</ext-link></comment><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16201010</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Lysenko2"><label>33</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lysenko</surname><given-names>ES</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lijek</surname><given-names>RS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>SP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Within-host competition drives selection for the capsule virulence determinant of streptococcus pneumoniae</article-title>. <source>Curr Biol</source><volume>20(13)</volume>:<fpage>1222</fpage>–<lpage>1226</lpage> 10.1016/j.cub.2010.05.051.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20619820</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Madhi1"><label>34</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Madhi</surname><given-names>SA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Adrian</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kuwanda</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cutland</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Albrich</surname><given-names>WC</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Long-term effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on nasopharyngeal colonization by <italic>streptococcus pneumoniae</italic>—and associated interactions with <italic>staphylococcus aureus</italic> and <italic>haemophilus influenzae</italic> colonization—in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>196(11)</volume>:<fpage>1662</fpage>–<lpage>1666</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18008250</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Bogaert2"><label>35</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bogaert</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nouwen</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hermans</surname><given-names>PWM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Belkum</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Lack of interference between <italic>streptococcus pneumoniae</italic> and <italic>staphylococcus aureus</italic> in HIV-infected individuals</article-title>? <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>194(11)</volume>:<fpage>1617</fpage>–<lpage>1618</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17083049</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tan1"><label>36</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tan</surname><given-names>TT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mörgelin</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Forsgren</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Riesbeck</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title><italic>Haemophilus influenzae</italic> survival during complement-mediated attacks is promoted by <italic>moraxella catarrhalis</italic> outer membrane vesicles</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>195(11)</volume>:<fpage>1661</fpage>–<lpage>1670</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17471436</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Pettigrew1"><label>37</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Pettigrew</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gent</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pyles</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nokso-Koivisto</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Viral-bacterial interactions and risk of acute otitis media complicating upper respiratory tract infection</article-title>. <source>J Clin Microbiol</source><volume>49(11)</volume>:<fpage>3750</fpage>–<lpage>3755</lpage> 10.1128/JCM.01186-11.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21900518</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-McCullers1"><label>38</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>McCullers</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus</article-title>. <source>Clin Microbiol Rev</source><volume>19</volume>: <fpage>571</fpage>–<lpage>582</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16847087</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-McCullers2"><label>39</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>McCullers</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rehg</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Lethal synergism between influenza virus and streptococcus pneumoniae: Characterization of a mouse model and the role of platelet-activating factor receptor</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>186(3)</volume>:<fpage>341</fpage>–<lpage>350</lpage> 10.1086/341462.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12134230</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Wang1"><label>40</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kwon</surname><given-names>HJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jang</surname><given-names>YJ</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Rhinovirus enhances various bacterial adhesions to nasal epithelial cells simultaneously</article-title>. <source>Laryngoscope</source><volume>119(7)</volume>:<fpage>1406</fpage>–<lpage>1411</lpage> 10.1002/lary.20498.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19434681</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Ishizuka1"><label>41</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Ishizuka</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yamaya</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Suzuki</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Takahashi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ida</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Effects of rhinovirus infection on the adherence of streptococcus pneumoniae to cultured human airway epithelial cells</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>188(12)</volume>:<fpage>1928</fpage>–<lpage>1939</lpage> 10.1086/379833.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14673774</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Sajjan1"><label>42</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Sajjan</surname><given-names>US</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jia</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Newcomb</surname><given-names>DC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bentley</surname><given-names>JK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lukacs</surname><given-names>NW</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>H. influenzae potentiates airway epithelial cell responses to rhinovirus by increasing ICAM-1 and TLR3 expression</article-title>. <source>FASEB J</source><volume>20(12)</volume>:<fpage>2121</fpage>–<lpage>2123</lpage> 10.1096/fj.06-5806fje.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16914605</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Whiteman1"><label>43</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Whiteman</surname><given-names>SC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bianco</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Knight</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Spiteri</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Human rhinovirus selectively modulates membranous and soluble forms of its intercellular adhesion Molecule–1 (ICAM-1) receptor to promote epithelial cell infectivity</article-title>. <source>J Biol Chem</source><volume>278</volume>: <fpage>11954</fpage>–<lpage>11961</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12551926</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Wang2"><label>44</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kwon</surname><given-names>HJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>BJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jang</surname><given-names>YJ</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Staphylococcal enterotoxins A and B enhance rhinovirus replication in A549 cells</article-title>. <source>Am J Rhinol</source><volume>21(6)</volume>:<fpage>670</fpage>–<lpage>674</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18201445</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Verkaik1"><label>45</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Verkaik</surname><given-names>NJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nguyen</surname><given-names>DT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>de Vogel</surname><given-names>CP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Moll</surname><given-names>HA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Verbrugh</surname><given-names>HA</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Streptococcus pneumoniae exposure is associated with human metapneumovirus seroconversion and increased susceptibility to in vitro HMPV infection</article-title>. <source>Clin Microbiol Infect</source><volume>17(12)</volume>:<fpage>1840</fpage>–<lpage>1844</lpage> 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03480.x.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21883660</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Hament1"><label>46</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hament</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Aerts</surname><given-names>PC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fleer</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Van Dijk</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harmsen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Direct binding of respiratory syncytial virus to pneumococci: A phenomenon that enhances both pneumococcal adherence to human epithelial cells and pneumococcal invasiveness in a murine model</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Res</source><volume>58(6)</volume>:<fpage>1198</fpage>–<lpage>1203</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16306193</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Hament2"><label>47</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hament</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Aerts</surname><given-names>PC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fleer</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Van Dijk</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harmsen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Enhanced adherence of streptococcus pneumoniae to human epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Res</source><volume>55(6)</volume>:<fpage>972</fpage>–<lpage>978</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15103015</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula1"><label>48</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Avadhanula</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rodriguez</surname><given-names>CA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>DeVincenzo</surname><given-names>JP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Webby</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Respiratory viruses augment the adhesion of bacterial pathogens to respiratory epithelium in a viral species- and cell type-dependent manner</article-title>. <source>J Virol</source><volume>80(4)</volume>:<fpage>1629</fpage>–<lpage>1636</lpage> 10.1128/JVI.80.4.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16439519</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Yokota1"><label>49</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Yokota</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Okabayashi</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yoto</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hori</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tsutsumi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Fosfomycin suppresses RS-virus-induced streptococcus pneumoniae and haemophilus influenzae adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells via the platelet-activating factor receptor</article-title>. <source>FEMS Microbiol Lett</source><volume>310(1)</volume>:<fpage>84</fpage>–<lpage>90</lpage> 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2010.02049.x.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20629755</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Raza1"><label>50</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Raza</surname><given-names>MW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Blackwell</surname><given-names>CC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Elton</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weir</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>Bactericidal activity of a monocytic cell line (THP-1) against common respiratory tract bacterial pathogens is depressed after infection with respiratory syncytial virus</article-title>. <source>J Med Microbiol</source><volume>49(3)</volume>:<fpage>227</fpage>–<lpage>233</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10707942</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Avadhanula2"><label>51</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Avadhanula</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Portner</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Adderson</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Nontypeable haemophilus influenzae and streptococcus pneumoniae bind respiratory syncytial virus glycoprotein</article-title>. <source>J Med Microbiol</source><volume>56(9)</volume>:<fpage>1133</fpage>–<lpage>1137</lpage> 10.1099/jmm.0.47086-0.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17761473</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Jiang1"><label>52</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Jiang</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nagata</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Molina</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bakaletz</surname><given-names>LO</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hawkins</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Fimbria-mediated enhanced attachment of nontypeable haemophilus influenzae to respiratory syncytial virus-infected respiratory epithelial cells</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>67(1)</volume>:<fpage>187</fpage>–<lpage>192</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9864214</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Hakansson1"><label>53</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hakansson</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kidd</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wadell</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sabharwal</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Svanborg</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>1994</year>) <article-title>Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of streptococcus pneumoniae</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>62(7)</volume>:<fpage>2707</fpage>–<lpage>2714</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8005661</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-KukavicaIbrulj1"><label>54</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kukavica-Ibrulj</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hamelin</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Prince</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gagnon</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bergeron</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Infection with human metapneumovirus predisposes mice to severe pneumococcal pneumonia</article-title>. <source>J Virol</source><volume>83(3)</volume>:<fpage>1341</fpage>–<lpage>1349</lpage> 10.1128/JVI.01123-08.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19019962</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Stark1"><label>55</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Stark</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Stark</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Colasurdo</surname><given-names>GN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>LeVine</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Decreased bacterial clearance from the lungs of mice following primary respiratory syncytial virus infection</article-title>. <source>J Med Virol</source><volume>78(6)</volume>:<fpage>829</fpage>–<lpage>838</lpage> 10.1002/jmv.20631.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16628585</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-McGillivary1"><label>56</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>McGillivary</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mason</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jurcisek</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Peeples</surname><given-names>ME</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bakaletz</surname><given-names>LO</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Respiratory syncytial virus-induced dysregulation of expression of a mucosal beta-defensin augments colonization of the upper airway by non-typeable haemophilus influenzae</article-title>. <source>Cell Microbiol</source><volume>11(9)</volume>:<fpage>1399</fpage>–<lpage>1408</lpage> 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01339.x.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19500108</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Goulding1"><label>57</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Goulding</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Godlee</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Vekaria</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hilty</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Snelgrove</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Lowering the threshold of lung innate immune cell activation alters susceptibility to secondary bacterial superinfection</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>204(7)</volume>:<fpage>1086</fpage>–<lpage>1094</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21881124</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Peltola1"><label>58</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Peltola</surname><given-names>VT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Murti</surname><given-names>KG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McCullers</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Influenza virus neuraminidase contributes to secondary bacterial pneumonia</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>192(2)</volume>:<fpage>249</fpage>–<lpage>257</lpage> 10.1086/430954.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15962219</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Plotkowski1"><label>59</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Plotkowski</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Puchelle</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Beck</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jacquot</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hannoun</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>1986</year>) <article-title>Adherence of type I streptococcus pneumoniae to tracheal epithelium of mice infected with influenza A/PR8 virus</article-title>. <source>Am Rev Respir Dis</source><volume>134(5)</volume>:<fpage>1040</fpage>–<lpage>1044</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3777666</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Diavatopoulos1"><label>60</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Diavatopoulos</surname><given-names>DA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Short</surname><given-names>KR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Price</surname><given-names>JT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wilksch</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>LE</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Influenza A virus facilitates streptococcus pneumoniae transmission and disease</article-title>. <source>FASEB J</source><volume>24(6)</volume>:<fpage>1789</fpage>–<lpage>1798</lpage> 10.1096/fj.09-146779.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20097876</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Pittet1"><label>61</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Pittet</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hall-Stoodley</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rutkowski</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harmsen</surname><given-names>AG</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Influenza virus infection decreases tracheal mucociliary velocity and clearance of streptococcus pneumoniae</article-title>. <source>Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol</source><volume>42(4)</volume>:<fpage>450</fpage>–<lpage>460</lpage> 10.1165/rcmb.2007-0417OC.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19520922</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Lee1"><label>62</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>LN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dias</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Han</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Yoon</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Shea</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>A mouse model of lethal synergism between influenza virus and haemophilus influenzae</article-title>. <source>Am J Pathol</source><volume>176(2)</volume>:<fpage>800</fpage>–<lpage>811.10.2353/ajpath.2010.090596</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20042666</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Iverson1"><label>63</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Iverson</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyd</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McAuley</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Plano</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hart</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Influenza virus primes mice for pneumonia from staphylococcus aureus</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>203(6)</volume>:<fpage>880</fpage>–<lpage>888</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21278211</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Small1"><label>64</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Small</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Shaler</surname><given-names>CR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McCormick</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jeyanathan</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Damjanovic</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Influenza infection leads to increased susceptibility to subsequent bacterial superinfection by impairing NK cell responses in the lung</article-title>. <source>J Immunol</source><volume>184(4)</volume>:<fpage>2048</fpage>–<lpage>2056</lpage> 10.4049/jimmunol.0902772.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20083661</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Suzuki1"><label>65</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Suzuki</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bakaletz</surname><given-names>LO</given-names></name> (<year>1994</year>) <article-title>Synergistic effect of adenovirus type 1 and nontypeable haemophilus influenzae in a chinchilla model of experimental otitis media</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>62(5)</volume>:<fpage>1710</fpage>–<lpage>1718</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8168932</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Michaels1"><label>66</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Michaels</surname><given-names>RH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Myerowitz</surname><given-names>RL</given-names></name> (<year>1983</year>) <article-title>Viral enhancement of nasal colonization with haemophilus influenzae type b in the infant rat</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Res</source><volume>17(6)</volume>:<fpage>472</fpage>–<lpage>473</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6308551</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Wiertsema1"><label>67</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wiertsema</surname><given-names>SP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chidlow</surname><given-names>GR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kirkham</surname><given-names>LS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Corscadden</surname><given-names>KJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mowe</surname><given-names>EN</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>High detection rates of nucleic acids of a wide range of respiratory viruses in the nasopharynx and the middle ear of children with a history of recurrent acute otitis media</article-title>. <source>J Med Virol</source><volume>83(11)</volume>:<fpage>2008</fpage>–<lpage>2017</lpage> 10.1002/jmv.22221.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21915878</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Moore1"><label>68</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Moore</surname><given-names>HCBS</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <collab>GradDipClinEpi</collab> (<year>2010</year>) <name><surname>Jacoby</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>ABA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harnett</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bowman</surname><given-names>JBA</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>The interaction between respiratory viruses and pathogenic bacteria in the upper respiratory tract of asymptomatic aboriginal and non-aboriginal children</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>29(6)</volume>:<fpage>540</fpage>–<lpage>545</lpage> 10.1097/INF.0b013e3181d067cb.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20134359</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Pitkranta1"><label>69</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Pitkäranta</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Roivainen</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Blomgren</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Peltola</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kaijalainen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Presence of viral and bacterial pathogens in the nasopharynx of otitis-prone children: A prospective study</article-title>. <source>Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol</source><volume>70(4)</volume>:<fpage>647</fpage>–<lpage>654</lpage> 10.1016/j.ijporl.2005.08.018.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16198005</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Vareille1"><label>70</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Vareille</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kieninger</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Edwards</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Regamey</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>The airway epithelium: Soldier in the fight against respiratory viruses</article-title>. <source>Clin Microbiol Rev</source><volume>24</volume>: <fpage>210</fpage>–<lpage>229</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21233513</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs1"><label>71</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van der Sluijs</surname><given-names>KF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Elden</surname><given-names>LJR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nijhuis</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schuurman</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pater</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>IL-10 is an important mediator of the enhanced susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia after influenza infection</article-title>. <source>J Immunol</source><volume>172(12)</volume>:<fpage>7603</fpage>–<lpage>7609</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15187140</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanderFlier1"><label>72</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van der Flier</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chhun</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wizemann</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Min</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McCarthy</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>1995</year>) <article-title>Adherence of streptococcus pneumoniae to immobilized fibronectin</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>63(11)</volume>:<fpage>4317</fpage>–<lpage>4322</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7591065</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Heilmann1"><label>73</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Heilmann</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Adhesion mechanisms of staphylococci</article-title>. <source>Adv Exp Med Biol</source><volume>715</volume>: <fpage>105</fpage>–<lpage>123</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21557060</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Tan2"><label>74</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tan</surname><given-names>TT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nordström</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Forsgren</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Riesbeck</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>The respiratory pathogen <italic>moraxella catarrhalis</italic> adheres to epithelial cells by interacting with fibronectin through ubiquitous surface proteins A1 and A2</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>192(6)</volume>:<fpage>1029</fpage>–<lpage>1038</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16107956</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Sajjan2"><label>75</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Sajjan</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>Q</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Zhao</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gruenert</surname><given-names>DC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hershenson</surname><given-names>MB</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Rhinovirus disrupts the barrier function of polarized airway epithelial cells</article-title>. <source>Am J Respir Crit Care Med</source><volume>178(12)</volume>:<fpage>1271</fpage>–<lpage>1281</lpage> 10.1164/rccm.200801-136OC.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18787220</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Ganz1"><label>76</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Ganz</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Defensins: Antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity</article-title>. <source>Nat Rev Imm</source><volume>3</volume>: <fpage>710</fpage>–<lpage>720</lpage>.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Wang3"><label>77</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>SH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kwon</surname><given-names>HJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jang</surname><given-names>YJ</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Clarithromycin inhibits rhinovirus-induced bacterial adhesions to nasal epithelial cells</article-title>. <source>Laryngoscope</source><volume>120(1)</volume>:<fpage>193</fpage>–<lpage>199</lpage> 10.1002/lary.20670.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19877190</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs2"><label>78</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van der Sluijs</surname><given-names>KF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Elden</surname><given-names>LJR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nijhuis</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schuurman</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Florquin</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Involvement of the platelet-activating factor receptor in host defense against streptococcus pneumoniae during postinfluenza pneumonia</article-title>. <source>Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol</source><volume>290(1)</volume>:<fpage>L194</fpage>–<lpage>L199</lpage> 10.1152/ajplung.00050.2005.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16100290</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Peltola2"><label>79</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Peltola</surname><given-names>VTP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mccullers</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Respiratory viruses predisposing to bacterial infections: Role of neuraminidase</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>23(1)</volume> (Supplement):<fpage>S87</fpage>–<lpage>S97</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14730275</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Alymova1"><label>80</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Alymova</surname><given-names>IV</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Portner</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Takimoto</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Boyd</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Babu</surname><given-names>YS</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>The novel parainfluenza virus hemagglutinin-neuraminidase inhibitor BCX 2798 prevents lethal synergism between a paramyxovirus and streptococcus pneumoniae</article-title>. <source>Antimicrob Agents Chemother</source><volume>49(1)</volume>:<fpage>398</fpage>–<lpage>405</lpage> 10.1128/AAC.49.1.398-405.2005.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15616320</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-McCullers3"><label>81</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>McCullers</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bartmess</surname><given-names>KC</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Role of neuraminidase in lethal synergism between influenza virus and <italic>streptococcus pneumoniae</italic></article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>187(6)</volume>:<fpage>1000</fpage>–<lpage>1009</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12660947</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Hedlund1"><label>82</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hedlund</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Aschenbrenner</surname><given-names>LM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jensen</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fang</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Sialidase-based anti-influenza virus therapy protects against secondary pneumococcal infection</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>201(7)</volume>:1007–1015. 10.1086/651170.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kadioglu1"><label>83</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kadioglu</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Weiser</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Paton</surname><given-names>JC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Andrew</surname><given-names>PW</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>The role of streptococcus pneumoniae virulence factors in host respiratory colonization and disease</article-title>. <source>Nat Rev Microbiol</source><volume>6(4)</volume>:<fpage>288</fpage>–<lpage>301</lpage> 10.1038/nrmicro1871.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18340341</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanderSluijs3"><label>84</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van der Sluijs</surname><given-names>KF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van der Poll</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lutter</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Juffermans</surname><given-names>NP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schultz</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Bench-to-bedside review: Bacterial pneumonia with influenza - pathogenesis and clinical implications</article-title>. <source>Crit Care</source><volume>14(2)</volume>:<fpage>219</fpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20459593</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-McNamee1"><label>85</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>McNamee</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Harmsen</surname><given-names>AG</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Both influenza-induced neutrophil dysfunction and neutrophil-independent mechanisms contribute to increased susceptibility to a secondary streptococcus pneumoniae infection</article-title>. <source>Infect Immun</source><volume>74(12)</volume>:<fpage>6707</fpage>–<lpage>6721</lpage> 10.1128/IAI.00789-06.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16982840</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Colamussi1"><label>86</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Colamussi</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>, <name><surname>White</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Crouch</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hartshorn</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Influenza A virus accelerates neutrophil apoptosis and markedly potentiates apoptotic effects of bacteria</article-title>. <source>Blood</source><volume>93(7)</volume>:<fpage>2395</fpage>–<lpage>2403</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10090951</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Engelich1"><label>87</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Engelich</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>White</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hartshorn</surname><given-names>KL</given-names></name> (<year>2001</year>) <article-title>Neutrophil survival is markedly reduced by incubation with influenza virus and streptococcus pneumoniae: Role of respiratory burst</article-title>. <source>J Leukoc Biol</source><volume>69(1)</volume>:<fpage>50</fpage>–<lpage>56</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11200067</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Shahangian1"><label>88</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Shahangian</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chow</surname><given-names>EK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tian</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kang</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ghaffari</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Type I IFNs mediate development of postinfluenza bacterial pneumonia in mice</article-title>. <source>J Clin Invest</source><volume>119(7)</volume>:<fpage>1910</fpage>–<lpage>1920</lpage> 10.1172/JCI35412.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19487810</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Sun1"><label>89</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Sun</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Metzger</surname><given-names>DW</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Inhibition of pulmonary antibacterial defense by interferon-gamma during recovery from influenza infection</article-title>. <source>Nat Med</source><volume>14(5)</volume>:<fpage>558</fpage>–<lpage>564</lpage> 10.1038/nm1765.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18438414</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Didierlaurent1"><label>90</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Didierlaurent</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Goulding</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Patel</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Snelgrove</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Low</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Sustained desensitization to bacterial toll-like receptor ligands after resolution of respiratory influenza infection</article-title>. <source>J Exp Med</source><volume>205(2)</volume>:<fpage>323</fpage>–<lpage>329</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18227219</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kuss1"><label>91</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kuss</surname><given-names>SK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Best</surname><given-names>GT</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Etheredge</surname><given-names>CA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pruijssers</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Frierson</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Intestinal microbiota promote enteric virus replication and systemic pathogenesis</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>334(6053)</volume>:<fpage>249</fpage>–<lpage>252</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21998395</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kane1"><label>92</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kane</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Case</surname><given-names>LK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kopaskie</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kozlova</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>MacDearmid</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Successful transmission of a retrovirus depends on the commensal microbiota</article-title>. <source>Science</source><volume>334(6053)</volume>:<fpage>245</fpage>–<lpage>249</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21998394</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Jartti1"><label>93</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Jartti</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jartti</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Peltola</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Waris</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ruuskanen</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Identification of respiratory viruses in asymptomatic subjects: Asymptomatic respiratory viral infections</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>27(12)</volume>:<fpage>1103</fpage>–<lpage>1107</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18978518</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanBenten1"><label>94</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van Benten</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Koopman</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Niesters</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hop</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Middelkoop</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Predominance of rhinovirus in the nose of symptomatic and asymptomatic infants</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Allergy Immunol</source><volume>14(5)</volume>:<fpage>363-363-370</fpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14641606</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Jansen1"><label>95</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Jansen</surname><given-names>RR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wieringa</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Koekkoek</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Visser</surname><given-names>CE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pajkrt</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Frequent detection of respiratory viruses without symptoms: Toward defining clinically relevant cutoff values</article-title>. <source>J Clin Microbiol</source><volume>49(7)</volume>:<fpage>2631</fpage>–<lpage>2636</lpage> 10.1128/JCM.02094-10.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21543571</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kusel1"><label>96</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kusel</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>de Klerk</surname><given-names>NH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Holt</surname><given-names>PG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kebadze</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Johnston</surname><given-names>SL</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Role of respiratory viruses in acute upper and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life: A birth cohort study</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>25(8)</volume>:<fpage>680</fpage>–<lpage>686</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16874165</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Berkley1"><label>97</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Berkley</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Munywoki</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ngama</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kazungu</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Abwao</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Viral etiology of severe pneumonia among Kenyan infants and children</article-title>. <source>JAMA</source><volume>303(20)</volume>:<fpage>2051</fpage>–<lpage>2057</lpage> 10.1001/jama.2010.675.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20501927</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Mathisen1"><label>98</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Mathisen</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Strand</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Valentiner-Branth</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chandyo</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Basnet</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Respiratory viruses in Nepalese children with and without pneumonia: A case-control study</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>29(8)</volume>:<fpage>731</fpage>–<lpage>735</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20351618</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Fry1"><label>99</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Fry</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lu</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Olsen</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chittaganpitch</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sawatwong</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Human rhinovirus infections in rural Thailand: Epidemiological evidence for rhinovirus as both pathogen and bystander</article-title>. <source>PLoS ONE</source><volume>6(3)</volume>:<fpage>e17780</fpage><comment>doi:<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017780">10.1371/journal.pone.0017780</ext-link></comment><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21479259</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Singleton1"><label>100</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Singleton</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bulkow</surname><given-names>LR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Miernyk</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>DeByle</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pruitt</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Viral respiratory infections in hospitalized and community control children in Alaska</article-title>. <source>J Med Virol</source><volume>82(7)</volume>:<fpage>1282</fpage>–<lpage>1290</lpage> 10.1002/jmv.21790.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20513097</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-vanderZalm1"><label>101</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van der Zalm</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Ewijk</surname><given-names>BE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wilbrink</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Uiterwaal</surname><given-names>CSPM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wolfs</surname><given-names>TFW</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Respiratory pathogens in children with and without respiratory symptoms</article-title>. <source>J Pediatr</source><volume>154(3)</volume>:<fpage>396</fpage>–<lpage>400</lpage> e1. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.08.036.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18823911</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-GarciaGarcia1"><label>102</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Garcia-Garcia</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Calvo</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pozo</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Perez-Brena</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bracamonte</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Human bocavirus detection in nasopharyngeal aspirates of children without clinical symptoms of respiratory infection</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>27(4)</volume>:<fpage>358</fpage>–<lpage>360</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18316984</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Winther1"><label>103</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Winther</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Alper</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mandel</surname><given-names>EM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Doyle</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hendley</surname><given-names>JO</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Temporal relationships between colds, upper respiratory viruses detected by polymerase chain reaction, and otitis media in young children followed through a typical cold season</article-title>. <source>Pediatrics</source><volume>119(6)</volume>:<fpage>1069</fpage>–<lpage>1075</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17545372</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Winther2"><label>104</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Winther</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hayden</surname><given-names>FG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hendley</surname><given-names>JO</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Picornavirus infections in children diagnosed by RT-PCR during longitudinal surveillance with weekly sampling: Association with symptomatic illness and effect of season</article-title>. <source>J Med Virol</source><volume>78(5)</volume>:<fpage>644</fpage>–<lpage>650</lpage> 10.1002/jmv.20588.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16555289</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Thavagnanam1"><label>105</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Thavagnanam</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Christie</surname><given-names>SN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Doherty</surname><given-names>GM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Coyle</surname><given-names>PV</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Shields</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Respiratory viral infection in lower airways of asymptomatic children</article-title>. <source>Acta Paediatr</source><volume>99(3)</volume>:<fpage>394</fpage>–<lpage>398</lpage> 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01627.x.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20003105</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Martin1"><label>106</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Martin</surname><given-names>ET</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fairchok</surname><given-names>MP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kuypers</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Magaret</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Zerr</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Frequent and prolonged shedding of bocavirus in young children attending daycare</article-title>. <source>J Clin Infect Dis</source><volume>201(11)</volume>:<fpage>1625</fpage>–<lpage>1632</lpage> 10.1086/652405.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Falsey1"><label>107</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Falsey</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Formica</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Treanor</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Walsh</surname><given-names>EE</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Comparison of quantitative reverse transcription-PCR to viral culture for assessment of respiratory syncytial virus shedding</article-title>. <source>J Clin Microbiol</source><volume>41(9)</volume>:<fpage>4160</fpage>–<lpage>4165</lpage> 10.1128/JCM.41.9.4160-4165.2003.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12958241</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Kalu1"><label>108</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kalu</surname><given-names>SU</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Loeffelholz</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Beck</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Patel</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Revai</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Persistence of adenovirus nucleic acids in nasopharyngeal secretions: A diagnostic conundrum</article-title>. <source>Pediatr Infect Dis J</source><volume>29(8)</volume>:<fpage>746</fpage>–<lpage>750</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20308936</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Peltola3"><label>109</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Peltola</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Waris</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Österback</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Susi</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ruuskanen</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Rhinovirus transmission within families with children: Incidence of symptomatic and asymptomatic infections</article-title>. <source>J Infect Dis</source><volume>197(3)</volume>:<fpage>382</fpage>–<lpage>389</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18248302</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Bogaert3"><label>110</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bogaert</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Keijser</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Huse</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rossen</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Veenhoven</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Variability and diversity of nasopharyngeal microbiota in children: A metagenomic analysis</article-title>. <source>PLoS ONE</source><volume>6(2)</volume>:<fpage>e17035</fpage><comment>doi:<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017035">10.1371/journal.pone.0017035</ext-link></comment><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21386965</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Pettigrew2"><label>111</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Pettigrew</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Laufer</surname><given-names>AS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gent</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kong</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Fennie</surname><given-names>KP</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Upper respiratory tract microbial communities, acute otitis media pathogens, and antibiotic use in healthy and sick children</article-title>. <source>Appl Environ Microbiol</source><volume>78(17)</volume>:<fpage>6262</fpage>–<lpage>6270</lpage> 10.1128/AEM.01051-12.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22752171</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="ppat.1003057-Longtin1"><label>112</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Longtin</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bastien</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gilca</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Leblanc</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>de Serres</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Human bocavirus infections in hospitalized children and adults</article-title>. <source>Emerg Infect Dis</source><volume>14(2)</volume>:<fpage>217</fpage>–<lpage>221</lpage>.<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18258113</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/Sante/explor/CovidV2/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 000A29 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 000A29 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/Sante
|area= CovidV2
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:3542149
|texte= Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:23326226" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a CovidV2
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.33. |  |