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The Magical Number Two, Plus or Minus One: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Musical Information

Identifieur interne : 000774 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000773; suivant : 000775

The Magical Number Two, Plus or Minus One: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Musical Information

Auteurs : Adam Ockelford

Source :

RBID : ISTEX:3943061678C63E0E1666CB415D7F5763A83A8F41

English descriptors

Abstract

Like all fields of human artistic endeavour, music is constrained by our cognitive processing requirements and limitations (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). This articleconsiders particular forms of constraint pertaining to the relationships that the structure-seeking mind (subconsciously) fabricates between perceived musical events. It is proposed that 2±1 may be a universal limitation pertaining to the level of relationships so ideated. That is, in terms of Lewin'S (1987) theoretical framework in which “intervals” can be intuited between the “elements” of musical “spaces”, it is posited that the cognition of musical structure occurs either through intervals (level 1), through intervals between these (level 2), or — in some circumstances — through intervals between these(level 3). This proposition is explored through the psychomusicological model developed by Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), which too analyses musical structure in terms of the relationships that may be cognised between its discrete perceptual components. In particular, the model identifies a type of cognitive link through which events (at any level) arefelt to imply others the same or similar — through so-called “zygonic” relationships. This theory suggests a further general principle: that the highest level of relationship inoperation at any given point must be zygonic if the music is to be structurally coherent. Evidence for this, and for the limit on the level of relationships of 2±1, is offeredthrough a series of musical examples, which illustrate a variety of musical organisation in action. Finally, empirical work is suggested to explore further the theoretical ideas that arepresented here.
Como todos los campos del esfuerzo artístico humano, la música es constreñida por los requerimientos y limitaciones de nuestro proceso cognitivo. (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Este articulo considera algunas formas particulares de constricción teniendo en cuenta las relaciones que la estructura de búsqueda mental (subconsciente) fabrica entre eventos musicales percibidos. Se propone que 2±1 puede ser una limitación universal relacionada con el nivel de relaciones. En términos de la propuesta teorética de Lewin (1987), en la cual los “intervalos” pueden ser intuidos entre los “elementos” de “espacios” musicales, se propone que la cognición de la estructura musical se desarrolla bien a través de intervalos (nivel 1), a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 2), o — en ciertas circunstancias — a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 3). Esta propuesta es explorada a través del modelo psicomusical desarrollado por Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), que también analiza la estructura musical en términos de relaciones que pueden ser consignadas entre sus componentes perceptivos discretos. En particular, este modelo identifica un tipo de enlace cognitivo a través del cual los eventos (de cualquier nivel) se sienten como implicación de otros, los mismos o similares, también llamados relaciones “zygónicas”. Esta teoría sugiere un principio general que va más allá: que el nivel más alto de relación de operación en cualquier punto dado debe ser zygónico si la música es estructuralmente coherente. La evidencia de esto y del limite del nivel de relaciones de 2±1 se ofrece a través de una serie de ejemplos musicales que ***ilustran una variedad de organización musical en acción. Finalmente, el trabajo empírico sugiere llevar a cabo una exploración más profunda de las ideas teóricas aquí presentadas.
Come tutti i campi dell'umano sforzo artistico, la musica è vincolata dalle esigenze e dai limiti dei nostri processi cognitivi (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). ***Il presente articolo prende in considerazione particolari forme di limitazione attinenti alle relazioni che la mente bisognosa di struttura costruisce (subconsciamente) fra due eventi musicali percepiti. Si propone che 2±1 possa costituire una limitazione universale attinente al livello delle relazioni ***così ideate. Ossia, nei termini del quadro teorico di Lewin (1987), secondo il quale ***gli “intervalli” si possono intuire fra gli “elementi” dello “spazio” musicale, poniamo che la cognizione della struttura musicale avvenga mediante intervalli (livello 1), mediante gli intervalli fra questi intervalli (livello 2), oppure — in alcune circostanze — mediante gli intervalli fra questi ultimi intervalli (livello 3). Tale asserzione viene esaminata con l'ausilio del modello psicomusicologico sviluppato da Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), il quale analizza a sua volta la struttura musicale in termini di relazioni che possono venire riconosciute fra le sue componenti percettive discrete. In particolare, il modello identifica un tipo di collegamento cognitivo mediante il quale gli eventi (a qualsiasi livello) sembrano implicarne altri uguali o simili — tramite relazioni cosiddette “zigoniche”. Questa teoria conduce ad un ulteriore principio generale: il massimo livello di relazione operativa in un qualsiasi punto dato dev'essere zigonico se la musica vuole essere strutturalmente coerente. Una prova a favore di questo, nonché del limite di 2±1 nel livello delle relazioni, viene offerta da una serie di esempi musicali che illustrano una varietà di organizzazioni musicali in atto. Infine, si suggerisce alla ricerca empirica di esplorare ulteriormente le idee teoriche qui presentate.
Comme tous les domaines de l'activité artistique humaine, la musique souffre des exigences et des limites de notre traitement cognitif (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). On étudie ici les formes particulières de contrainte inhérentes aux relations que le mental, à la recherche d'une structure, tisse (subconsciemment) entre les informations musicales perçues. A notre sens, 2±1 pourrait être la limite universelle du niveau des relations ainsi mises en œuvre. Autrement dit, en se plaçant sous l'angle du cadre théorique de Lewin (1987) où des “intervalles” peuvent être intuitivement placés entre les “éléments” des “espaces” musicaux, on postule que la Cognition de la structure musicale est dérivée des intervalles (niveau 1) ou des intervalles entre ces intervalles (niveau 2), voire — dans certaines circonstances — des intervalles entre ces derniers (niveau 3). Cette hypothèse est explorée à l'aide du modèle psychomusicologique développé par Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), où la structure musicale est également analysée sur la base des relations dont la cognition se forge entre les composants perceptifs discrets. Autrement dit, le modèle identifie un type de lien cognitif qui conduit à percevoir des manifestations (à quelque niveau que ce soit) comme étant à l'origine d'autres manifestations, identiques ou similaires — par le biais des relations dites “zygoniques”. Cette théorie fait l'hypothèse d'un autre principe général : pour qu'il y ait cohérence structurelle en musique, il faut que, en quelque point donné que ce soit, le niveau de relation le plus élevé mis en œuvre soit zygonique. Cette hypothèse, comme la limite du niveau des relations de 2±1, est étayée par une série d'exemples musicaux illustrant diverses organisations musicales en action. On propose ensuite une recherche empirique afin d'approfondir les idées théoriques présentées ici.
Wie alle Bereiche menschlichen künstlerischen Tuns unterliegt auch Musik den Bedingungen und Beschränkungen unserer kognitiven Verarbeitung (Swaln, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Dieser Beitrag betrachtet besondere Formen der Zwänge bei der Beziehungsbildung zwischen wahrgenommenen musikalischen Ereignissen im Rahmen der (unterbewußten) Struktursuche. Es wird an eine Beziehungsebene gedacht, in welcher 2±1 eine universelle Begrenzung sein könnte; d. h. es wird entsprechend der Theorie von Lewin (1987), nach der “Intervalle” zwischen den “Elementen” musikalischer “Räume” erlebt werden können, postuliert, daß die Kognition von musikalischer Struktur durch Intervallbildung entweder auf zwei oder (unter bestimmten Umständen) auf drei Ebenen abläuft. Diese Annahme wird mit dem musikpsychologischen Modell von Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999) untersucht, welches ebenfalls musikalische Strukturen auf der Basis der Beziehungen analysiert, die zwischen den diskreten strukturellen Wahrnehmungskomponenten erkannt werden können. Im einzelnen identifiziert das Modell eine Art kognitiven Link, wodurch gefühlt wird, daß Ereignisse (auf jeder Ebene) durch zygonische Beziehungen einen Bezug auf andere gleich oder ähnlich erscheinende Ereignisse herstellen. Diese Theorie nimmt ein weiteres allgemeines Prinzip an, nämlich daß der höchste Beziehungsgrad an jedem Punkt der Operation zygonisch sein muß, wenn die Musik strukturell kohärent sein soll. Hinweise hierfür sowie für die Grenze auf der Ebene der 2±1-Beziehungen werden durch eine Reihe von Musikbeispielen geboten, welche das Wirken einer Vielfalt musikalischer Organisation illustriert. Abschließend werden empirische Untersuchungen vorgeschlagen, um die hier vorgestellten theoretischen Ideen weiter zu untersuchen.

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DOI: 10.1177/102986490200600205

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ISTEX:3943061678C63E0E1666CB415D7F5763A83A8F41

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<div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">Like all fields of human artistic endeavour, music is constrained by our cognitive processing requirements and limitations (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). This articleconsiders particular forms of constraint pertaining to the relationships that the structure-seeking mind (subconsciously) fabricates between perceived musical events. It is proposed that 2±1 may be a universal limitation pertaining to the level of relationships so ideated. That is, in terms of Lewin'S (1987) theoretical framework in which “intervals” can be intuited between the “elements” of musical “spaces”, it is posited that the cognition of musical structure occurs either through intervals (level 1), through intervals between these (level 2), or — in some circumstances — through intervals between these(level 3). This proposition is explored through the psychomusicological model developed by Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), which too analyses musical structure in terms of the relationships that may be cognised between its discrete perceptual components. In particular, the model identifies a type of cognitive link through which events (at any level) arefelt to imply others the same or similar — through so-called “zygonic” relationships. This theory suggests a further general principle: that the highest level of relationship inoperation at any given point must be zygonic if the music is to be structurally coherent. Evidence for this, and for the limit on the level of relationships of 2±1, is offeredthrough a series of musical examples, which illustrate a variety of musical organisation in action. Finally, empirical work is suggested to explore further the theoretical ideas that arepresented here.</div>
<div type="abstract" xml:lang="es">Como todos los campos del esfuerzo artístico humano, la música es constreñida por los requerimientos y limitaciones de nuestro proceso cognitivo. (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Este articulo considera algunas formas particulares de constricción teniendo en cuenta las relaciones que la estructura de búsqueda mental (subconsciente) fabrica entre eventos musicales percibidos. Se propone que 2±1 puede ser una limitación universal relacionada con el nivel de relaciones. En términos de la propuesta teorética de Lewin (1987), en la cual los “intervalos” pueden ser intuidos entre los “elementos” de “espacios” musicales, se propone que la cognición de la estructura musical se desarrolla bien a través de intervalos (nivel 1), a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 2), o — en ciertas circunstancias — a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 3). Esta propuesta es explorada a través del modelo psicomusical desarrollado por Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), que también analiza la estructura musical en términos de relaciones que pueden ser consignadas entre sus componentes perceptivos discretos. En particular, este modelo identifica un tipo de enlace cognitivo a través del cual los eventos (de cualquier nivel) se sienten como implicación de otros, los mismos o similares, también llamados relaciones “zygónicas”. Esta teoría sugiere un principio general que va más allá: que el nivel más alto de relación de operación en cualquier punto dado debe ser zygónico si la música es estructuralmente coherente. La evidencia de esto y del limite del nivel de relaciones de 2±1 se ofrece a través de una serie de ejemplos musicales que ***ilustran una variedad de organización musical en acción. Finalmente, el trabajo empírico sugiere llevar a cabo una exploración más profunda de las ideas teóricas aquí presentadas.</div>
<div type="abstract" xml:lang="it">Come tutti i campi dell'umano sforzo artistico, la musica è vincolata dalle esigenze e dai limiti dei nostri processi cognitivi (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). ***Il presente articolo prende in considerazione particolari forme di limitazione attinenti alle relazioni che la mente bisognosa di struttura costruisce (subconsciamente) fra due eventi musicali percepiti. Si propone che 2±1 possa costituire una limitazione universale attinente al livello delle relazioni ***così ideate. Ossia, nei termini del quadro teorico di Lewin (1987), secondo il quale ***gli “intervalli” si possono intuire fra gli “elementi” dello “spazio” musicale, poniamo che la cognizione della struttura musicale avvenga mediante intervalli (livello 1), mediante gli intervalli fra questi intervalli (livello 2), oppure — in alcune circostanze — mediante gli intervalli fra questi ultimi intervalli (livello 3). Tale asserzione viene esaminata con l'ausilio del modello psicomusicologico sviluppato da Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), il quale analizza a sua volta la struttura musicale in termini di relazioni che possono venire riconosciute fra le sue componenti percettive discrete. In particolare, il modello identifica un tipo di collegamento cognitivo mediante il quale gli eventi (a qualsiasi livello) sembrano implicarne altri uguali o simili — tramite relazioni cosiddette “zigoniche”. Questa teoria conduce ad un ulteriore principio generale: il massimo livello di relazione operativa in un qualsiasi punto dato dev'essere zigonico se la musica vuole essere strutturalmente coerente. Una prova a favore di questo, nonché del limite di 2±1 nel livello delle relazioni, viene offerta da una serie di esempi musicali che illustrano una varietà di organizzazioni musicali in atto. Infine, si suggerisce alla ricerca empirica di esplorare ulteriormente le idee teoriche qui presentate.</div>
<div type="abstract" xml:lang="fr">Comme tous les domaines de l'activité artistique humaine, la musique souffre des exigences et des limites de notre traitement cognitif (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). On étudie ici les formes particulières de contrainte inhérentes aux relations que le mental, à la recherche d'une structure, tisse (subconsciemment) entre les informations musicales perçues. A notre sens, 2±1 pourrait être la limite universelle du niveau des relations ainsi mises en œuvre. Autrement dit, en se plaçant sous l'angle du cadre théorique de Lewin (1987) où des “intervalles” peuvent être intuitivement placés entre les “éléments” des “espaces” musicaux, on postule que la Cognition de la structure musicale est dérivée des intervalles (niveau 1) ou des intervalles entre ces intervalles (niveau 2), voire — dans certaines circonstances — des intervalles entre ces derniers (niveau 3). Cette hypothèse est explorée à l'aide du modèle psychomusicologique développé par Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), où la structure musicale est également analysée sur la base des relations dont la cognition se forge entre les composants perceptifs discrets. Autrement dit, le modèle identifie un type de lien cognitif qui conduit à percevoir des manifestations (à quelque niveau que ce soit) comme étant à l'origine d'autres manifestations, identiques ou similaires — par le biais des relations dites “zygoniques”. Cette théorie fait l'hypothèse d'un autre principe général : pour qu'il y ait cohérence structurelle en musique, il faut que, en quelque point donné que ce soit, le niveau de relation le plus élevé mis en œuvre soit zygonique. Cette hypothèse, comme la limite du niveau des relations de 2±1, est étayée par une série d'exemples musicaux illustrant diverses organisations musicales en action. On propose ensuite une recherche empirique afin d'approfondir les idées théoriques présentées ici.</div>
<div type="abstract" xml:lang="de">Wie alle Bereiche menschlichen künstlerischen Tuns unterliegt auch Musik den Bedingungen und Beschränkungen unserer kognitiven Verarbeitung (Swaln, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Dieser Beitrag betrachtet besondere Formen der Zwänge bei der Beziehungsbildung zwischen wahrgenommenen musikalischen Ereignissen im Rahmen der (unterbewußten) Struktursuche. Es wird an eine Beziehungsebene gedacht, in welcher 2±1 eine universelle Begrenzung sein könnte; d. h. es wird entsprechend der Theorie von Lewin (1987), nach der “Intervalle” zwischen den “Elementen” musikalischer “Räume” erlebt werden können, postuliert, daß die Kognition von musikalischer Struktur durch Intervallbildung entweder auf zwei oder (unter bestimmten Umständen) auf drei Ebenen abläuft. Diese Annahme wird mit dem musikpsychologischen Modell von Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999) untersucht, welches ebenfalls musikalische Strukturen auf der Basis der Beziehungen analysiert, die zwischen den diskreten strukturellen Wahrnehmungskomponenten erkannt werden können. Im einzelnen identifiziert das Modell eine Art kognitiven Link, wodurch gefühlt wird, daß Ereignisse (auf jeder Ebene) durch zygonische Beziehungen einen Bezug auf andere gleich oder ähnlich erscheinende Ereignisse herstellen. Diese Theorie nimmt ein weiteres allgemeines Prinzip an, nämlich daß der höchste Beziehungsgrad an jedem Punkt der Operation zygonisch sein muß, wenn die Musik strukturell kohärent sein soll. Hinweise hierfür sowie für die Grenze auf der Ebene der 2±1-Beziehungen werden durch eine Reihe von Musikbeispielen geboten, welche das Wirken einer Vielfalt musikalischer Organisation illustriert. Abschließend werden empirische Untersuchungen vorgeschlagen, um die hier vorgestellten theoretischen Ideen weiter zu untersuchen.</div>
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<p>Like all fields of human artistic endeavour, music is constrained by our cognitive processing requirements and limitations (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). This articleconsiders particular forms of constraint pertaining to the relationships that the structure-seeking mind (subconsciously) fabricates between perceived musical events. It is proposed that 2±1 may be a universal limitation pertaining to the level of relationships so ideated. That is, in terms of Lewin'S (1987) theoretical framework in which “intervals” can be intuited between the “elements” of musical “spaces”, it is posited that the cognition of musical structure occurs either through intervals (level 1), through intervals between these (level 2), or — in some circumstances — through intervals between these(level 3). This proposition is explored through the psychomusicological model developed by Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), which too analyses musical structure in terms of the relationships that may be cognised between its discrete perceptual components. In particular, the model identifies a type of cognitive link through which events (at any level) arefelt to imply others the same or similar — through so-called “zygonic” relationships. This theory suggests a further general principle: that the highest level of relationship inoperation at any given point must be zygonic if the music is to be structurally coherent. Evidence for this, and for the limit on the level of relationships of 2±1, is offeredthrough a series of musical examples, which illustrate a variety of musical organisation in action. Finally, empirical work is suggested to explore further the theoretical ideas that arepresented here.</p>
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<p>Como todos los campos del esfuerzo artístico humano, la música es constreñida por los requerimientos y limitaciones de nuestro proceso cognitivo. (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Este articulo considera algunas formas particulares de constricción teniendo en cuenta las relaciones que la estructura de búsqueda mental (subconsciente) fabrica entre eventos musicales percibidos. Se propone que 2±1 puede ser una limitación universal relacionada con el nivel de relaciones. En términos de la propuesta teorética de Lewin (1987), en la cual los “intervalos” pueden ser intuidos entre los “elementos” de “espacios” musicales, se propone que la cognición de la estructura musical se desarrolla bien a través de intervalos (nivel 1), a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 2), o — en ciertas circunstancias — a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 3). Esta propuesta es explorada a través del modelo psicomusical desarrollado por Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), que también analiza la estructura musical en términos de relaciones que pueden ser consignadas entre sus componentes perceptivos discretos. En particular, este modelo identifica un tipo de enlace cognitivo a través del cual los eventos (de cualquier nivel) se sienten como implicación de otros, los mismos o similares, también llamados relaciones “zygónicas”. Esta teoría sugiere un principio general que va más allá: que el nivel más alto de relación de operación en cualquier punto dado debe ser zygónico si la música es estructuralmente coherente. La evidencia de esto y del limite del nivel de relaciones de 2±1 se ofrece a través de una serie de ejemplos musicales que ***ilustran una variedad de organización musical en acción. Finalmente, el trabajo empírico sugiere llevar a cabo una exploración más profunda de las ideas teóricas aquí presentadas.</p>
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<p>Come tutti i campi dell'umano sforzo artistico, la musica è vincolata dalle esigenze e dai limiti dei nostri processi cognitivi (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). ***Il presente articolo prende in considerazione particolari forme di limitazione attinenti alle relazioni che la mente bisognosa di struttura costruisce (subconsciamente) fra due eventi musicali percepiti. Si propone che 2±1 possa costituire una limitazione universale attinente al livello delle relazioni ***così ideate. Ossia, nei termini del quadro teorico di Lewin (1987), secondo il quale ***gli “intervalli” si possono intuire fra gli “elementi” dello “spazio” musicale, poniamo che la cognizione della struttura musicale avvenga mediante intervalli (livello 1), mediante gli intervalli fra questi intervalli (livello 2), oppure — in alcune circostanze — mediante gli intervalli fra questi ultimi intervalli (livello 3). Tale asserzione viene esaminata con l'ausilio del modello psicomusicologico sviluppato da Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), il quale analizza a sua volta la struttura musicale in termini di relazioni che possono venire riconosciute fra le sue componenti percettive discrete. In particolare, il modello identifica un tipo di collegamento cognitivo mediante il quale gli eventi (a qualsiasi livello) sembrano implicarne altri uguali o simili — tramite relazioni cosiddette “zigoniche”. Questa teoria conduce ad un ulteriore principio generale: il massimo livello di relazione operativa in un qualsiasi punto dato dev'essere zigonico se la musica vuole essere strutturalmente coerente. Una prova a favore di questo, nonché del limite di 2±1 nel livello delle relazioni, viene offerta da una serie di esempi musicali che illustrano una varietà di organizzazioni musicali in atto. Infine, si suggerisce alla ricerca empirica di esplorare ulteriormente le idee teoriche qui presentate.</p>
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<p>Comme tous les domaines de l'activité artistique humaine, la musique souffre des exigences et des limites de notre traitement cognitif (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). On étudie ici les formes particulières de contrainte inhérentes aux relations que le mental, à la recherche d'une structure, tisse (subconsciemment) entre les informations musicales perçues. A notre sens, 2±1 pourrait être la limite universelle du niveau des relations ainsi mises en œuvre. Autrement dit, en se plaçant sous l'angle du cadre théorique de Lewin (1987) où des “intervalles” peuvent être intuitivement placés entre les “éléments” des “espaces” musicaux, on postule que la Cognition de la structure musicale est dérivée des intervalles (niveau 1) ou des intervalles entre ces intervalles (niveau 2), voire — dans certaines circonstances — des intervalles entre ces derniers (niveau 3). Cette hypothèse est explorée à l'aide du modèle psychomusicologique développé par Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), où la structure musicale est également analysée sur la base des relations dont la cognition se forge entre les composants perceptifs discrets. Autrement dit, le modèle identifie un type de lien cognitif qui conduit à percevoir des manifestations (à quelque niveau que ce soit) comme étant à l'origine d'autres manifestations, identiques ou similaires — par le biais des relations dites “zygoniques”. Cette théorie fait l'hypothèse d'un autre principe général : pour qu'il y ait cohérence structurelle en musique, il faut que, en quelque point donné que ce soit, le niveau de relation le plus élevé mis en œuvre soit zygonique. Cette hypothèse, comme la limite du niveau des relations de 2±1, est étayée par une série d'exemples musicaux illustrant diverses organisations musicales en action. On propose ensuite une recherche empirique afin d'approfondir les idées théoriques présentées ici.</p>
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<p>Wie alle Bereiche menschlichen künstlerischen Tuns unterliegt auch Musik den Bedingungen und Beschränkungen unserer kognitiven Verarbeitung (Swaln, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Dieser Beitrag betrachtet besondere Formen der Zwänge bei der Beziehungsbildung zwischen wahrgenommenen musikalischen Ereignissen im Rahmen der (unterbewußten) Struktursuche. Es wird an eine Beziehungsebene gedacht, in welcher 2±1 eine universelle Begrenzung sein könnte; d. h. es wird entsprechend der Theorie von Lewin (1987), nach der “Intervalle” zwischen den “Elementen” musikalischer “Räume” erlebt werden können, postuliert, daß die Kognition von musikalischer Struktur durch Intervallbildung entweder auf zwei oder (unter bestimmten Umständen) auf drei Ebenen abläuft. Diese Annahme wird mit dem musikpsychologischen Modell von Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999) untersucht, welches ebenfalls musikalische Strukturen auf der Basis der Beziehungen analysiert, die zwischen den diskreten strukturellen Wahrnehmungskomponenten erkannt werden können. Im einzelnen identifiziert das Modell eine Art kognitiven Link, wodurch gefühlt wird, daß Ereignisse (auf jeder Ebene) durch zygonische Beziehungen einen Bezug auf andere gleich oder ähnlich erscheinende Ereignisse herstellen. Diese Theorie nimmt ein weiteres allgemeines Prinzip an, nämlich daß der höchste Beziehungsgrad an jedem Punkt der Operation zygonisch sein muß, wenn die Musik strukturell kohärent sein soll. Hinweise hierfür sowie für die Grenze auf der Ebene der 2±1-Beziehungen werden durch eine Reihe von Musikbeispielen geboten, welche das Wirken einer Vielfalt musikalischer Organisation illustriert. Abschließend werden empirische Untersuchungen vorgeschlagen, um die hier vorgestellten theoretischen Ideen weiter zu untersuchen.</p>
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</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="corresp1-102986490200600205">Address for correspondence: Dr Adam Ockelford Visiting Research Fellow Centre for International Research in Music Education University of Surrey Roehampton 64a Princes WayWimbledon Park London SW19 6JF Phone: +44- (0) 20 7391 2149 / +44- (0) 20 8789 1816 e-mail:
<email xlink:href="adam.ockelford@mib.org.uk" xlink:type="simple">adam.ockelford@mib.org.uk</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<month>9</month>
<year>2002</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>6</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-title>Themed issue: Hommage a Jean-Pierre Lecanuet</issue-title>
<fpage>185</fpage>
<lpage>219</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>© 2002 European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2002</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder content-type="sage">European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music</copyright-holder>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<p>Like all fields of human artistic endeavour, music is constrained by our cognitive processing requirements and limitations (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). This articleconsiders particular forms of constraint pertaining to the relationships that the structure-seeking mind (subconsciously) fabricates between perceived musical events. It is proposed that 2±1 may be a universal limitation pertaining to the level of relationships so ideated. That is, in terms of Lewin'S (1987) theoretical framework in which “intervals” can be intuited between the “elements” of musical “spaces”, it is posited that the cognition of musical structure occurs either through intervals (level 1), through intervals between these (level 2), or — in some circumstances — through intervals between
<italic>these</italic>
(level 3). This proposition is explored through the psychomusicological model developed by Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), which too analyses musical structure in terms of the relationships that may be cognised between its discrete perceptual components. In particular, the model identifies a type of cognitive link through which events (at any level) arefelt to imply others the same or similar — through so-called “zygonic” relationships. This theory suggests a further general principle: that the highest level of relationship inoperation at any given point must be zygonic if the music is to be structurally coherent. Evidence for this, and for the limit on the level of relationships of 2±1, is offeredthrough a series of musical examples, which illustrate a variety of musical organisation in action. Finally, empirical work is suggested to explore further the theoretical ideas that arepresented here.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="ES">
<p>Como todos los campos del esfuerzo artístico humano, la música es constreñida por los requerimientos y limitaciones de nuestro proceso cognitivo. (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Este articulo considera algunas formas particulares de constricción teniendo en cuenta las relaciones que la estructura de búsqueda mental (subconsciente) fabrica entre eventos musicales percibidos. Se propone que 2±1 puede ser una limitación universal relacionada con el nivel de relaciones. En términos de la propuesta teorética de Lewin (1987), en la cual los “intervalos” pueden ser intuidos entre los “elementos” de “espacios” musicales, se propone que la cognición de la estructura musical se desarrolla bien a través de intervalos (nivel 1), a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 2), o — en ciertas circunstancias — a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 3). Esta propuesta es explorada a través del modelo psicomusical desarrollado por Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), que también analiza la estructura musical en términos de relaciones que pueden ser consignadas entre sus componentes perceptivos discretos. En particular, este modelo identifica un tipo de enlace cognitivo a través del cual los eventos (de cualquier nivel) se sienten como implicación de otros, los mismos o similares, también llamados relaciones “zygónicas”. Esta teoría sugiere un principio general que va más allá: que el nivel más alto de relación de operación en cualquier punto dado debe ser zygónico si la música es estructuralmente coherente. La evidencia de esto y del limite del nivel de relaciones de 2±1 se ofrece a través de una serie de ejemplos musicales que ***ilustran una variedad de organización musical en acción. Finalmente, el trabajo empírico sugiere llevar a cabo una exploración más profunda de las ideas teóricas aquí presentadas.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="IT">
<p>Come tutti i campi dell'umano sforzo artistico, la musica è vincolata dalle esigenze e dai limiti dei nostri processi cognitivi (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). ***Il presente articolo prende in considerazione particolari forme di limitazione attinenti alle relazioni che la mente bisognosa di struttura costruisce (subconsciamente) fra due eventi musicali percepiti. Si propone che 2±1 possa costituire una limitazione universale attinente al
<italic>livello</italic>
delle relazioni ***così ideate. Ossia, nei termini del quadro teorico di Lewin (1987), secondo il quale ***gli “intervalli” si possono intuire fra gli “elementi” dello “spazio” musicale, poniamo che la cognizione della struttura musicale avvenga mediante intervalli (livello 1), mediante gli intervalli fra questi intervalli (livello 2), oppure — in alcune circostanze — mediante gli intervalli fra
<italic>questi ultimi</italic>
intervalli (livello 3). Tale asserzione viene esaminata con l'ausilio del modello psicomusicologico sviluppato da Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), il quale analizza a sua volta la struttura musicale in termini di relazioni che possono venire riconosciute fra le sue componenti percettive discrete. In particolare, il modello identifica un tipo di collegamento cognitivo mediante il quale gli eventi (a qualsiasi livello) sembrano implicarne altri uguali o simili — tramite relazioni cosiddette “zigoniche”. Questa teoria conduce ad un ulteriore principio generale: il massimo livello di relazione operativa in un qualsiasi punto dato dev'essere zigonico se la musica vuole essere strutturalmente coerente. Una prova a favore di questo, nonché del limite di 2±1 nel livello delle relazioni, viene offerta da una serie di esempi musicali che illustrano una varietà di organizzazioni musicali in atto. Infine, si suggerisce alla ricerca empirica di esplorare ulteriormente le idee teoriche qui presentate.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="FR">
<p>Comme tous les domaines de l'activité artistique humaine, la musique souffre des exigences et des limites de notre traitement cognitif (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). On étudie ici les formes particulières de contrainte inhérentes aux relations que le mental, à la recherche d'une structure, tisse (subconsciemment) entre les informations musicales perçues. A notre sens, 2±1 pourrait être la limite universelle du niveau des relations ainsi mises en œuvre. Autrement dit, en se plaçant sous l'angle du cadre théorique de Lewin (1987) où des “intervalles” peuvent être intuitivement placés entre les “éléments” des “espaces” musicaux, on postule que la Cognition de la structure musicale est dérivée des intervalles (niveau 1) ou des intervalles entre ces intervalles (niveau 2), voire — dans certaines circonstances — des intervalles entre ces
<italic>derniers</italic>
(niveau 3). Cette hypothèse est explorée à l'aide du modèle psychomusicologique développé par Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), où la structure musicale est également analysée sur la base des relations dont la cognition se forge entre les composants perceptifs discrets. Autrement dit, le modèle identifie un type de lien cognitif qui conduit à percevoir des manifestations (à quelque niveau que ce soit) comme étant à l'origine d'autres manifestations, identiques ou similaires — par le biais des relations dites “zygoniques”. Cette théorie fait l'hypothèse d'un autre principe général : pour qu'il y ait cohérence structurelle en musique, il faut que, en quelque point donné que ce soit, le niveau de relation le plus élevé mis en œuvre soit zygonique. Cette hypothèse, comme la limite du niveau des relations de 2±1, est étayée par une série d'exemples musicaux illustrant diverses organisations musicales en action. On propose ensuite une recherche empirique afin d'approfondir les idées théoriques présentées ici.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="DE">
<p>Wie alle Bereiche menschlichen künstlerischen Tuns unterliegt auch Musik den Bedingungen und Beschränkungen unserer kognitiven Verarbeitung (Swaln, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Dieser Beitrag betrachtet besondere Formen der Zwänge bei der Beziehungsbildung zwischen wahrgenommenen musikalischen Ereignissen im Rahmen der (unterbewußten) Struktursuche. Es wird an eine Beziehungsebene gedacht, in welcher 2±1 eine universelle Begrenzung sein könnte; d. h. es wird entsprechend der Theorie von Lewin (1987), nach der “Intervalle” zwischen den “Elementen” musikalischer “Räume” erlebt werden können, postuliert, daß die Kognition von musikalischer Struktur durch Intervallbildung entweder auf zwei oder (unter bestimmten Umständen) auf drei Ebenen abläuft. Diese Annahme wird mit dem musikpsychologischen Modell von Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999) untersucht, welches ebenfalls musikalische Strukturen auf der Basis der Beziehungen analysiert, die zwischen den diskreten strukturellen Wahrnehmungskomponenten erkannt werden können. Im einzelnen identifiziert das Modell eine Art kognitiven Link, wodurch gefühlt wird, daß Ereignisse (auf jeder Ebene) durch zygonische Beziehungen einen Bezug auf andere gleich oder ähnlich erscheinende Ereignisse herstellen. Diese Theorie nimmt ein weiteres allgemeines Prinzip an, nämlich daß der höchste Beziehungsgrad an jedem Punkt der Operation zygonisch sein muß, wenn die Musik strukturell kohärent sein soll. Hinweise hierfür sowie für die Grenze auf der Ebene der 2±1-Beziehungen werden durch eine Reihe von Musikbeispielen geboten, welche das Wirken einer Vielfalt musikalischer Organisation illustriert. Abschließend werden empirische Untersuchungen vorgeschlagen, um die hier vorgestellten theoretischen Ideen weiter zu untersuchen.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<custom-meta-wrap>
<custom-meta xlink:type="simple">
<meta-name>cover-date</meta-name>
<meta-value>Fall 2002</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-wrap>
</article-meta>
</front>
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<title>The Magical Number Two, Plus or Minus One: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Musical Information</title>
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<title>The Magical Number Two, Plus or Minus One: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Musical Information</title>
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<name type="personal">
<namePart type="given">Adam</namePart>
<namePart type="family">Ockelford</namePart>
<affiliation>Centre for International Research in Music Education, University of Surrey Roehampton</affiliation>
<affiliation>Centre for International Research in Music Education, University of Surrey Roehampton</affiliation>
<affiliation>Address for correspondence: Dr Adam Ockelford Visiting Research Fellow Centre for International Research in Music Education University of Surrey Roehampton 64a Princes WayWimbledon Park London SW19 6JF Phone: +44- (0) 20 7391 2149 / +44- (0) 20 8789 1816</affiliation>
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<abstract lang="en">Like all fields of human artistic endeavour, music is constrained by our cognitive processing requirements and limitations (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). This articleconsiders particular forms of constraint pertaining to the relationships that the structure-seeking mind (subconsciously) fabricates between perceived musical events. It is proposed that 2±1 may be a universal limitation pertaining to the level of relationships so ideated. That is, in terms of Lewin'S (1987) theoretical framework in which “intervals” can be intuited between the “elements” of musical “spaces”, it is posited that the cognition of musical structure occurs either through intervals (level 1), through intervals between these (level 2), or — in some circumstances — through intervals between these(level 3). This proposition is explored through the psychomusicological model developed by Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), which too analyses musical structure in terms of the relationships that may be cognised between its discrete perceptual components. In particular, the model identifies a type of cognitive link through which events (at any level) arefelt to imply others the same or similar — through so-called “zygonic” relationships. This theory suggests a further general principle: that the highest level of relationship inoperation at any given point must be zygonic if the music is to be structurally coherent. Evidence for this, and for the limit on the level of relationships of 2±1, is offeredthrough a series of musical examples, which illustrate a variety of musical organisation in action. Finally, empirical work is suggested to explore further the theoretical ideas that arepresented here.</abstract>
<abstract lang="es">Como todos los campos del esfuerzo artístico humano, la música es constreñida por los requerimientos y limitaciones de nuestro proceso cognitivo. (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Este articulo considera algunas formas particulares de constricción teniendo en cuenta las relaciones que la estructura de búsqueda mental (subconsciente) fabrica entre eventos musicales percibidos. Se propone que 2±1 puede ser una limitación universal relacionada con el nivel de relaciones. En términos de la propuesta teorética de Lewin (1987), en la cual los “intervalos” pueden ser intuidos entre los “elementos” de “espacios” musicales, se propone que la cognición de la estructura musical se desarrolla bien a través de intervalos (nivel 1), a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 2), o — en ciertas circunstancias — a través de intervalos entre éstos (nivel 3). Esta propuesta es explorada a través del modelo psicomusical desarrollado por Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), que también analiza la estructura musical en términos de relaciones que pueden ser consignadas entre sus componentes perceptivos discretos. En particular, este modelo identifica un tipo de enlace cognitivo a través del cual los eventos (de cualquier nivel) se sienten como implicación de otros, los mismos o similares, también llamados relaciones “zygónicas”. Esta teoría sugiere un principio general que va más allá: que el nivel más alto de relación de operación en cualquier punto dado debe ser zygónico si la música es estructuralmente coherente. La evidencia de esto y del limite del nivel de relaciones de 2±1 se ofrece a través de una serie de ejemplos musicales que ***ilustran una variedad de organización musical en acción. Finalmente, el trabajo empírico sugiere llevar a cabo una exploración más profunda de las ideas teóricas aquí presentadas.</abstract>
<abstract lang="it">Come tutti i campi dell'umano sforzo artistico, la musica è vincolata dalle esigenze e dai limiti dei nostri processi cognitivi (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). ***Il presente articolo prende in considerazione particolari forme di limitazione attinenti alle relazioni che la mente bisognosa di struttura costruisce (subconsciamente) fra due eventi musicali percepiti. Si propone che 2±1 possa costituire una limitazione universale attinente al livello delle relazioni ***così ideate. Ossia, nei termini del quadro teorico di Lewin (1987), secondo il quale ***gli “intervalli” si possono intuire fra gli “elementi” dello “spazio” musicale, poniamo che la cognizione della struttura musicale avvenga mediante intervalli (livello 1), mediante gli intervalli fra questi intervalli (livello 2), oppure — in alcune circostanze — mediante gli intervalli fra questi ultimi intervalli (livello 3). Tale asserzione viene esaminata con l'ausilio del modello psicomusicologico sviluppato da Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), il quale analizza a sua volta la struttura musicale in termini di relazioni che possono venire riconosciute fra le sue componenti percettive discrete. In particolare, il modello identifica un tipo di collegamento cognitivo mediante il quale gli eventi (a qualsiasi livello) sembrano implicarne altri uguali o simili — tramite relazioni cosiddette “zigoniche”. Questa teoria conduce ad un ulteriore principio generale: il massimo livello di relazione operativa in un qualsiasi punto dato dev'essere zigonico se la musica vuole essere strutturalmente coerente. Una prova a favore di questo, nonché del limite di 2±1 nel livello delle relazioni, viene offerta da una serie di esempi musicali che illustrano una varietà di organizzazioni musicali in atto. Infine, si suggerisce alla ricerca empirica di esplorare ulteriormente le idee teoriche qui presentate.</abstract>
<abstract lang="fr">Comme tous les domaines de l'activité artistique humaine, la musique souffre des exigences et des limites de notre traitement cognitif (Swain, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). On étudie ici les formes particulières de contrainte inhérentes aux relations que le mental, à la recherche d'une structure, tisse (subconsciemment) entre les informations musicales perçues. A notre sens, 2±1 pourrait être la limite universelle du niveau des relations ainsi mises en œuvre. Autrement dit, en se plaçant sous l'angle du cadre théorique de Lewin (1987) où des “intervalles” peuvent être intuitivement placés entre les “éléments” des “espaces” musicaux, on postule que la Cognition de la structure musicale est dérivée des intervalles (niveau 1) ou des intervalles entre ces intervalles (niveau 2), voire — dans certaines circonstances — des intervalles entre ces derniers (niveau 3). Cette hypothèse est explorée à l'aide du modèle psychomusicologique développé par Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999), où la structure musicale est également analysée sur la base des relations dont la cognition se forge entre les composants perceptifs discrets. Autrement dit, le modèle identifie un type de lien cognitif qui conduit à percevoir des manifestations (à quelque niveau que ce soit) comme étant à l'origine d'autres manifestations, identiques ou similaires — par le biais des relations dites “zygoniques”. Cette théorie fait l'hypothèse d'un autre principe général : pour qu'il y ait cohérence structurelle en musique, il faut que, en quelque point donné que ce soit, le niveau de relation le plus élevé mis en œuvre soit zygonique. Cette hypothèse, comme la limite du niveau des relations de 2±1, est étayée par une série d'exemples musicaux illustrant diverses organisations musicales en action. On propose ensuite une recherche empirique afin d'approfondir les idées théoriques présentées ici.</abstract>
<abstract lang="de">Wie alle Bereiche menschlichen künstlerischen Tuns unterliegt auch Musik den Bedingungen und Beschränkungen unserer kognitiven Verarbeitung (Swaln, 1986; Lerdahl, 1988; Huron, 2001). Dieser Beitrag betrachtet besondere Formen der Zwänge bei der Beziehungsbildung zwischen wahrgenommenen musikalischen Ereignissen im Rahmen der (unterbewußten) Struktursuche. Es wird an eine Beziehungsebene gedacht, in welcher 2±1 eine universelle Begrenzung sein könnte; d. h. es wird entsprechend der Theorie von Lewin (1987), nach der “Intervalle” zwischen den “Elementen” musikalischer “Räume” erlebt werden können, postuliert, daß die Kognition von musikalischer Struktur durch Intervallbildung entweder auf zwei oder (unter bestimmten Umständen) auf drei Ebenen abläuft. Diese Annahme wird mit dem musikpsychologischen Modell von Ockelford (1991, 1993, 1999) untersucht, welches ebenfalls musikalische Strukturen auf der Basis der Beziehungen analysiert, die zwischen den diskreten strukturellen Wahrnehmungskomponenten erkannt werden können. Im einzelnen identifiziert das Modell eine Art kognitiven Link, wodurch gefühlt wird, daß Ereignisse (auf jeder Ebene) durch zygonische Beziehungen einen Bezug auf andere gleich oder ähnlich erscheinende Ereignisse herstellen. Diese Theorie nimmt ein weiteres allgemeines Prinzip an, nämlich daß der höchste Beziehungsgrad an jedem Punkt der Operation zygonisch sein muß, wenn die Musik strukturell kohärent sein soll. Hinweise hierfür sowie für die Grenze auf der Ebene der 2±1-Beziehungen werden durch eine Reihe von Musikbeispielen geboten, welche das Wirken einer Vielfalt musikalischer Organisation illustriert. Abschließend werden empirische Untersuchungen vorgeschlagen, um die hier vorgestellten theoretischen Ideen weiter zu untersuchen.</abstract>
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