Recent Advances in Kaempferia Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review
Identifieur interne : 000A80 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000A79; suivant : 000A81Recent Advances in Kaempferia Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review
Auteurs : Abdelsamed I. Elshamy ; Tarik A. Mohamed ; Ahmed F. Essa ; Ahmed M. Abd-El Gawad ; Ali S. Alqahtani ; Abdelaaty A. Shahat ; Tatsuro Yoneyama ; Abdel Razik H. Farrag ; Masaaki Noji ; Hesham R. El-Seedi ; Akemi Umeyama ; Paul W. Paré ; Mohamed-Elamir F. HegazySource :
- Nutrients [ 2072-6643 ] ; 2019.
Abstract
Background: Plants belonging to the genus
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/nu11102396
PubMed: 31591364
PubMed Central: 6836233
Links to Exploration step
PMC:6836233Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Recent Advances in <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review</title>
<author><name sortKey="Elshamy, Abdelsamed I" sort="Elshamy, Abdelsamed I" uniqKey="Elshamy A" first="Abdelsamed I." last="Elshamy">Abdelsamed I. Elshamy</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>ahmedfathyessa551@gmail.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Mohamed, Tarik A" sort="Mohamed, Tarik A" uniqKey="Mohamed T" first="Tarik A." last="Mohamed">Tarik A. Mohamed</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Essa, Ahmed F" sort="Essa, Ahmed F" uniqKey="Essa A" first="Ahmed F." last="Essa">Ahmed F. Essa</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>ahmedfathyessa551@gmail.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Abd El Gawad, Ahmed M" sort="Abd El Gawad, Ahmed M" uniqKey="Abd El Gawad A" first="Ahmed M." last="Abd-El Gawad">Ahmed M. Abd-El Gawad</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt;<email>dgawad84@mans.edu.eg</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af5-nutrients-11-02396">Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Alqahtani, Ali S" sort="Alqahtani, Ali S" uniqKey="Alqahtani A" first="Ali S." last="Alqahtani">Ali S. Alqahtani</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy Department, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Shahat, Abdelaaty A" sort="Shahat, Abdelaaty A" uniqKey="Shahat A" first="Abdelaaty A." last="Shahat">Abdelaaty A. Shahat</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy Department, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Yoneyama, Tatsuro" sort="Yoneyama, Tatsuro" uniqKey="Yoneyama T" first="Tatsuro" last="Yoneyama">Tatsuro Yoneyama</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Farrag, Abdel Razik H" sort="Farrag, Abdel Razik H" uniqKey="Farrag A" first="Abdel Razik H." last="Farrag">Abdel Razik H. Farrag</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af7-nutrients-11-02396">Pathology Department; National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>abdelrazik2000@yahoo.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Noji, Masaaki" sort="Noji, Masaaki" uniqKey="Noji M" first="Masaaki" last="Noji">Masaaki Noji</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="El Seedi, Hesham R" sort="El Seedi, Hesham R" uniqKey="El Seedi H" first="Hesham R." last="El-Seedi">Hesham R. El-Seedi</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af8-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, Box 574, SE-75 123 Uppsala, Sweden;<email>hesham.el-seedi@ilk.uu.se</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af9-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom 32512, Egypt</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af10-nutrients-11-02396">College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Umeyama, Akemi" sort="Umeyama, Akemi" uniqKey="Umeyama A" first="Akemi" last="Umeyama">Akemi Umeyama</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Pare, Paul W" sort="Pare, Paul W" uniqKey="Pare P" first="Paul W." last="Paré">Paul W. Paré</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af11-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA;<email>paul.pare@ttu.edu</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Hegazy, Mohamed Elamir F" sort="Hegazy, Mohamed Elamir F" uniqKey="Hegazy M" first="Mohamed-Elamir F." last="Hegazy">Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af12-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
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<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Recent Advances in <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review</title>
<author><name sortKey="Elshamy, Abdelsamed I" sort="Elshamy, Abdelsamed I" uniqKey="Elshamy A" first="Abdelsamed I." last="Elshamy">Abdelsamed I. Elshamy</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>ahmedfathyessa551@gmail.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Mohamed, Tarik A" sort="Mohamed, Tarik A" uniqKey="Mohamed T" first="Tarik A." last="Mohamed">Tarik A. Mohamed</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Essa, Ahmed F" sort="Essa, Ahmed F" uniqKey="Essa A" first="Ahmed F." last="Essa">Ahmed F. Essa</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>ahmedfathyessa551@gmail.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Abd El Gawad, Ahmed M" sort="Abd El Gawad, Ahmed M" uniqKey="Abd El Gawad A" first="Ahmed M." last="Abd-El Gawad">Ahmed M. Abd-El Gawad</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt;<email>dgawad84@mans.edu.eg</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af5-nutrients-11-02396">Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Alqahtani, Ali S" sort="Alqahtani, Ali S" uniqKey="Alqahtani A" first="Ali S." last="Alqahtani">Ali S. Alqahtani</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy Department, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Shahat, Abdelaaty A" sort="Shahat, Abdelaaty A" uniqKey="Shahat A" first="Abdelaaty A." last="Shahat">Abdelaaty A. Shahat</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy Department, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Yoneyama, Tatsuro" sort="Yoneyama, Tatsuro" uniqKey="Yoneyama T" first="Tatsuro" last="Yoneyama">Tatsuro Yoneyama</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Farrag, Abdel Razik H" sort="Farrag, Abdel Razik H" uniqKey="Farrag A" first="Abdel Razik H." last="Farrag">Abdel Razik H. Farrag</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af7-nutrients-11-02396">Pathology Department; National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>abdelrazik2000@yahoo.com</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Noji, Masaaki" sort="Noji, Masaaki" uniqKey="Noji M" first="Masaaki" last="Noji">Masaaki Noji</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="El Seedi, Hesham R" sort="El Seedi, Hesham R" uniqKey="El Seedi H" first="Hesham R." last="El-Seedi">Hesham R. El-Seedi</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af8-nutrients-11-02396">Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, Box 574, SE-75 123 Uppsala, Sweden;<email>hesham.el-seedi@ilk.uu.se</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af9-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom 32512, Egypt</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af10-nutrients-11-02396">College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Umeyama, Akemi" sort="Umeyama, Akemi" uniqKey="Umeyama A" first="Akemi" last="Umeyama">Akemi Umeyama</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396">Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Pare, Paul W" sort="Pare, Paul W" uniqKey="Pare P" first="Paul W." last="Paré">Paul W. Paré</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af11-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA;<email>paul.pare@ttu.edu</email>
</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author><name sortKey="Hegazy, Mohamed Elamir F" sort="Hegazy, Mohamed Elamir F" uniqKey="Hegazy M" first="Mohamed-Elamir F." last="Hegazy">Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy</name>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
<affiliation><nlm:aff id="af12-nutrients-11-02396">Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany</nlm:aff>
</affiliation>
</author>
</analytic>
<series><title level="j">Nutrients</title>
<idno type="eISSN">2072-6643</idno>
<imprint><date when="2019">2019</date>
</imprint>
</series>
</biblStruct>
</sourceDesc>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Background: Plants belonging to the genus <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
(family: Zingiberaceae) are distributed in Asia, especially in the southeast region, and Thailand. They have been widely used in traditional medicines to cure metabolic disorders, inflammation, urinary tract infections, fevers, coughs, hypertension, erectile dysfunction, abdominal and gastrointestinal ailments, asthma, wounds, rheumatism, epilepsy, and skin diseases. Objective: Herein, we reported a comprehensive review, including the traditional applications, biological and pharmacological advances, and phytochemical constituents of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species from 1972 up to early 2019. Materials and methods: All the information and reported studies concerning <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
plants were summarized from library and digital databases (e.g., Google Scholar, Sci-finder, PubMed, Springer, Elsevier, MDPI, Web of Science, etc.). The correlation between the <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species was evaluated via principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC), based on the main chemical classes of compounds. Results: Approximately 141 chemical constituents have been isolated and reported from <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species, such as isopimarane, abietane, labdane and clerodane diterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phenyl-heptanoids, curcuminoids, tetrahydropyrano-phenolic, and steroids. A probable biosynthesis pathway for the isopimaradiene skeleton is illustrated. In addition, 15 main documented components of volatile oils of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
were summarized. Biological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticholinesterase, antioxidant, anti-obesity-induced dermatopathy, wound healing, neuroprotective, anti-allergenic, and anti-nociceptive were demonstrated. Conclusions: Up to date, significant advances in phytochemical and pharmacological studies of different <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species have been witnessed. So, the traditional uses of these plants have been clarified <italic>via</italic>
modern <italic>in vitro</italic>
and <italic>in vivo</italic>
biological studies. In addition, these traditional uses and reported biological results could be correlated <italic>via</italic>
the chemical characterization of these plants. All these data will support the biologists in the elucidation of the biological mechanisms of these plants.</p>
</div>
</front>
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</TEI>
<pmc article-type="review-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Nutrients</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Nutrients</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nutrients</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>Nutrients</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2072-6643</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>MDPI</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">31591364</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">6836233</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/nu11102396</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">nutrients-11-02396</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Recent Advances in <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
Phytochemistry and Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3302-3623</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Elshamy</surname>
<given-names>Abdelsamed I.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-nutrients-11-02396">1</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-nutrients-11-02396">2</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mohamed</surname>
<given-names>Tarik A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-nutrients-11-02396">3</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Essa</surname>
<given-names>Ahmed F.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-nutrients-11-02396">2</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5903-6329</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Abd-El Gawad</surname>
<given-names>Ahmed M.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-nutrients-11-02396">4</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af5-nutrients-11-02396">5</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1034-7441</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Alqahtani</surname>
<given-names>Ali S.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af6-nutrients-11-02396">6</xref>
<xref rid="c1-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0456-3196</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Shahat</surname>
<given-names>Abdelaaty A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-nutrients-11-02396">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af6-nutrients-11-02396">6</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Yoneyama</surname>
<given-names>Tatsuro</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-nutrients-11-02396">1</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Farrag</surname>
<given-names>Abdel Razik H.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af7-nutrients-11-02396">7</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Noji</surname>
<given-names>Masaaki</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-nutrients-11-02396">1</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2519-6690</contrib-id>
<name><surname>El-Seedi</surname>
<given-names>Hesham R.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af8-nutrients-11-02396">8</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af9-nutrients-11-02396">9</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af10-nutrients-11-02396">10</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3027-9391</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Umeyama</surname>
<given-names>Akemi</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-nutrients-11-02396">1</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1644-723X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Paré</surname>
<given-names>Paul W.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af11-nutrients-11-02396">11</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="true">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0343-4969</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hegazy</surname>
<given-names>Mohamed-Elamir F.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-nutrients-11-02396">3</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="af12-nutrients-11-02396">12</xref>
<xref rid="c1-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="corresp">*</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="af1-nutrients-11-02396"><label>1</label>
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan;<email>elshamynrc@yahoo.com</email>
(A.I.E.);<email>yoneyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(T.Y.);<email>mnoji@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(M.N.);<email>umeyama@ph.bunri-u.ac.jp</email>
(A.U.)</aff>
<aff id="af2-nutrients-11-02396"><label>2</label>
Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>ahmedfathyessa551@gmail.com</email>
</aff>
<aff id="af3-nutrients-11-02396"><label>3</label>
Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>tarik.nrc83@yahoo.com</email>
(T.A.M.);<email>ashahat@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.A.S.)</aff>
<aff id="af4-nutrients-11-02396"><label>4</label>
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt;<email>dgawad84@mans.edu.eg</email>
</aff>
<aff id="af5-nutrients-11-02396"><label>5</label>
Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</aff>
<aff id="af6-nutrients-11-02396"><label>6</label>
Pharmacognosy Department, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia</aff>
<aff id="af7-nutrients-11-02396"><label>7</label>
Pathology Department; National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;<email>abdelrazik2000@yahoo.com</email>
</aff>
<aff id="af8-nutrients-11-02396"><label>8</label>
Pharmacognosy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, Box 574, SE-75 123 Uppsala, Sweden;<email>hesham.el-seedi@ilk.uu.se</email>
</aff>
<aff id="af9-nutrients-11-02396"><label>9</label>
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom 32512, Egypt</aff>
<aff id="af10-nutrients-11-02396"><label>10</label>
College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China</aff>
<aff id="af11-nutrients-11-02396"><label>11</label>
Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA;<email>paul.pare@ttu.edu</email>
</aff>
<aff id="af12-nutrients-11-02396"><label>12</label>
Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="c1-nutrients-11-02396"><label>*</label>
Correspondence: <email>alalqahtani@ksu.edu.sa</email>
(A.S.A.); <email>mohegazy@uni-mainz.de</email>
(M.-E.F.H.); Tel.: +966-114677246 (A.S.A.); +49-6131-3925751 (M.-E.F.H.)</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>07</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>11</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<elocation-id>2396</elocation-id>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>12</day>
<month>9</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>01</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-statement>© 2019 by the authors.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2019</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access"><license-p>Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>
).</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p>Background: Plants belonging to the genus <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
(family: Zingiberaceae) are distributed in Asia, especially in the southeast region, and Thailand. They have been widely used in traditional medicines to cure metabolic disorders, inflammation, urinary tract infections, fevers, coughs, hypertension, erectile dysfunction, abdominal and gastrointestinal ailments, asthma, wounds, rheumatism, epilepsy, and skin diseases. Objective: Herein, we reported a comprehensive review, including the traditional applications, biological and pharmacological advances, and phytochemical constituents of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species from 1972 up to early 2019. Materials and methods: All the information and reported studies concerning <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
plants were summarized from library and digital databases (e.g., Google Scholar, Sci-finder, PubMed, Springer, Elsevier, MDPI, Web of Science, etc.). The correlation between the <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species was evaluated via principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC), based on the main chemical classes of compounds. Results: Approximately 141 chemical constituents have been isolated and reported from <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species, such as isopimarane, abietane, labdane and clerodane diterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phenyl-heptanoids, curcuminoids, tetrahydropyrano-phenolic, and steroids. A probable biosynthesis pathway for the isopimaradiene skeleton is illustrated. In addition, 15 main documented components of volatile oils of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
were summarized. Biological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticholinesterase, antioxidant, anti-obesity-induced dermatopathy, wound healing, neuroprotective, anti-allergenic, and anti-nociceptive were demonstrated. Conclusions: Up to date, significant advances in phytochemical and pharmacological studies of different <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species have been witnessed. So, the traditional uses of these plants have been clarified <italic>via</italic>
modern <italic>in vitro</italic>
and <italic>in vivo</italic>
biological studies. In addition, these traditional uses and reported biological results could be correlated <italic>via</italic>
the chemical characterization of these plants. All these data will support the biologists in the elucidation of the biological mechanisms of these plants.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group><kwd><italic>Kaempferia</italic>
</kwd>
<kwd>traditional medicine</kwd>
<kwd>diterpenoids</kwd>
<kwd>flavonoids</kwd>
<kwd>phenolic</kwd>
<kwd>biosynthesis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body><sec sec-type="intro" id="sec1-nutrients-11-02396"><title>1. Introduction</title>
<p>From the first known civilization, medicinal plants have met primary care and health needs around the world [<xref rid="B1-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,<xref rid="B2-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
,<xref rid="B3-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
]. Natural products, derived from plants, have enriched the pharmaceutical industry since time immemorial. So far, people of the developing countries depend upon the traditional medicines to cure daily aliments [<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
]. The medicinal plants are characterized by a diversity of chemical and pharmacological constituents, owing to their complicity and the abundance of secondary metabolites. There are several factors that caused the variations of the secondary metabolites such as ecological zones, weather, climates, and other natural factors <italic>via</italic>
the effects on the biosynthetic pathways [<xref rid="B1-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,<xref rid="B2-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
,<xref rid="B3-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
].</p>
<p>Zingiberaceae (the ginger family) is distributed worldwide comprising 52 genera and more than 1300 plant species [<xref rid="B5-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
,<xref rid="B6-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
]. <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
is a diverse family with members distributed widely throughout Southeast Asia and Thailand, including some 60 species [<xref rid="B5-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
]. Several <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species are used widely in folk medicine, including <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, and <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="nutrients-11-02396-f001">Figure 1</xref>
). In Laos and Thai, traditional medicines derived from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes are reported for the treatment of inflammation, hypertension, erectile dysfunction, abdominal ailments [<xref rid="B6-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
,<xref rid="B7-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>
], and improvement of the vitality and blood flow [<xref rid="B8-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>
]. Japanese use the extract of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
as a food supplement and for the treatment of metabolic disorders [<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
]. <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
is used extensively as a carminative, diuretic, deodorant, and euglycemic, as well as for the treatment of urinary tract infections, fevers, and coughs [<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
]. The rhizomes of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
are used as an anti-tussive, expectorant, anti-pyretic, diuretic, anabolic, and carminative, as well as for the curing of gastrointestinal ailments, asthma, wounds, rheumatism, epilepsy, and skin diseases [<xref rid="B10-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
].</p>
<p>Extracts and purified compounds from select <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species are used for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and the inhibition of a breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), anti-inflammatory, anti-acne, anticholinesterase, anti-obesity-induced dermatopathy, wound healing, anti-drug resistant strains of <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>
, neuroprotective, anti-nociceptive, human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) inhibitory activity, in vitro anti-allergenic, and larvicidal activity against <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>
[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B6-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
,<xref rid="B7-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>
,<xref rid="B8-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>
,<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
,<xref rid="B10-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
,<xref rid="B11-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
]. The scientific literature such as, Google Scholar, Scifinder, PubMed, Springer, Elsevier, Wiley, Web of Science, were screened in the period between 1972–2019 in order to collect the up-to-date information of the traditional uses/applications, biological studies, and chemical characterization of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species. All these collected data were addressed and summarized in our review article to highlight the potential ethnopharmacological importance of these plants.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec2-nutrients-11-02396"><title>2. Materials and Methods</title>
<p>The scientific literature such as Google Scholar, Scifinder, PubMed, Springer, Elsevier, Wiley, Web of Science, etc., including all the traditional uses/applications, biological studies, and chemical characterization of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species were collected between 1972–2019. All these collected data were adjusted and summarized in our review article due to the potential ethnopharmacological importance of these plants. </p>
<p>The correlation between the <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species was evaluated based on the main chemical classes of compounds. The data matrix of seven <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species (<italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
, <italic>K. elegans</italic>
, <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, <italic>K. marginata</italic>
, <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, and <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
) and six chemical classes (abietanes, labdanes and clerodanes, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and chalcones) were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to identify correlation between different <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species. In addition, the similarity based on the Pearson correlation coefficient was determined <italic>via</italic>
subjecting the dataset to an agglomerative hierarchical cluster (AHC). The PCA and AHC were performed using an XLSTAT statistical computer software package (version 2018, Addinsoft, NY, USA, <uri xlink:href="www.xlstat.com">www.xlstat.com</uri>
).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec3-nutrients-11-02396"><title>3. Distribution</title>
<p>Zingiberaceae (the ginger family) comprises 52 genera and more than 1300 plant species. <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
is distributed worldwide with diverse members occurring throughout southeast tropical Asian countries such as Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Cambodia, and China, as well as Thailand, including some 60 species [<xref rid="B5-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
]. <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
is a perennial herbal plant and widely cultivated in numerous tropical countries, involving Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand [<xref rid="B12-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec4-nutrients-11-02396"><title>4. Traditional Uses</title>
<p>Several <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species are used widely in folk medicine, including <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, and <italic>K. galanga</italic>
(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="nutrients-11-02396-f001">Figure 1</xref>
). In Laos and Thai, traditional medicines derived from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes are reported for the treatment of inflammation, hypertension, erectile dysfunction, abdominal ailments [<xref rid="B6-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>
,<xref rid="B7-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>
], and improvement of the vitality and blood flow [<xref rid="B8-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>
]. Japanese folk medicine documented a positive effect of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
extract when used as a food supplement and for the treatment of metabolic disorders [<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
]. <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
is used extensively as a carminative, diuretic, deodorant, and euglycemic, as well as for the treatment of urinary tract infections, fevers, and coughs [<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
]. <italic>K. galanga</italic>
is sold as an industrial crop in the market, and its rhizome has been used as a flavor spice of various cooking [<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. The rhizomes of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
is used as an anti-tussive, expectorant, anti-pyretic, diuretic, anabolic, carminative, as well as for curing of gastrointestinal ailments, asthma, wounds, rheumatism, epilepsy, and skin diseases [<xref rid="B10-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>
]. In Malaysian folk medicines, several gingers belonging to the Zingiberaceae family especially, <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
genus, are used in the treatment of several diseases such as stomach ailments, vomiting, cough, bruises, epilepsy, nausea, rheumatism, sore throat, wounds, eyewash, sore eyes, childbirth, liver complaints, muscular pains, ringworm, asthma, fever, malignancies, swelling, and several other disorders [<xref rid="B14-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5. Biological Activity</title>
<p>Extracts and purified compounds of <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species are used for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and the inhibition of a breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), anti-inflammatory, anti-acne, anticholinesterase, anti-obesity-induced dermatopathy, wound healing, anti-drug resistant strains of <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>
, neuroprotective, anti-nociceptive, human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) inhibitory activity, <italic>in vitro</italic>
anti-allergenic, and larvicidal activity against <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>
[<xref rid="B11-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
]. <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
plant extracts and isolated compounds demonstrate numerous and promising biological and pharmaceutical activities, which are summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="nutrients-11-02396-f002">Figure 2</xref>
.</p>
<sec id="sec5dot1-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.1. Anticancer Activity</title>
<p>Rhizome ethanolic extracts of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
and the purified component ethyl <italic>trans p</italic>
-methoxycinnamate (<bold>105</bold>
) demonstrate moderate cytotoxic activity against human cholangiocarcinoma (CL-6) cells with IC<sub>50</sub>
of 64.2 and 49.4 μg mL<sup>−1</sup>
, respectively. Significant cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) efficacy as indicated by suppressing tumor growth and lung metastasis in CL6-xenografed mice [<xref rid="B15-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>
] is also observed. Swapana et al. [<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
] documented that <italic>K. galanga</italic>
isopimarene diterpenoids, sandaracopimaradiene-9<italic>α</italic>
-ol (<bold>2</bold>
), kaempulchraol I (<bold>14</bold>
), and kaempulchraol L (<bold>17</bold>
) exhibit promising activity against human lung cancer with IC<sub>50</sub>
of 75 µM, 74 µM, and 76 µM, respectively, and mouth squamous cell carcinoma (HSC-2) inhibition with IC<sub>50</sub>
of 70 µM, 53 µM, and 58 µM, respectively [<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
]. The latter compound, isolated from <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, is reported to have weak anti-proliferative activity against human pancreatic and cervix cancers [<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
]. Chawengrum et al. [<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
] stated that <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
labdene diterpenoids, (−)-kolavelool (<bold>81</bold>
), and (−)-2<italic>β</italic>
-hydroxykolavelool (<bold>82</bold>
) exhibit cytotoxic activity against human leukemia cells (HL-60) with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 9.0 ± 0.66 and 9.6 ± 0.88 μg mL<sup>−1</sup>
, respectively [<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]. Acetone, petroleum ether, chloroform, and MeOH extracts of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes show moderate cytotoxicity in a brine shrimp lethality bioassay compared with vincristine sulfate as the reference compound [<xref rid="B19-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
]. Moreover, a methanolic extract of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes induces Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cell death in a dose-dependent manner [<xref rid="B20-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>
]. 5,7-Dimethoxyflavone (<bold>86</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. galanga</italic>
was found to reduce cancer resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) by inhibiting breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), one of the efflux transporters that increased efflux of TKI out of cancer cells. This was observed both in vitro with a dose-dependent increase in the intracellular concentration of sorafenib in MDCK/BCRP1 breast cancer resistance cells, with an EC<sub>50</sub>
of 8.78 μM as well as <italic>in vivo</italic>
by increasing sorafenib AUC in mice tissues when co-administered with compound <bold>88</bold>
, as reported by kinetic results [<xref rid="B21-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>
]. The isolated methyl-<italic>β</italic>
-<italic>D</italic>
-galactopyranoside specific lectin from the rhizome of <italic>K. rotunda</italic>
exhibited <italic>in vitro</italic>
antitumor activity against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells at a pH between 6–9 and a temperature range between 30–80 °C. Tumor inhibition was also observed <italic>in vivo</italic>
in EAC-bearing mice [<xref rid="B22-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>
]. </p>
<p>The cytotoxicity of MeOH, petroleum ether, and EtOAc extracts against C33A cancer cells <italic>via</italic>
MTT and scratch assays compared with essential oils of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes showed activity for the EtOAc and MeOH fractions at 1000 μg mL<sup>−1</sup>
with 11% and 14% cell viability and weak efficacy with petroleum ether extracted essential oils in a MTT assay. Cell growth inhibition was observed with all extracts in the scratch assay [<xref rid="B23-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>
]. Compound (<bold>140</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
was described to have strong activity with an IC<sub>50</sub>
of 1.4 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
, which was comparable to 5-fluorouracil as a reference drug. Compound (<bold>138</bold>
) also showed moderate inhibition against human lung cancer. 2′-Hydroxy-4,4′,6′-trimethoxychalcone (flavokawain A; <bold>119</bold>
) exhibited potent activity against HL-60 and MCF-7 cell lines. The results of Tang et al. [<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
] revealed that flavokawain A (<bold>119</bold>
) exhibited cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 and HT-29 cell lines with GI<sub>50</sub>
values of 17.5 µM (5.5 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
) and 45.3 μM (14.2 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
), respectively. Kaempfolienol (<bold>65</bold>
) and zeylenol (<bold>133</bold>
) were also found to have moderate activity against HL-60 and MCF-7 cells with IC<sub>50</sub>
values <30 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
and against HL-60 only with an IC<sub>50</sub>
value of 11.6 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
respectively [<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot2-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.2. Anti-Obesity Activity</title>
<p>An ethanolic extract, a polymethoxyflavonoid-rich fraction (PMF) and a polymethoxyflavonoid-poor fraction from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
were screened against an obesity-induced dermatopathy system using Tsumura Suzuki obese diabetes (TSOD) mice as an obesity model (Hidaka, Horikawa, Akase, Makihara, Ogami, Tomozawa, Tsubata, Ibuki, and Matsumoto) [<xref rid="B11-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
]. The ethanolic extract reduced mouse body weight and the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer more than the PMF fraction that is used as a dietary supplement in controlling skin disorders caused by obesity [<xref rid="B11-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot3-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.3. Anti-HIV Activity</title>
<p>Viral protein R (Vpr) is one of the HIV accessory proteins that can be targeted for controlling viral replication and pathogenesis. A CHCl<sub>3</sub>
fraction of <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
exhibits Vpr-inhibitory activity at 25l g mL<sup>−1</sup>
. In addition, isopimarene type diterpenoids isolated from the rhizomes of the plants, kaempulchraol B (<bold>43</bold>
), kaempulchraol D <bold>(45)</bold>
, kaempulchraol G (<bold>46</bold>
), kaempulchraol Q (<bold>20</bold>
), kaempulchraol T (<bold>36</bold>
), kaempulchraol U (<bold>50</bold>
), and W (<bold>22</bold>
) inhibit the expression of Vpr at concentrations from 1.56 to 6.25 µM [<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot4-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.4. Antimicrobial Activity</title>
<p>Arabietatriene (<bold>62</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
exhibits antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria <italic>Staphylococcus epidermidis</italic>
and <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic>
[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]. Anticopalic acid (<bold>72</bold>
), anticopalol (<bold>77</bold>
), and 8(17)-labden-15-ol (<bold>68</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. elegans</italic>
also exhibited antibacterial activity against <italic>B. cereus</italic>
[<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]. Acetone, petroleum ether, chloroform, and MeOH extracts of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes exhibit moderate antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in comparison with ciprofloxacin [<xref rid="B19-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>
]. Ethyl <italic>p</italic>
-methoxycinnamate (<bold>105</bold>
) also isolated from <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes have been shown based on a resazurin micro-titer assay to inhibit <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>
H37Ra, H37Rv, multidrug-resistant, and drug-susceptible isolates with MIC 0.242–0.485 mM [<xref rid="B27-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>
]. Its essential oil also displays strong antibacterial activity against <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>
and <italic>Salmonella typhimurium</italic>
, and weak activity against <italic>Escherichia coli</italic>
[<xref rid="B28-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>
]. Moreover, essential oils extracted from three varieties of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
exhibited potent larvicidal activity [<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
]. An ethyl acetate extract of <italic>K. rotunda</italic>
inhibits <italic>S. aureus</italic>
and <italic>E. coli</italic>
[<xref rid="B30-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>
]. A rhizomes extract of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
inhibits Epstein–Barr virus with no cytotoxic effect in Raji cells [<xref rid="B14-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>
]. In contrast, isolated diterpenoids from <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
exhibited no activity against <italic>Plasmodium falciparum</italic>
(Chloroquine-resistant) [<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]. Fauziyah et al. [<xref rid="B31-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>
] described that an ethanolic extract of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
alone exhibits 100% growth inhibition of the multi-drug resistant (MDR) <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>
(isolates at 500 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
). However, a combination of this extract with streptomycin, ethambutol, and isoniazid showed inhibition values of 55%, 76%, and 50%, respectively. Ethanol, methanol, petroleum ether, chloroform, and aqueous extracts of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizome showed antimicrobial activity against human pathogenic bacteria and fungi, while the ethanolic extract exhibited the strongest inhibition of <italic>S. aureus</italic>
using an inhibition zone assay [<xref rid="B32-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>
]. However, flavokawain A (<bold>119</bold>
) and other compounds reported from <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
had no antimicrobial activity against tested microbes [<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot5-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.5. Antioxidant Activity</title>
<p>The CHCl<sub>3</sub>
and MeOH extracts of the rhizomes of <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
showed strong antioxidant activity against DPPH expressed with 615.92 mg trolox equivalent (TE)/g of extract. In an azinobis (3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assay, MeOH extracts showed good antioxidant properties with a value of 38.87 mg TE/g. However, <italic>n</italic>
-hexane extract exhibited significant antioxidant activity with 901.76 mg TE/g in a cupric-reducing antioxidant capacity assay, while EtOAc extract exhibited significant reduction ability against ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) with a value of 342.23 mg TE/g. Also, kaempfolienol (<bold>65</bold>
) showed potent free radical scavenging activity in a DPPH assay, as well as, 2′-hydroxy-4,4′,6′-trimethoxychalcone (<bold>119</bold>
) in ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP assays [<xref rid="B33-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,<xref rid="B34-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>
]. A methanol extract of rhizomes of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
exhibited a concentration-dependent antioxidant activity in DPPH, ABTS, and nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging assays [<xref rid="B20-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>
]. Moreover, the essential oil extracts of conventionally propagated and in vitro propagated <italic>K. galanga</italic>
had significant DPPH radical scavenging activity [<xref rid="B35-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>
]. As well, the ethanol extract of <italic>K. rotunda</italic>
exhibited antioxidant activity in a DPPH assay with IC<sub>50</sub>
(67.95 μg mL<sup>−1</sup>
) [<xref rid="B30-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot6-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.6. Anti-Inflammatory Activity </title>
<p>The cyclohexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extracts with diarylheptanoids isolated from <italic>K. galanga</italic>
showed a pronounced inhibition of Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced nitric oxide in macrophage RAW 264.7 cells compared with indomethacin [<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. The EtOH extract and compounds (<bold>1</bold>
, <bold>52</bold>
, <bold>53</bold>
, <bold>119</bold>
, <bold>120</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. marginata</italic>
had promising anti-inflammatory activity based on the suppression of NO production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) genes expression [<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
,<xref rid="B37-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>
]. Diterpenoids (<bold>9</bold>
–<bold>10</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
had topical anti-inflammatory activity in 12-<italic>O</italic>
-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced ear edema in rats with ID<sub>50</sub>
330 and 50 µg/ear, respectively. Biological activity may be due to the activation of Maxi-K channels in neurons and smooth muscles [<xref rid="B38-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>
]. The ethanol extract of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
exhibited potent inhibition of PGE2. The plant extract and 3′,4′,5,7-tetramethoxyflavone (<bold>86</bold>
) were also reported to exhibit a dose-dependent inhibition of iNOS-mRNA expression. Additionally, H<sub>2</sub>
O, EtOH, EtOAC, CHCl<sub>3</sub>
, and <italic>n</italic>
-hexane soluble sub-fractions exhibited good in vivo anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing rat paw edema [<xref rid="B39-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>
]. An 80% EtOH extract reduced UV-induced COX-2 expression in mice skin that was attributed to the anti-oxidative activity of polyphenolics against the oxidizing properties of UV radiation [<xref rid="B40-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>
]. A 60% EtOH and EtOAc-soluble fraction of 100% methanol extracts of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
decreased knee osteoarthritis, which was likely due to methoxylated flavones [<xref rid="B41-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>
]. Ethyl <italic>p</italic>
-methoxycinnamate (<bold>105</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. galana</italic>
inhibited cytokines as IL-1 and TNF<italic>α</italic>
and endothelial function in rats [<xref rid="B42-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
]. </p>
<p>Tewtrakul, et al. [<xref rid="B43-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>
] found that the isolated methoxylated flavonoids from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, 5-hydroxy-3,7,3′,4′-tetramethoxyflavone (<bold>96</bold>
), 5-hydroxy-7,4′-dimethoxyflavone (<bold>93</bold>
), and 5-hydroxy-3,7,4′-trimethoxyflavone (<bold>95</bold>
) exhibited anti-inflammatory activity against the PGE<sub>2</sub>
production, with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 16.1 μM, 24.5 μM, and 30.6 μM, respectively [<xref rid="B43-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>
]. Tewtrakul and Subhadhirasakul [<xref rid="B44-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>
] described methoxyflavones <bold>96</bold>
, <bold>93</bold>
, and <bold>95</bold>
from a hexane extract of <italic>K.</italic>
<italic>parviflora</italic>
rhizomes that exhibited activity against NO release in RAW<sub>264.7</sub>
cells with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 16.1 μM, 24.5 μM, and 30.6 μM, respectively. In addition, 5-hydroxy-3,7,3′,4′-tetramethoxyflavone (<bold>96</bold>
) inhibited PGE<sub>2</sub>
release with an IC<sub>50</sub>
value of 16.3 μM, with negative activity on Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-<italic>α</italic>
) with IC<sub>50</sub>
>100 μM [<xref rid="B44-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>
]. Petroleum ether extract from <italic>K. galanga</italic>
was active against acute inflammation at 300 mg/kg in rats and inhibited the inflammation and MPO levels at 100 mg kg<sup>−1</sup>
in the chronic model [<xref rid="B45-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot7-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.7. Anticholinesterase Activity</title>
<p>According to Sawasdee et al. [<xref rid="B46-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>
], a MeOH extract as well as compounds (<bold>86</bold>
–<bold>87</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) with greater cholinesterase inhibitory toward AChE and BChE for (<bold>86</bold>
), which was an observation of significance in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease [<xref rid="B46-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>
]. </p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot8-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.8. Anti-Mutagenicity Activity</title>
<p>CH<sub>2</sub>
Cl<sub>2</sub>
and EtOAc soluble fractions of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
showed anti-mutagenicity and <italic>α</italic>
-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Isolated methoxylated compounds (<bold>86</bold>
, <bold>97</bold>
, <bold>84</bold>
, and <bold>92</bold>
) from these extracts exhibited potent activity with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 0.40, 0.40, 0.42, and 0.47 nmol/plate, respectively. Compounds (<bold>88</bold>
, <bold>87</bold>
, and <bold>91</bold>
), also showed significant activity with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 20.4 μM, 54.3 μM, and 64.3 μM, respectively [<xref rid="B47-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot9-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.9. Effect on Cytochromes CYP 450</title>
<p>The results listed by Ochiai et al. [<xref rid="B48-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>
] stated that the continued ingestion of (<bold>88</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
decreases liver CYP3A expression, which in turn increased levels of compounds metabolized by CYP3As such as midazolam [<xref rid="B48-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot10-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.10. Vascular Activity</title>
<p>The oral administration of CH<sub>2</sub>
Cl<sub>2</sub>
extract of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
in middle-aged rats was found to decrease vascular responses to phenylephrine, increase acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation and the production of nitric oxide (NO) from blood vessels, and decrease visceral, subcutaneous fat, fasting serum glucose, triglyceride, and liver lipid accumulation [<xref rid="B49-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>
]. The effect of intravenous administration of a CH<sub>2</sub>
Cl<sub>2</sub>
extract of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
to rats reduced the mean arterial blood pressure [<xref rid="B50-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
]. This anti-hypertensive effect was attributed to ethyl cinnamate, which is a major compound in the extract [<xref rid="B50-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
]. The ethanol extract of rhizomes of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
caused dose-dependent relaxation on aortic rings as well as ileum pre-contracted with phenylephrine and acethylcholine [<xref rid="B51-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot11-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.11. Adaptogenic Activity</title>
<p>Hexane, chloroform, methanol, and ethanol extracts of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
exhibited adaptogenic activity compared with a crude ginseng root powder used as a reference [<xref rid="B52-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">52</xref>
]. A single oral dose of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizome (60% EtOH extract) increased the whole-body potential expenditure in humans [<xref rid="B53-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">53</xref>
]. <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
was also found to improvement physical fitness and health by decreasing oxidative stress [<xref rid="B54-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">54</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot12-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.12. Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Activity</title>
<p>Among the isolated methoxylated flavonoids from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, (<bold>87</bold>
and <bold>86</bold>
) inhibit xanthine oxidase activity with IC<sub>50</sub>
values of 0.9 and >4 mM, respectively [<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot13-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.13. Allergenic Activity</title>
<p>Isolated polymethoxyflavones from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
(<bold>86</bold>
, <bold>97</bold>
), in addition to CH<sub>2</sub>
Cl<sub>2</sub>
, EtOAc, and H<sub>2</sub>
O extracts, alleviated type I allergy symptoms through suppressing Rat Basophilic Leukemia cells (RBL-2H3) cell degranulation, with (<bold>92</bold>
) and (<bold>94</bold>
) showing the highest anti-allergenic activity [<xref rid="B55-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot14-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.14. Neurological Activity</title>
<p>A methanolic extract (95% MeOH) of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
exhibited neuroprotective activity by increasing rat hippocampus serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels in comparison with a vehicle-treated group [<xref rid="B56-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">56</xref>
]. An acetone extract of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes and leaves also exhibited central nervous system depressant activity [<xref rid="B57-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">57</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot15-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.15. Nociceptive Activity.</title>
<p>A <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizome extract exhibited anti-nociceptive activity in rats that was stronger than aspirin but weaker than morphine. The efficacy was abolished by naloxone, suggesting that the analgesic effect may be centrally and peripherally mediated [<xref rid="B58-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">58</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot16-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.16. Wound-Healing Activity</title>
<p>The co-administration of a <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes extract (95% EtOH) with dexamethazone was found to have wound-healing activity in mice comparable to dexamethazone only [<xref rid="B59-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">59</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot17-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.17. Effects on Sexual Performance</title>
<p>Several 7-methoxyflavones (<bold>86</bold>
, <bold>87</bold>
, <bold>89</bold>
, <bold>91</bold>
, <bold>93–95</bold>
) isolated from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes improved sexual activity in males through the inhibition of PDE5, with <bold>86</bold>
being the most potent [<xref rid="B60-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">60</xref>
]. The activity was attributed to methoxyls present at positions C5 and C7 [<xref rid="B60-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">60</xref>
]. <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizome extracts, standardized to 5% DMF, also improve erectile function in healthy men [<xref rid="B61-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">61</xref>
]. A <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
extract as well as 5,7-dimethoxyflavones augment testosterone production, which decreases age-related diseases and hypogonadism [<xref rid="B62-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">62</xref>
]. Improved testosterone levels, sperm count, and sexual performance was observed in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats when treated with a <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
extract (aqueous with 1% Tween-80) [<xref rid="B63-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">63</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec5dot18-nutrients-11-02396"><title>5.18. Miscellaneous</title>
<p>The rhizome extract (95% ethanolic) of <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
reduced obesity via the inhibition of adipogenesis, lipogenesis, and muscle atrophy in mice [<xref rid="B64-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>
]. In contrast, the <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
derivatives of 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone induce skeletal muscle hypertrophy [<xref rid="B65-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>
]. A <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
extract (95% EtOH) served as a potential anti-acne agent with anti-inflammatory, sebostatic, and anti-propioni bacteria activity [<xref rid="B66-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>
]. </p>
<p>Recently, <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
alcoholic extract at 3–30 µg mL<sup>−1</sup>
was evaluated regarding the molecular mechanisms associated with rheumatoid arthritis for up to 72 h compared with the dexamethasone as positive control [<xref rid="B67-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">67</xref>
]. They documented that the EtOH extract significantly decreased the gene expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory mediators, and matrix-degraded enzymes, but neither induced apoptosis nor altered the cell cycle. They also reported that the alcoholic extract inhibits cell migration, reduces the mRNA expression of cadherin-11, and selectively reduces the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (P38, MAPKs), signal transducers, and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1) and 3 (STAT3) signaling molecules, without interfering with the NF-κB pathway [<xref rid="B67-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">67</xref>
]. </p>
<p>A <italic>K. galanga</italic>
extract (acetone, petroleum ether, chloroform, or methanolic) exhibited dose-dependent anthelmintic activity with strong paralytic activity within one hour and death within 80 min at a 25 mg mL<sup>−1</sup>
concentration [<xref rid="B68-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6. Chemical Metabolites of <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
Species</title>
<p>Chemical profiles of <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
exhibited the presence of different types of secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, especially isopimarane phenolic compounds, diarylheptanoids [<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
], flavonoids [<xref rid="B69-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>
,<xref rid="B70-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>
,<xref rid="B71-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
], and essential oils [<xref rid="B72-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>
,<xref rid="B73-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>
]. This review summarized the reported variety of compound types, including isopimarane, abietane, labdan, and clerodane diterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phenyl-heptanoids, curcuminoids, tetrahydropyrano-phenolic, and steroids. Diterpenoids, especially isopimarane types, were the most reported compounds from the plants of this genus, in addition to phenolics, flavonoids, and essential oils. Each class will be described and listed in the following items, and the structures will be summarized in <xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
, <xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t002" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>
and <xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t003" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref>
.</p>
<sec id="sec6dot1-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1. Diterpenoids</title>
<p><italic>Kaempferia</italic>
plants were characterized with a predominance of diterpenoids, especially the isopimaranes in addition to abietane, labdane, and clerodane types (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
).</p>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot1-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.1. Isopimarane-Type Diterpenoids</title>
<p>The isopimaranes reported from the <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
) are characterized with the presence of two double bonds; one is mostly ∆<sup>15(16)</sup>
, while the other is between ∆<sup>8(9)</sup>
or ∆<sup>8(14)</sup>
[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]. From the rhizomes of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, 12 usual isopimarenes (<bold>1–8</bold>
, <bold>10</bold>
, <bold>11</bold>
, <bold>14</bold>
, and <bold>17</bold>
) were observed that contained a ∆<sup>8(14),15</sup>
motif in addition to the rarely reported oxygenated seco-isopimarane (<bold>56</bold>
) [<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
]. From the rhizomes of <italic>K. marginata</italic>
, five isopimarenes with a ∆<sup>8(14),15</sup>
motif were observed (<bold>1</bold>
, <bold>2</bold>
, <bold>52</bold>
–<bold>54</bold>
) [<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. Only one thumbing isopimarenes, roscorane A (<bold>57</bold>
), was reported from <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
, which was characterized by only one double bond ∆<sup>8(9)</sup>
and (7-8)-epoxy, as well as the absence of the exomethylene ∆<sup>15(16)</sup>
[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
].</p>
<sec><title>Biosynthesis of Isopimarane-Type Diterpenoids</title>
<p>Isopimarane diterpenoids are the most characteristic compounds for <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
plants. (<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
)-Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) is a well-known biosynthesized intermediate of diterpenoids as described by [<xref rid="B80-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">80</xref>
]. GGPP is firstly cyclized <italic>via</italic>
copalyl diphosphate (CPP) synthases (CPS), and then by the unknown enzyme (PS), affording a charged intermediate (INM). Then, this intermediate is completely cyclized by the enzymatic reactions via the bifunctional (iso) pimaradiene synthases (AoCPS-PS, NfCPS-PS, and AfCPS-PS) (<xref ref-type="scheme" rid="nutrients-11-02396-sch001">Scheme 1</xref>
), as described by Xu et al. [<xref rid="B81-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot2-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.2. Abietane-Type Diterpenoids</title>
<p>Seven abietanes (<bold>58–64</bold>
) (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
) have been isolated and characterized from the rhizomes of <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
, and one (<bold>65</bold>
) was isolated and characterized from <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
,<xref rid="B33-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,<xref rid="B34-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>
]. These highly oxygenated metabolites contain one or more double bonds and an absence of exomethylenes, except for roscotane D (<bold>61</bold>
), which contains no double bonds.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot3-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.3. Labdane and Clerodane Diterpenoids</title>
<p>After isopimarenes, labdane and clerodane represent major diterpenoid classes from the <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species. Nineteen highly oxygenated labdanes and clerodanes (<bold>66</bold>
–<bold>86</bold>
) have been reported from <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
rhizomes (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>
) [<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
,<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]. From these isolated labdanes, only (12<italic>Z</italic>
,14<italic>R</italic>
)-labda-8(17),12-dien-14,15,16-triol (<bold>66</bold>
) has been isolated from <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
rhizomes. In contrast, several labdane and clerodane types of diterpenoids have been isolated from <italic>K. elegans</italic>
and <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
rhizomes collected in Thailand.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot4-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.4. Flavonoids </title>
<p><italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species are characterized by rich biological activity due in part to the presence of a diversity of flavonoids (<bold>86</bold>
–<bold>105</bold>
) and phenolic compounds (<bold>106–137</bold>
) (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t002" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>
). <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes with flavonoid nuclei contain methoxy groups in specific positions (<bold>86</bold>
–<bold>97</bold>
) [<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
,<xref rid="B55-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>
]. Pyrano-flavone, 2”,2”-dimethylpyrano-[5”,6”:8,7]-flavone (<bold>105</bold>
), has been isolated from <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
rhizomes collected from Thailand [<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
], and flavanones (<bold>97–99</bold>
) have been isolated and identified from <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
rhizomes [<xref rid="B70-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">70</xref>
,<xref rid="B71-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
]. <italic>K. galanga</italic>
contains kaempferol and kaempferide (<bold>98</bold>
, <bold>99</bold>
) [<xref rid="B78-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot5-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.5. Phenolic Compounds </title>
<p>From <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes, diarylheptanoid compounds (<bold>116</bold>
, <bold>117</bold>
, <bold>122–125</bold>
) are reported by Yao, Huang, Wang, and He [<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]. From <italic>K. marginata</italic>
rhizomes, curcuminoid (<bold>121</bold>
) was characterized by Kaewkroek, Wattanapiromsakul, Kongsaeree, and Tewtrakul [<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. From <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, rhizomes phenolic acids (<bold>106</bold>
–<bold>113</bold>
) were the major compounds isolated, including methoxylated cinnamic acid derivatives. Two (4-methoxyphenyl)-propanoates (<bold>114–115</bold>
) were also isolated from the <italic>K. galanga</italic>
rhizomes [<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,<xref rid="B50-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
]. <italic>S</italic>
- and <italic>R</italic>
-isomers at C-4 of phenolic glycosides (<bold>135</bold>
and <bold>136</bold>
) as well as a rare phenolic glycoside (<bold>137</bold>
) were observed in <italic>K. previflora</italic>
rhizomes [<xref rid="B79-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]. All the phenolic compounds (<bold>106–137</bold>
) are summarized in <xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t002" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>
. </p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot6-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.6. Steroids and Triterpenes</title>
<p>Steroids represent a minor class of compounds reported from <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species. Only three steroids, <italic>β</italic>
-sitosterol (<bold>138</bold>
), <italic>β</italic>
-sitosterol-<italic>β</italic>
-D-glucoside (<bold>139</bold>
), and stigmasterol (<bold>140</bold>
) (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t003" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref>
) have been reported from <italic>K. marginata</italic>
rhizomes [<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]. Moreover, only one lanostane type triterpene, (24<italic>S</italic>
)-24-methyl-lanosta-9(11), 25-dien-3β-ol (<bold>141</bold>
), was isolated from <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
[<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
].</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec6dot1dot7-nutrients-11-02396"><title>6.1.7. Volatile Oils</title>
<p><italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species were documented as very rich plants with volatile oils such as <italic>K. galanga</italic>
[<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
,<xref rid="B73-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>
,<xref rid="B82-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>
,<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
], <italic>K. angustiflora</italic>
[<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
], and <italic>K. marginata</italic>
[<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
]. The volatile oil of <italic>K. galanga</italic>
has been reported as a potential market product in India and over all the world with market values around 600–700 US$/kg on the international market [<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
]. Phenylpropanoids and/or cinamates were represented as major constituents of volatile oils derived from <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species followed by monoterpenes [<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
,<xref rid="B73-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>
,<xref rid="B82-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>
]. The phenylpropanoid compound, trans-ethyl cinnamate, was documented as a principal component of volatile oils of all the studied <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species up to date with concentrations varied from 16–35% of the total identified [<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
,<xref rid="B73-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">73</xref>
,<xref rid="B82-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>
,<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
]. The volatile oils of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species were reported to have numerous biological activities such as anti-microbial [<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
], antioxidant [<xref rid="B35-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>
], nutraceutical [<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
], nematicidal toxicity [<xref rid="B82-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>
], and larvicide activities [<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
]. <xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t004" ref-type="table">Table 4</xref>
summarized the main components (<bold>142–157</bold>
) of the reported volatile oils of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec7-nutrients-11-02396"><title>7. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) for <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
Species</title>
<p>To assess the correlation between the various <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species, chemical classes of different compounds were subjected to PCA and AHC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="nutrients-11-02396-f003">Figure 3</xref>
). According to the similarity, the analysis showed that we can group the <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species under three groups: the first group comprised <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, <italic>K. marginata</italic>
, <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, and <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
, and these species are correlated to isopimaranes compounds. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) between <italic>K. marginata</italic>
and <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
was the highest with r = 0.938, while between <italic>K. marginata</italic>
and <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
, it was 0.771, between <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
and <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, it was 0.766, and between <italic>K. marginata</italic>
and <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, it was 0.615 (<xref rid="nutrients-11-02396-t005" ref-type="table">Table 5</xref>
).</p>
<p>The second group contained <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
and <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
(r = 0.833), and this group showed a close correlation to flavonoids and phenolics. However, the <italic>K. elegans</italic>
was separated alone, and showed a close relation to labdane and clerodane compounds. The similarities within each group might be ascribed to the genetic relations, as well as the environmental and microclimatic conditions [<xref rid="B1-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>
,<xref rid="B2-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>
,<xref rid="B3-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>
].</p>
<p>In a study of a genetic variation of <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species based on chloroplast DNA [<xref rid="B5-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>
], <italic>K. marginata</italic>
and <italic>K. galanga</italic>
were grouped together, which is agreeable with our results (r = 0.615) according to the PCA data of the present study based on the chemical composition. However, in contrast to the data from the PCA, <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
and <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
were separated in different groups, but <italic>K. elegans</italic>
and <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
were grouped together. In another recent study, based on the DNA and morphological characteristics [<xref rid="B84-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">84</xref>
], <italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
and <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
were grouped together in agreement with the chemical variation of the present study.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec8-nutrients-11-02396"><title>8. Conclusions</title>
<p><italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species are widely used plants in traditional medicine worldwide. All the biological activity data for these plants and their isolated constituents have resulted in numerous leads for medicinal drugs. Mainly, seven rhizomes of <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
plants afforded a vast array of diterpenoids, especially the isopimarane type, along with significant bioactive methoxylated flavonoids. From all these documented chemical and biological results, these plants have been and continue to be a promising source for medicinal natural products and food industrial products.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back><ack><title>Acknowledgments</title>
<p>The authors are thankful to the Deanship of the Scientific Research and Research Center, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Elshamy gratefully acknowledges the Takeda Science Foundation, Japan for financial support. Prof. Mohamed Hegazy gratefully acknowledges the financial support from Alexander von Humboldt Foundation “Georg Foster Research Fellowship for Experienced Researcher”.</p>
</ack>
<notes><title>Author Contributions</title>
<p>A.I.E., T.A.M. and M.-E.F.H. suggested and designed the study. A.I.E., T.A.M., A.F.E., and A.M.A.-E.G. did the data preparation and structure drawing. A.I.E., T.A.M., A.M.A.-E.G., and M.-E.F.H. collected the data. A.S.A., A.A.S., T.Y., A.R.H.F., and M.N. wrote the original manuscript. A.I.E., T.A.M., M.-E.F.H., P.W.P., A.U., A.S.A., A.A.S., and H.R.E.-S. edited the final manuscript. All the authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.</p>
</notes>
<notes><title>Funding</title>
<p>This research received no external funding.</p>
</notes>
<notes notes-type="COI-statement"><title>Conflicts of Interest</title>
<p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p>
</notes>
<glossary><title>Abbreviations </title>
<array orientation="portrait"><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K.</italic>
</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Kaempheria</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sp.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Species</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PCA</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Principal component analysis</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AHC</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Agglomerative hierarchical clustering</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CCA</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Significant Cholangiocarcinoma</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HSC-2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mouth squamous cell carcinoma</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">EAC</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cancer cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HL-60</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Human leukemia cancer cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CL-6</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Human cholangiocarcinoma cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TKI</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tyrosine kinase inhibitors</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BCRP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Breast cancer resistance protein</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MTT</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(3-[4,5,[4,5-Dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CH<sub>2</sub>
Cl<sub>2</sub>
</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dichloromethane</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BChE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Butyrylcholinesterase</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NO</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nitric oxide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CUPRAC</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Modified cupric reducing antioxidant capacity</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PDE5</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aerial parts</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AChE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Acetylcholinesterase</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">RBL-2H3</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rat Basophilic Leukemia cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">P38</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Type of mitogen-activated protein kinases</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">STAT1 and 3</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 and 3</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MeOH</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Methanol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">EtOAc</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethyl acetate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MCF-7</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Breast cancer cells</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">HT-29</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorectal adenocarcinoma cell</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PMF</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Polymethoxyflavonoid-rich fraction</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">TSOD</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tsumura Suzuki obese diabetes</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">GGPP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
)-Geranylgeranyl diphosphate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CPP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Copalyl diphosphate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CPS</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Copalyl diphosphate synthases</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">EtOH</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethanol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AChE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Acetylcholinesterase </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">ABTS</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) assay</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vpr</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Viral protein R</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">DPPH</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl assay</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FRAP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ferric reducing antioxidant power</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CYP3A</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cytochrome P450, family 3, subfamily A</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NF-κB</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nuclear factor pathway</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rh</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rhizomes</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">BChE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Butyrylcholinesterase</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">STZ</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Streptozotocin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MPO</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">myeloperoxidase</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">DMF</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dimethylformamide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">MAPKs</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Type of mitogen-activated protein kinases</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">PGE2</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Prostaglandin E2</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</array>
</glossary>
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<article-title>Isolation of nematicidal constituents from essential oil of Kaempferia galanga L rhizome and their activity against Heterodera avenae Wollenweber</article-title>
<source>Trop. J. Pharm. Res.</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>16</volume>
<fpage>59</fpage>
<lpage>65</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4314/tjpr.v16i1.8</pub-id>
</element-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B83-nutrients-11-02396"><label>83.</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Munda</surname>
<given-names>S.</given-names>
</name>
<name><surname>Saikia</surname>
<given-names>P.</given-names>
</name>
<name><surname>Lal</surname>
<given-names>M.</given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Chemical composition and biological activity of essential oil of Kaempferia galanga: A review</article-title>
<source>J. Essent. Oil Res.</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<fpage>303</fpage>
<lpage>308</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/10412905.2018.1486240</pub-id>
</element-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B84-nutrients-11-02396"><label>84.</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Labrooy</surname>
<given-names>C.D.</given-names>
</name>
<name><surname>Abdullah</surname>
<given-names>T.L.</given-names>
</name>
<name><surname>Stanslas</surname>
<given-names>J.</given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Identification of ethnomedicinally important <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
L. (Zingiberaceae) species based on morphological traits and suitable DNA region</article-title>
<source>Curr. Plant Biol.</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>14</volume>
<fpage>50</fpage>
<lpage>55</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cpb.2018.09.004</pub-id>
</element-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
<sec sec-type="display-objects"><title>Figures, Scheme and Tables</title>
<fig id="nutrients-11-02396-f001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>Traditional medicinal used <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-g001"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="nutrients-11-02396-f002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><p>Reported biological activities for <italic>Kaempheria</italic>
species.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-g002"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="nutrients-11-02396-sch001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-sch001_Scheme 1</object-id>
<label>Scheme 1</label>
<caption><p>Plausible isopimaradiene biosynthesis [<xref rid="B81-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>
] starting with (<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
)-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP): (<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
,<italic>E</italic>
)-geranylgeranyl diphosphate; CPS: copalyl diphosphate (CPP) synthases; PS: Unknown enzyme; AoCPS-PS, NfCPS-PS, and AfCPS-PS: bifunctional (iso) pimaradiene synthases.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-sch001"></graphic>
</fig>
<fig id="nutrients-11-02396-f003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>(<bold>A</bold>
) Agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) and (<bold>B</bold>
) Principal component analysis (PCA) based on the chemical composition of different chemical classes of seven <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species (<italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
, <italic>K. elegans</italic>
, <italic>K. galanga</italic>
, <italic>K. marginata</italic>
, <italic>K. parviflora</italic>
, <italic>K. pulchra</italic>
, and <italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
).</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-g003"></graphic>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="nutrients-11-02396-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-t001_Table 1</object-id>
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><p>Diterpenoids.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td colspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i001.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>1</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>2</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>3</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>4</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>5</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>6</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>7</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradiene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="8" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
,<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
,<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
,<xref rid="B75-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>
,<xref rid="B76-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">76</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradiene-9<italic>α</italic>
-ol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8(14),15-Sandaracopimaradiene-1<italic>α</italic>
,9<italic>α</italic>
-diol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K.</italic>
sp.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,11-Dihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6<italic>β</italic>
-Hydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene-1-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradien-6<italic>β</italic>
,9<italic>α</italic>
-diol-l-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Boesenberol I</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Boesenberol J</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradien-1<italic>α</italic>
,2<italic>α</italic>
-diol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
,<xref rid="B38-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>
,<xref rid="B75-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2<italic>α</italic>
-Acetoxy-sandaracopimaradien-1<italic>α</italic>
-ol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol E</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol F</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="15" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
,<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol I</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol J</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol K</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol L</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol M</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="9" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol P</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol Q</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol R</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol T</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol V</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempulchraol W</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">25</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9 <italic>α</italic>
-Hydroxyisopimara-8(14),15-dien-7-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7<italic>β</italic>
,9 <italic>α</italic>
-Dihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Isopimara-8(14),15-dien-7-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>S</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
,9<italic>S</italic>
,10<italic>S</italic>
,11<italic>R</italic>
,13<italic>R</italic>
)-1,11-Dihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. marginata</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
,<xref rid="B75-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>R</italic>
,2<italic>S</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
,9<italic>S</italic>
,10<italic>S</italic>
,11<italic>R</italic>
,13<italic>R</italic>
)-1,2,11-Trihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7<italic>α</italic>
-Hydroxyisopimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradien- 9<italic>α</italic>
-ol-l-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K.</italic>
sp</td>
<td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B76-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">76</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6<italic>β</italic>
-Acetoxysandaracopimaradien-9<italic>α</italic>
-ol-l-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradien-6<italic>β</italic>
,9<italic>α</italic>
-diol-l-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6<italic>β</italic>
-Acetoxysandaracopimaradien-l<italic>α</italic>
,9<italic>α</italic>
-diol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sandaracopimaradien- lα,6β,9α-triol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Roscorane B</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Roscorane C</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Roscorane D</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">39</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>R</italic>
,2<italic>S</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
,7<italic>S</italic>
,9<italic>R</italic>
,10<italic>S</italic>
,13<italic>R</italic>
)-1,2,7-Trihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B75-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>S</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
,7<italic>R</italic>
,9<italic>R</italic>
,10<italic>S</italic>
,11<italic>R</italic>
,13<italic>R</italic>
)-1,7,11-Trihydroxypimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">41</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>R</italic>
,2<italic>S</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
,7<italic>S</italic>
,9<italic>R</italic>
,10<italic>S</italic>
,13<italic>R</italic>
)-1,2-Dihydroxypimara-8(14),15diene-7-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="6" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i002.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>52–54</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="6" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i003.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>42–51</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>1</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>R<sub>2</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>3</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>4</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">42</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol A</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OMe</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">43</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol B</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OMe</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="8" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"></td>
<td rowspan="8" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol C</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol D</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">46</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol G</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">47</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol N</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">48</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">49</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol S</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempulchraol U</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">51</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Isopimara-8(9),15-dien-7-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">52</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">8(14),15-Isopimaradiene-6<italic>α</italic>
-ol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">---</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">53</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">1<italic>α</italic>
-Acetoxy-sandaracopimaradiene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">54</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">1<italic>α</italic>
-Acetoxy-sandaraco pimaradien-2-one</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>α</italic>
-OAc</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">=O</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Structure</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">55</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(2<italic>R</italic>
)-ent-2-Hydroxyisopimara-8(14),15-diene</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i004.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B4-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>
,<xref rid="B17-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>
,<xref rid="B25-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>
,<xref rid="B74-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">56</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaemgalangol A</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i005.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B16-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">57</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Roscorane A</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i006.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">58</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=OMe; Roscotane A</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i007.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="7" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="7" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">59</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=H; Roscotane B</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Roscotane C</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i008.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">61</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Roscotane D</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i009.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">62</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=H; Ar-abietatriene</td>
<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i010.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">63</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=[=O]; 7-Dehydroabietanone</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=<italic>α</italic>
-OH; Abieta-8,11,13-trien-7<italic>α</italic>
-ol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">65</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Kaempfolienol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i011.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B33-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,<xref rid="B34-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">66</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(12<italic>Z</italic>
,14<italic>R</italic>
)-Labda-8(17),12-dien-14,15,16-triol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i012.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B26-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">67</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Propadane A</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i013.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. elegans</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="7" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">68</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=H --- 8(17)-Labden-15-ol</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i014.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">69</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=OH; Propadane B</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Propadane C</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i015.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">71</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Cleroda-2,4(18),14-trien-13-ol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i016.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">72</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=H; Anticopalic acid</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i017.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. elegans</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">73</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=Me; Methyl anticopalate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">74</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(+)-15,16-Eoxy-8(17),13(16),14-labdatriene</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i018.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="7" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">75</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(+)-Pumiloxide</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i019.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">76</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">13-Oxo-14,15-bis-nor-labd-8(17)-ene</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i020.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">77</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Anticopalol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i021.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. elegans</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">78</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Labda-8(17),13(14)-diene-15,16-olide</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i022.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">79</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(+)-Labda-8(17),13(Z)-diene-15,16-diol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i023.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">Calcaratarin A</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i024.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="5" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">81</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=H; (-)-Kolavelool</td>
<td rowspan="3" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i025.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">82</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R= <italic>β</italic>
-OH; (-)-2<italic>β</italic>
-Hydroxykolavelool</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">83</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">R=<italic>β</italic>
-OMe; Dysoxydensin E</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">84</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">13-Epi-roseostachenone</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i026.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">85</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">(+)-13-Epi-2<italic>α</italic>
-hydroxykolavelool (13-epi-roseostachenol)</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i027.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="nutrients-11-02396-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-t002_Table 2</object-id>
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><p>Flavonoids and phenolics (Flavonoids).</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i028.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>86–97</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i029.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>98–101</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i030.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>102–103</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>1</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>2</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>3</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>4</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">86</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,7-Dimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td rowspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"> [<xref rid="B9-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>
,<xref rid="B55-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>
,<xref rid="B71-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
,<xref rid="B77-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">77</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">87</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4‘,5,7-Trimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">88</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3‘,4‘,5,7-Tetramethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">89</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,5,7-Trimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">90</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,5,7,4‘-Tetramethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">91</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3,5,7,3‘,4‘-Pentamethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">92</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5-Hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">93</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5-hydroxy-7,4‘-dimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">94</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5-Hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">95</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5-Hydroxy-3,7,4‘-trimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">96</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5-Hydroxy-3,7,3‘,4‘-tetramethoxy flavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">97</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5,3‘-Dihydroxy-3,7,4‘-trimethoxyflavone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">98</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempferol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B42-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">99</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kaempferide</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tectochrysin</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">101</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genkwanin</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B46-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">102</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pinocembin</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B71-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">103</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pinostrobin</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">104</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sakuranetin</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i031.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">105</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2″,2″-Dimethylpyrano-[5″,6″:8,7]-flavone</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i032.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B18-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i033.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>106–109</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i034.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>110–113</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i035.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>114–115</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i036.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>116–117</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i037.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>118–119</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>1</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>R<sub>2</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>R<sub>3</sub>
</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">106</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethyl <italic>trans</italic>
-<italic>p</italic>
-methoxycinnamate</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CH<sub>2</sub>
Me</td>
<td rowspan="12" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">107</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ferulic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">108</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>trans</italic>
-<italic>p</italic>
-Hydroxy-cinnamic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">109</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>trans</italic>
-<italic>p</italic>
-Methoxy cinnamic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">H</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CH<sub>2</sub>
Me</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">110</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>p</italic>
-Hydroxybenzoic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">COOH</td>
<td rowspan="6" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,<xref rid="B50-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">111</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>p</italic>
-Methoxybenzoic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OMe</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">COOH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">112</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vanillic acid</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OMe</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">COOH</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">113</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OH</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">OH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">COOMe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">114</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Methyl (2R,3S)-2,3-dihydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">115</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethyl-(2R,3S)-2,3-dihydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CH<sub>2</sub>
Me</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">116</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>R</italic>
,3<italic>R</italic>
,5<italic>R</italic>
)-1,5-Epoxy-3-hydroxy-1-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(3,4-dihydroxy phenyl) heptane</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">117</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(1<italic>R</italic>
,3<italic>R</italic>
,5<italic>R</italic>
)-1,5-Epoxy-3-hydroxy-1-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxyphenyl) heptane 3-O-<italic>β</italic>
-<italic>D</italic>
-glucopyranoside</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>D</italic>
-glc</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">118</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2‘-hydroxy-4‘,6‘-dimethoxychalcone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">H</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
,<xref rid="B71-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">119</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2‘-hydroxy-4,4‘,6‘-trimethoxychalcone</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Me</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1">-</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><bold>Structure</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">120</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Desmethoxyyangonin</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i038.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">121</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bisdemethoxycurcumin</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i039.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">122</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxyphenyl)heptane-1,2,3,5,6-pentaol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i040.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">123</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(3<italic>R</italic>
,5<italic>S</italic>
)-3,5-Dihydroxy-1-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy phenyl) heptane</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i041.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">124</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Phaeoheptanoxide</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i042.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">125</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hedycoropyran B</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i043.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">126</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1-O-4-Carbonxylphenyl-(6-<italic>O</italic>
-4-hydroxybenzoyl)-<italic>β</italic>
-<italic>D</italic>
-glucopyranoside</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i044.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">127</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dihydro-5,6-dehydrokawain</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i045.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B13-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>
,<xref rid="B50-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">128</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=OH; (-)-Hydroxypanduratin A</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i046.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">129,</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=OMe; (-)-Panduratin A</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">130</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cinnamaldehyde</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i047.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B78-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">131</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=Me; Crotepoxide</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i048.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
,<xref rid="B33-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">132</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=Benzen; Boesenboxide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">133 134</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"> R=H; Zeylenol<break></break>
R=Me; 6-methylzeylenol</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i049.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">135</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>rel</italic>
-(5a<italic>S</italic>
,10b<italic>S</italic>
)-5a,10b-Dihydro-1,3,5a,9-tetrahydroxy-8-methoxy-6<italic>H</italic>
-benz[<italic>b</italic>
]indeno[1–<italic>d</italic>
]furan-6-one 5a-<italic>O</italic>
-[<italic>α</italic>
-<sc>l</sc>
-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-<italic>β</italic>
-<sc>d</sc>
-glucopyranoside]</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i050.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
R=<italic>α</italic>
-L-rha-(1→6)-<italic>β</italic>
-D-glc </td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B79-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">136</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>rel</italic>
-(5a<italic>S</italic>
,10b<italic>R</italic>
)-5a,10b-Dihydro-1,3,5a,9-tetrahydroxy-8-methoxy-6<italic>H</italic>
-benz[<italic>b</italic>
]indeno[1–<italic>d</italic>
]furan-6-one 5a-<italic>O</italic>
-[<italic>α</italic>
-<sc>l</sc>
-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-<italic>β</italic>
-<sc>d</sc>
-glucopyranoside]</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i051.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
R=<italic>α</italic>
-L-rha-(1→6)-<italic>β</italic>
-D-glc </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">137</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(2<italic>R</italic>
,3<italic>S</italic>
,4<italic>S</italic>
)-3-<italic>O</italic>
-[<italic>α</italic>
-<sc>l</sc>
-Rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-<italic>β</italic>
-<sc>d</sc>
-glucopyranosyl]-3′-<italic>O</italic>
-methyl-<italic>ent</italic>
-epicatechin-(2<italic>α</italic>
→<italic>O</italic>
→3,4<italic>α</italic>
→ 4)-(5a<italic>S</italic>
,10b<italic>S</italic>
)-5a,10b-dihydro-1,3,5a,9-tetrahydroxy-8-methoxy-6<italic>H</italic>
-benz[<italic>b</italic>
]indeno[1,2-<italic>d</italic>
]furan-6-one 5a-<italic>O</italic>
-[<italic>α</italic>
-<sc>l</sc>
-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→ 6)-<italic>β</italic>
-<sc>d</sc>
-glucopyranoside]</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i052.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
R=<italic>α</italic>
-L-rha-(1→6)-<italic>β</italic>
-D-glc</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="nutrients-11-02396-t003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-t003_Table 3</object-id>
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption><p>Steroid and triterpenes.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td colspan="5" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i053.jpg"></inline-graphic>
<break></break>
<bold>138–139</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>No</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Name</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Structure</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Plant</bold>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Ref</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">138</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-Sitosterol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=H</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K.marginata</italic>
<break></break>
<italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
,<xref rid="B33-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>
,<xref rid="B36-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">139</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic>
-Sitosterol-<italic>β</italic>
-D-glucoside</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">R=<italic>β</italic>
-<italic>D</italic>
-glc</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">140</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Stigmasterol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i054.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">141</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">(24<italic>S</italic>
)-24-methyl-lanosta-9(11), 25-dien-3β-ol</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><inline-graphic xlink:href="nutrients-11-02396-i055.jpg"></inline-graphic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B24-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="nutrients-11-02396-t004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-t004_Table 4</object-id>
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption><p>Main components of volatile oils of <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">No</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Name</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plant</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ref</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">142</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">δ-3-Carene</td>
<td rowspan="16" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td rowspan="16" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" colspan="1">[<xref rid="B29-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>
,<xref rid="B35-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>
,<xref rid="B82-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>
,<xref rid="B83-nutrients-11-02396" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>
]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">143</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>E</italic>
-Ethyl cinnamate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">144</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">145</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">γ-Cadinene</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">146</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1,8-Cineole</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">147</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Trans-cinnamaldehyde</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">148</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Borneol </td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">149</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pentadecane</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">150</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">γ-car-3-ene</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">151</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Linoleoyl chloride</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">152</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Caryophyllene oxide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">153</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cubenol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">154</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Caryophyllene</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">155</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Limonene</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">156</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Camphene</td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">157</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">α-Pinene</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="nutrients-11-02396-t005" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="pii">nutrients-11-02396-t005_Table 5</object-id>
<label>Table 5</label>
<caption><p>Proximity matrix (Pearson correlation coefficient) of the seven <italic>Kaempferia</italic>
species based on the chemical classes reported.</p>
</caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. angustifolia</italic>
</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. elegans</italic>
</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. marginata</italic>
</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. elegans</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.539</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. galanga</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.042</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.339</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. marginata</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.500</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.241</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.615</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. parviflora</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.833</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.312</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.075</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.280</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. pulchra</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.675</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.053</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.378</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.938</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.372</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>K. roscoeana</italic>
</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.643</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.225</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.206</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.771</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−0.513</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.766</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</back>
</pmc>
</record>
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