The Role of Immune Checkpoint Receptors in Regulating Immune Reactivity in Lupus
Identifieur interne : 000926 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000925; suivant : 000927The Role of Immune Checkpoint Receptors in Regulating Immune Reactivity in Lupus
Auteurs : Kun-Lin Lu [Taïwan] ; Ming-Ying Wu [Taïwan] ; Chi-Hui Wang [Taïwan] ; Chuang-Wei Wang [Taïwan] ; Shuen-Iu Hung [Taïwan] ; Wen-Hung Chung [Taïwan, République populaire de Chine] ; Chun-Bing Chen [Taïwan, République populaire de Chine]Source :
- Cells [ 2073-4409 ] ; 2019.
Abstract
Immune checkpoint receptors with co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory signals are important modulators for the immune system. However, unrestricted co-stimulation and/or inadequate co-inhibition may cause breakdown of self-tolerance, leading to autoimmunity. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex multi-organ disease with skewed and dysregulated immune responses interacting with genetics and the environment. The close connections between co-signaling pathways and SLE have gradually been established in past research. Also, the recent success of immune checkpoint blockade in cancer therapy illustrates the importance of the co-inhibitory receptors in cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, immune checkpoint blockade could result in substantial immune-related adverse events that mimic autoimmune diseases, including lupus. Together, immune checkpoint regulators represent viable immunotherapeutic targets for the treatment of both autoimmunity and cancer. Therefore, it appears reasonable to treat SLE by restoring the out-of-order co-signaling axis or by manipulating collateral pathways to control the pathogenic immune responses. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding the relationships between SLE and the co-signaling pathways of T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, and highlight their potential clinical implications. Current clinical trials targeting the specific co-signaling axes involved in SLE help to advance such knowledge, but further in-depth exploration is still warranted.
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/cells8101213
PubMed: 31597242
PubMed Central: 6829486
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<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">The Role of Immune Checkpoint Receptors in Regulating Immune Reactivity in Lupus</title>
<author><name sortKey="Lu, Kun Lin" sort="Lu, Kun Lin" uniqKey="Lu K" first="Kun-Lin" last="Lu">Kun-Lin Lu</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-cells-08-01213">College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
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</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wu, Ming Ying" sort="Wu, Ming Ying" uniqKey="Wu M" first="Ming-Ying" last="Wu">Ming-Ying Wu</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
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<author><name sortKey="Wang, Chi Hui" sort="Wang, Chi Hui" uniqKey="Wang C" first="Chi-Hui" last="Wang">Chi-Hui Wang</name>
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</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Wang, Chuang Wei" sort="Wang, Chuang Wei" uniqKey="Wang C" first="Chuang-Wei" last="Wang">Chuang-Wei Wang</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-cells-08-01213">College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
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<wicri:regionArea>Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Hung, Shuen Iu" sort="Hung, Shuen Iu" uniqKey="Hung S" first="Shuen-Iu" last="Hung">Shuen-Iu Hung</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</nlm:aff>
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<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-cells-08-01213">College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af4-cells-08-01213">Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Chung, Wen Hung" sort="Chung, Wen Hung" uniqKey="Chung W" first="Wen-Hung" last="Chung">Wen-Hung Chung</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-cells-08-01213">College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
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<wicri:regionArea>Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af5-cells-08-01213">Whole-Genome Research Core Laboratory of Human Diseases, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Whole-Genome Research Core Laboratory of Human Diseases, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af6-cells-08-01213">Immune-Oncology Center of Excellence, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Immune-Oncology Center of Excellence, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af7-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Xiamen Chang Gung Hospital, Xiamen 361000, China</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Dermatology, Xiamen Chang Gung Hospital, Xiamen 361000</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af8-cells-08-01213">Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Chen, Chun Bing" sort="Chen, Chun Bing" uniqKey="Chen C" first="Chun-Bing" last="Chen">Chun-Bing Chen</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-cells-08-01213">Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-cells-08-01213">College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af4-cells-08-01213">Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af5-cells-08-01213">Whole-Genome Research Core Laboratory of Human Diseases, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Whole-Genome Research Core Laboratory of Human Diseases, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af6-cells-08-01213">Immune-Oncology Center of Excellence, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Immune-Oncology Center of Excellence, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af7-cells-08-01213">Department of Dermatology, Xiamen Chang Gung Hospital, Xiamen 361000, China</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Dermatology, Xiamen Chang Gung Hospital, Xiamen 361000</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af8-cells-08-01213">Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Taïwan</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333</wicri:regionArea>
</affiliation>
</author>
</analytic>
<series><title level="j">Cells</title>
<idno type="eISSN">2073-4409</idno>
<imprint><date when="2019">2019</date>
</imprint>
</series>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Immune checkpoint receptors with co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory signals are important modulators for the immune system. However, unrestricted co-stimulation and/or inadequate co-inhibition may cause breakdown of self-tolerance, leading to autoimmunity. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex multi-organ disease with skewed and dysregulated immune responses interacting with genetics and the environment. The close connections between co-signaling pathways and SLE have gradually been established in past research. Also, the recent success of immune checkpoint blockade in cancer therapy illustrates the importance of the co-inhibitory receptors in cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, immune checkpoint blockade could result in substantial immune-related adverse events that mimic autoimmune diseases, including lupus. Together, immune checkpoint regulators represent viable immunotherapeutic targets for the treatment of both autoimmunity and cancer. Therefore, it appears reasonable to treat SLE by restoring the out-of-order co-signaling axis or by manipulating collateral pathways to control the pathogenic immune responses. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding the relationships between SLE and the co-signaling pathways of T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, and highlight their potential clinical implications. Current clinical trials targeting the specific co-signaling axes involved in SLE help to advance such knowledge, but further in-depth exploration is still warranted.</p>
</div>
</front>
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</listBibl>
</div1>
</back>
</TEI>
<pmc article-type="review-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Cells</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Cells</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">cells</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>Cells</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2073-4409</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>MDPI</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">31597242</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">6829486</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/cells8101213</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">cells-08-01213</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>The Role of Immune Checkpoint Receptors in Regulating Immune Reactivity in Lupus</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Lu</surname>
<given-names>Kun-Lin</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="fn1-cells-08-01213">†</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Wu</surname>
<given-names>Ming-Ying</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="fn1-cells-08-01213">†</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9912-5465</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Chi-Hui</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Wang</surname>
<given-names>Chuang-Wei</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-cells-08-01213">4</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6531-5538</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hung</surname>
<given-names>Shuen-Iu</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-cells-08-01213">4</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chung</surname>
<given-names>Wen-Hung</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-cells-08-01213">4</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af5-cells-08-01213">5</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af6-cells-08-01213">6</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af7-cells-08-01213">7</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af8-cells-08-01213">8</xref>
<xref rid="c1-cells-08-01213" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7378-4235</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Chen</surname>
<given-names>Chun-Bing</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-cells-08-01213">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-cells-08-01213">2</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-cells-08-01213">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-cells-08-01213">4</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af5-cells-08-01213">5</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af6-cells-08-01213">6</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af7-cells-08-01213">7</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af8-cells-08-01213">8</xref>
<xref rid="c1-cells-08-01213" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="af1-cells-08-01213"><label>1</label>
Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan;<email>johnlu710999@gmail.com</email>
(K.-L.L.);<email>mini_robots@yahoo.com.tw</email>
(M.-Y.W.); ,<email>kiruamairo@gmail.com</email>
(C.-W.W.);<email>hungshueniu@gmail.com</email>
(S.-I.H.)</aff>
<aff id="af2-cells-08-01213"><label>2</label>
College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</aff>
<aff id="af3-cells-08-01213"><label>3</label>
Department of Dermatology, Drug Hypersensitivity Clinical and Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan</aff>
<aff id="af4-cells-08-01213"><label>4</label>
Cancer Vaccine and Immune Cell Therapy Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</aff>
<aff id="af5-cells-08-01213"><label>5</label>
Whole-Genome Research Core Laboratory of Human Diseases, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204, Taiwan</aff>
<aff id="af6-cells-08-01213"><label>6</label>
Immune-Oncology Center of Excellence, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou 333, Taiwan</aff>
<aff id="af7-cells-08-01213"><label>7</label>
Department of Dermatology, Xiamen Chang Gung Hospital, Xiamen 361000, China</aff>
<aff id="af8-cells-08-01213"><label>8</label>
Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="c1-cells-08-01213"><label>*</label>
Correspondence: <email>wenhungchung@yahoo.com</email>
(W.-H.C.); <email>chunbing.chen@gmail.com</email>
(C.-B.C.)</corresp>
<fn id="fn1-cells-08-01213"><label>†</label>
<p>These authors contributed equally to this work.</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>08</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>8</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<elocation-id>1213</elocation-id>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>08</day>
<month>9</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>03</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>© 2019 by the authors.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2019</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access"><license-p>Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>
).</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p>Immune checkpoint receptors with co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory signals are important modulators for the immune system. However, unrestricted co-stimulation and/or inadequate co-inhibition may cause breakdown of self-tolerance, leading to autoimmunity. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex multi-organ disease with skewed and dysregulated immune responses interacting with genetics and the environment. The close connections between co-signaling pathways and SLE have gradually been established in past research. Also, the recent success of immune checkpoint blockade in cancer therapy illustrates the importance of the co-inhibitory receptors in cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, immune checkpoint blockade could result in substantial immune-related adverse events that mimic autoimmune diseases, including lupus. Together, immune checkpoint regulators represent viable immunotherapeutic targets for the treatment of both autoimmunity and cancer. Therefore, it appears reasonable to treat SLE by restoring the out-of-order co-signaling axis or by manipulating collateral pathways to control the pathogenic immune responses. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding the relationships between SLE and the co-signaling pathways of T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, and highlight their potential clinical implications. Current clinical trials targeting the specific co-signaling axes involved in SLE help to advance such knowledge, but further in-depth exploration is still warranted.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd>autoimmunity</kwd>
<kwd>co-stimulatory signals</kwd>
<kwd>co-inhibitory signals</kwd>
<kwd>immune checkpoint</kwd>
<kwd>immune regulation</kwd>
<kwd>immune-related adverse events</kwd>
<kwd>systemic lupus erythematosus</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<floats-group><fig id="cells-08-01213-f001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>Co-signaling axes of T cells driving systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). T cell is initially activated by the bridging between the T cell receptor (TCR) and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Besides this first signal, T cell activity could further be regulated by multiple co-stimulatory as well as co-inhibitory axes that participate in the cell-cell interaction. Co-stimulatory axes (green line) facilitate successful activation of T cells, whereas co-inhibitory axes (red line) limit the activation. CTLA-4: cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4; ICOS: Inducible co-stimulator; SLAMF6: signaling lymphocyte activation molecule family 6; TCR: T cell receptor; PD-1: programmed cell death protein 1; VISTA: V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation; TIGIT: T-cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains; TIM-3: T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="cells-08-01213-g001"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="cells-08-01213-f002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><p>Co-signaling axes of B cells that attribute to SLE symptoms. B cell activity is also regulated by co-signaling axes. Co-stimulatory axes (green line) promote B cell activation, while co-inhibitory axes (red line) prevent B cell from activation. PD-1: programmed cell death protein 1; FcγRIIB: Fc fragment of IgG receptor IIb; LAIR-1: leukocyte-associated Ig-like receptor 1.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="cells-08-01213-g002"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="cells-08-01213-f003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>Co-signaling axes of DC involved in SLE. As the main producer of type I interferon, pDC is known to be regulated by co-inhibitory axes including BDCA2. Other co-inhibitory axes (red line) of DC also inhibit the immune responses that may be linked to SLE. DC: dendritic cell; pDC: plasmacytoid dendritic cell; BDCA2: Blood-derived dendritic cell antigen 2; ILT4: immunoglobulin-like transcripts 4; ILT2: immunoglobulin-like transcripts 2; LAIR-1: leukocyte-associated Ig-like receptor 1.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="cells-08-01213-g003"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="cells-08-01213-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">cells-08-01213-t001_Table 1</object-id>
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><p>Co-stimulatory axes involved in SLE.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Molecule</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Expression</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ligand/Receptor</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Possible Targeted Cells in SLE</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD28</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B7h</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs </td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ICOS</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OX40L</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OX40</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SLAMF6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells, B cells, and NK cells</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SLAMF6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD137L</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD137</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40L</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B cells</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn><p>SLE: systemic lupus erythematosus; APCs: antigen presenting cells; ICOS: Inducible co-stimulator; SLAMF6: signaling lymphocyte activation molecule family 6; NK cells: natural killer cells.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="cells-08-01213-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">cells-08-01213-t002_Table 2</object-id>
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><p>Co-inhibitory axes involved in SLE.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Molecule</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Expression</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ligand/Receptor</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Possible Targeted Cells in SLE</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CTLA4</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PD-L1 and PD-L2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PD-1</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells and B cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VSIG-3</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VISTA</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VISTA</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs and T cells</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VISTA receptor</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD200</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B cells, eosinophils, pDCs and a subset of T cells</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD200R1</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells, DCs, and neutrophils</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD155</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">DCs or macrophages</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TIGIT</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells and NK cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Galectin-9</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cytoplasmic expression in most cell types.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TIM-3</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells and macrophages</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B7S1</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B7S1 receptor</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BTNL2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells, B cells, and macrophages</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BTNL2 receptor</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unknown</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">APCs</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B7S3</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sialic acid</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Siglec-2/CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Immune complexes</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FCγRIIB</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Collagen (C1qCLR)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">LAIR-1 </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">B cells, DCs, and macrophages</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Asialo-galactosyl-oligosaccharide</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BDCA2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">pDCs</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HLA-G</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Monocytes and trophoblasts</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ILT-4</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Myeloid cells, including monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and granulocytes.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HLA-G</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Monocytes and trophoblasts</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ILT-2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">T cells, B cells, DCs, and NK cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VSTM1-L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">SIRL-1</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neutrophils </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sialylated surface protein </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PILR-α</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neutrophils</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn><p>SLE: systemic lupus erythematosus; APCs: antigen presenting cells; CTLA-4: cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4; PD-1: programmed cell death protein 1; VISTA: V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation; pDCs: plasmacytoid dendritic cells; DCs: dendritic cells; NK cells: natural killer cells; TIGIT: T-cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains; TIM-3: T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3; FcγRIIB: Fc fragment of IgG receptor IIb; LAIR-1: leukocyte-associated Ig-like receptor 1; BDCA2: Blood-derived dendritic cell antigen 2; ILT4: immunoglobulin-like transcripts 4; ILT2: immunoglobulin-like transcripts 2; SIRL-1: signal inhibitory receptor on leukocytes-1; PILR-α: paired immunoglobulin-like type 2 receptor.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="cells-08-01213-t003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">cells-08-01213-t003_Table 3</object-id>
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption><p>Current progress in co-signaling pathways targeted in clinical trials against SLE.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Medication</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Target</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase/Outcome</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Clinical Trials.gov ID</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Abatacept</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—terminated </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00430677</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Abatacept </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00119678</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Abatacept</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00774852</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Abatacept</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—recruiting</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02270957</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Abatacept</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD80 and CD86</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—recruiting</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02429934</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BMS-931699</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD28</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02265744</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AMG557</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ICOSL</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase I—acceptable safety profile</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00774943</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">JNJ-61610588</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">VISTA</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase I—terminated</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02671955</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CFZ533</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—recruiting</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT03656562</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BG9588</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—terminated </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Boumpas DT, et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2003.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">IDEC-131</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kalunian KC, et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2002.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dapirolizumab Pegol</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—unpublished</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02804763</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anti-CD40L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD40L</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—terminated</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00001789</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—unpublished</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT01408576</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—terminated </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00111306</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—terminated </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00383214</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—withdrawn</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00382837</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT01262365</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase III—failed to meet endpoint</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT01261793</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—unpublished</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT01534403</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—encouraging</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00624351</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—encouraging</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00660881</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—encouraging</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00383513</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—terminated </td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00113971</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase I/II—acceptable safety profile</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT01449071</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Epratuzumab</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CD22</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase I—unpublished</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT00011908</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BIIB059</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BDCA2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase II—active, not recruiting</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02847598</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BIIB059</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BDCA2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phase I—acceptable safety profile</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NCT02106897</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot><fn><p>SLE: systemic lupus erythematosus; ICOSL: Inducible co-stimulator ligand; VISTA: V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation; BDCA2: Blood-derived dendritic cell antigen 2.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</floats-group>
</pmc>
</record>
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