IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer
Identifieur interne : 001E55 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001E54; suivant : 001E56IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer
Auteurs : Dorsey Armstrong ; Jennifer Brown ; Nicole Clifton ; Kenneth Hodges ; Juris Lidaka ; Marion Turner ; Greg WalkerSource :
- The Year's Work in English Studies [ 0084-4144 ] ; 2006.
Abstract
This chapter has ten sections: 1.General and Miscellaneous; 2. Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The Gawain-Poet; 5. Piers Plowman; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. Sections 1 and 7 are by Juris Lidaka; section 2 is by Marion Turner; sections 3 and 5 are by Nicole Clifton; section 4 is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; sections 6 and 8 are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; section 9 is by Jennifer Brown; section 10 is by Greg Walker.
Url:
DOI: 10.1093/ywes/mal003
Links to Exploration step
ISTEX:C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019BLe document en format XML
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Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The Gawain-Poet; 5. Piers Plowman; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. Sections 1 and 7 are by Juris Lidaka; section 2 is by Marion Turner; sections 3 and 5 are by Nicole Clifton; section 4 is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; sections 6 and 8 are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; section 9 is by Jennifer Brown; section 10 is by Greg Walker.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>oup</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Dorsey Armstrong</name><affiliations><json:string>Purdue University</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Jennifer Brown</name><affiliations><json:string>University of Hartford</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Nicole Clifton</name><affiliations><json:string>Northern Illinois University</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Kenneth Hodges</name><affiliations><json:string>University of Oklahoma</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Juris Lidaka</name><affiliations><json:string>West Virginia State University</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Marion Turner</name><affiliations><json:string>King's College London</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Greg Walker</name><affiliations><json:string>University of Leicester</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><arkIstex>ark:/67375/HXZ-MLLC35XK-D</arkIstex><language><json:string>unknown</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>research-article</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>This chapter has ten sections: 1.General and Miscellaneous; 2. Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The Gawain-Poet; 5. Piers Plowman; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. Sections 1 and 7 are by Juris Lidaka; section 2 is by Marion Turner; sections 3 and 5 are by Nicole Clifton; section 4 is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; sections 6 and 8 are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; section 9 is by Jennifer Brown; section 10 is by Greg Walker.</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>8.14</score><pdfWordCount>35916</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>214115</pdfCharCount><pdfVersion>1.5</pdfVersion><pdfPageCount>74</pdfPageCount><pdfPageSize>391 x 612 pts</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractWordCount>95</abstractWordCount><abstractCharCount>571</abstractCharCount><keywordCount>0</keywordCount></qualityIndicators><title>IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer</title><genre><json:string>research-article</json:string></genre><host><title>The Year's Work in English Studies</title><language><json:string>unknown</json:string></language><issn><json:string>0084-4144</json:string></issn><publisherId><json:string>ywes</json:string></publisherId><volume>85</volume><issue>1</issue><pages><first>162</first><last>235</last></pages><genre><json:string>journal</json:string></genre><subject><json:item><value>Articles</value></json:item></subject></host><namedEntities><unitex><date><json:string>1963</json:string><json:string>2000</json:string><json:string>from the thirteenth century</json:string><json:string>1320s</json:string><json:string>in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries</json:string><json:string>1414</json:string><json:string>fifteenth century</json:string><json:string>the thirteenth century</json:string><json:string>2005</json:string><json:string>in the fifteenth century</json:string><json:string>fourteenth and fifteenth centuries</json:string><json:string>1338</json:string><json:string>from the seventh century</json:string><json:string>1935</json:string><json:string>sixteenth century</json:string><json:string>in the Fifteenth Century</json:string><json:string>1993</json:string><json:string>Sixteenth Century</json:string><json:string>from the fifteenth century</json:string><json:string>2006</json:string><json:string>twelfth century</json:string><json:string>1150</json:string><json:string>the fourteenth century</json:string><json:string>seventeenth century</json:string><json:string>1381</json:string><json:string>1370s</json:string><json:string>twentieth century</json:string><json:string>1550</json:string><json:string>1698</json:string><json:string>in the twentieth century</json:string><json:string>1434</json:string><json:string>1189</json:string><json:string>the Twenty-First Centuries</json:string><json:string>in the Fourteenth Century</json:string><json:string>fourteenth century</json:string><json:string>sixteenth centuries</json:string><json:string>1369</json:string><json:string>2003</json:string><json:string>1530s</json:string><json:string>1380s</json:string><json:string>the fifteenth century</json:string><json:string>1192</json:string><json:string>in Fifteenth Century</json:string><json:string>2004</json:string><json:string>1361</json:string><json:string>the sixteenth century</json:string><json:string>1460</json:string><json:string>the twelfth century</json:string></date><geogName><json:string>Haut</json:string></geogName><orgName><json:string>University of London Library</json:string><json:string>Medieval English Scientific</json:string><json:string>The Co</json:string><json:string>Cambridge University</json:string><json:string>National Poetic of Edward</json:string><json:string>Germany, Rainer Schowerling</json:string><json:string>Hungary, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena, Margery Kempe, and Julian of Norwich</json:string><json:string>Glasgow University</json:string><json:string>British and American Culture and Literature</json:string><json:string>Langland’s National Vision</json:string><json:string>US National Endowment for the Humanities</json:string><json:string>Social Organization</json:string></orgName><orgName_funder></orgName_funder><orgName_provider></orgName_provider><persName><json:string>Christopher Cannon</json:string><json:string>Steinmetz</json:string><json:string>Rosanne Gasse</json:string><json:string>Ralph Hanna</json:string><json:string>Robert Parker</json:string><json:string>E. 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Arnold</json:string><json:string>Bel Inconnu</json:string><json:string>Cotton Nero</json:string><json:string>John Hines</json:string><json:string>Jean-Michel Angebert</json:string><json:string>Mary Magdalene</json:string><json:string>Robin Hood</json:string><json:string>Annie Sutherland</json:string><json:string>Richard E. Zeikowitz</json:string></persName><placeName><json:string>St Patrick</json:string><json:string>St Erkenwald</json:string><json:string>Cheshire</json:string><json:string>Poznan</json:string><json:string>St. Erkenwald</json:string><json:string>St Tha</json:string><json:string>St Bridget</json:string><json:string>Bolton</json:string><json:string>Windsor</json:string><json:string>Beauvais</json:string><json:string>Periodicity</json:string><json:string>Felicity</json:string><json:string>Poland</json:string><json:string>Scotland</json:string><json:string>Herefordshire</json:string><json:string>Helsinki</json:string><json:string>Aston</json:string><json:string>London</json:string><json:string>Lincolnshire</json:string><json:string>Exeter</json:string><json:string>Stamford</json:string><json:string>Norfolk</json:string><json:string>Troyes</json:string><json:string>St Frances of Rome</json:string><json:string>Europe</json:string><json:string>Glastonbury</json:string><json:string>Norwich</json:string><json:string>Wales</json:string><json:string>Armburgh</json:string><json:string>Maidstone</json:string><json:string>Berkeley</json:string><json:string>St Edmund</json:string><json:string>Gloucestershire</json:string><json:string>Peterborough</json:string><json:string>Denmark</json:string><json:string>Rome</json:string><json:string>Calais</json:string><json:string>York</json:string><json:string>Ireland</json:string><json:string>Stockholm</json:string><json:string>Compton</json:string><json:string>France</json:string><json:string>Matlock</json:string><json:string>Cambridge</json:string><json:string>St Andrew</json:string><json:string>St Katherine</json:string><json:string>Lille</json:string><json:string>England</json:string><json:string>Mont Saint-Michel</json:string><json:string>St. Birgitta</json:string><json:string>Salisbury</json:string><json:string>St Edmunds</json:string><json:string>St Jerome</json:string><json:string>Warwick</json:string></placeName><ref_url><json:string>http://www.nls.uk/auchinleck/</json:string></ref_url><ref_bibl><json:string>[2003]</json:string><json:string>July 2004</json:string><json:string>May 1993</json:string><json:string>[2002]</json:string><json:string>[1978]</json:string><json:string>[2001]</json:string><json:string>[1988]</json:string><json:string>November 2003</json:string><json:string>[1367]</json:string><json:string>Script and Print, 1300</json:string><json:string>France and England, 1050</json:string><json:string>Fiona Somerset et al.</json:string><json:string>[2000]</json:string><json:string>Sloane 3489</json:string><json:string>[1998]</json:string><json:string>[1564]</json:string></ref_bibl><bibl></bibl></unitex></namedEntities><ark><json:string>ark:/67375/HXZ-MLLC35XK-D</json:string></ark><categories><wos></wos><scienceMetrix></scienceMetrix><scopus><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Literature and Literary Theory</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>3 - Linguistics and Language</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Language and Linguistics</json:string></scopus></categories><publicationDate>2006</publicationDate><copyrightDate>2006</copyrightDate><doi><json:string>10.1093/ywes/mal003</json:string></doi><id>C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B</id><score>1</score><fulltext><json:item><extension>pdf</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>application/pdf</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/fulltext/pdf</uri></json:item><json:item><extension>zip</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/zip</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/fulltext/zip</uri></json:item><istex:fulltextTEI uri="https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/fulltext/tei"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title level="a">IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><authority>ISTEX</authority><publisher scheme="https://publisher-list.data.istex.fr">Oxford University Press</publisher><availability><licence><p>© The English Association; all rights reserved</p></licence><p scheme="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-GTWS0RDP-M">oup</p></availability><date>2006</date></publicationStmt><notesStmt><note type="research-article" scheme="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</note><note type="journal" scheme="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</note></notesStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a">IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer</title><author xml:id="author-0000"><persName><forename type="first">Dorsey</forename><surname>Armstrong</surname></persName><affiliation>Purdue University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0001"><persName><forename type="first">Jennifer</forename><surname>Brown</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Hartford</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0002"><persName><forename type="first">Nicole</forename><surname>Clifton</surname></persName><affiliation>Northern Illinois University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0003"><persName><forename type="first">Kenneth</forename><surname>Hodges</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Oklahoma</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0004"><persName><forename type="first">Juris</forename><surname>Lidaka</surname></persName><affiliation>West Virginia State University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0005"><persName><forename type="first">Marion</forename><surname>Turner</surname></persName><affiliation>King's College London</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0006"><persName><forename type="first">Greg</forename><surname>Walker</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Leicester</affiliation></author><idno type="istex">C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B</idno><idno type="ark">ark:/67375/HXZ-MLLC35XK-D</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1093/ywes/mal003</idno></analytic><monogr><title level="j">The Year's Work in English Studies</title><idno type="pISSN">0084-4144</idno><idno type="publisher-id">ywes</idno><idno type="PublisherID-hwp">ywes</idno><imprint><publisher>Oxford University Press</publisher><date type="published" when="2006"></date><biblScope unit="volume">85</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">1</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="162">162</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="235">235</biblScope></imprint></monogr></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><creation><date>2006</date></creation><abstract><p>This chapter has ten sections: 1.General and Miscellaneous; 2. Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The Gawain-Poet; 5. Piers Plowman; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. Sections 1 and 7 are by Juris Lidaka; section 2 is by Marion Turner; sections 3 and 5 are by Nicole Clifton; section 4 is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; sections 6 and 8 are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; section 9 is by Jennifer Brown; section 10 is by Greg Walker.</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="Journal Subject"><list><head></head><item><term>Articles</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2006">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus oup, element #text not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article">
<front>
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<journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-title>The Year's Work in English Studies</journal-title>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0084-4144</issn>
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<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
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<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ywes/mal003</article-id>
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<title-group>
<article-title>III<break></break>Middle English: Excluding Chaucer</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Armstrong</surname><given-names>Dorsey</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Purdue University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>Jennifer</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Hartford</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Clifton</surname><given-names>Nicole</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Northern Illinois University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Hodges</surname><given-names>Kenneth</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Oklahoma</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Lidaka</surname><given-names>Juris</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>West Virginia State University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Turner</surname><given-names>Marion</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>King's College London</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Walker</surname><given-names>Greg</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Leicester</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub">
<year>2006</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>85</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>162</fpage>
<lpage>235</lpage>
<copyright-statement>© The English Association; all rights reserved</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2006</copyright-year>
<abstract>
<p>This chapter has ten sections: 1.General and Miscellaneous; 2. Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet; 5. <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">Sections 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">7</xref> are by Juris Lidaka; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2">section 2</xref> is by Marion Turner; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">sections 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC5">5</xref> are by Nicole Clifton; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC4">section 4</xref> is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC6">sections 6</xref> and <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC8">8</xref> are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">section 9</xref> is by Jennifer Brown; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC10">section 10</xref> is by Greg Walker.</p></abstract>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="SEC1"><title>1. General and Miscellaneous</title>
<p>It is hard not to assess A.S.G. Edward's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><italic>A Companion to Middle English Prose</italic></xref> against the context of the twenty years since his similar compilation of survey articles <italic>Middle English Prose: A Critical Guide to Major Authors and Genres</italic>. After all, two decades have passed, the <italic>Index of Middle English Prose</italic> has produced a good number of volumes, and (unremarkably) critical attitudes have evolved. Indeed, comparing the tables of contents shows basically the same chapters in the same order, but some changes towards the end and with new authors for nearly all the chapters (Edwards has kept Trevisa, but Hanna and Keiser have taken different chapters). Curiously, there is a general lack of reference to the <italic>Index of Middle English Prose</italic>, even to the <italic>Index of Printed Middle English Prose</italic>, and the <italic>Manual of the Writings in Middle English</italic>. In ‘The <italic>Ancrene Wisse</italic> Group’ (pp. 1–17), Bella Millett covers the contents, audiences, manuscripts, and more of <italic>Ancrene Wisse</italic> and the Katherine and Wooing Groups, with particular attention to recent language studies that throw into question prior understanding of their origins and hence their critical reception. R. Hanna's ‘Rolle and Related Works’ (pp. 19–31) swiftly provides Rolle's biography and an overview of his oeuvre and style. Ad Putter addresses more directly the novice to whom the volume is probably directed, in ‘Walter Hilton's <italic>Scale of Perfection</italic> and <italic>The Cloud of Unknowing</italic>’ (pp. 32–51), including basic information and even textual summaries. Kantik Ghosh gives a lengthy reading of ‘Nicholas Love’ (pp. 53–66) with initially frequent secondary references, and is followed by Barry Windeatt's easy narrative and summary of ‘Julian of Norwich’ (pp. 67–81). No doubt necessarily given the paucity of external information, A.C. Spearing's discussion of Margery Kempe (pp. 83–97) is more interpretative, offering observations upon the erotic in her text and upon her self-absorption, but he also supports the case for Robert Spryngolde as her amanuensis and calls for investigations of the <italic>Book</italic>'s style. Ian Macleod Higgins had a large task in working through the thickets of information and claims about Mandeville (pp. 99–116), and matters about authorship (kept to a minimum) and the complications of translations and particularly textual groupings inhibit a broader overview, but close snapshots of the prose Defective, Cotton, Egerton, and Bodley versions are presented.</p>
<p>A.S.G. Edwards's ‘John Trevisa’ (pp. 117–26) looks further at the author, his life and times, his works, and his translation style, with the shortest bibliography in the volume, deferring to Fowler's bio-bibliography from more than a decade ago. Vincent Gillespie's task in ‘Anonymous Devotional Writings’ (pp. 127–49) is a difficult one, since it seems that there is no end to these writings; he manages by painting a general picture detailed more in terms of social promulgation and reception than of all the major texts, although it does embrace quite a few texts, and then he supplies a generous bibliography with brief annotations on most items on its first two pages. Less familiar to most will be ‘Sermon Literature’ (pp. 151–74), so H.L. Spencer begins with basics such as definitions and occasions, before moving on to the thorny problem of language and then interpretation, visual presentation, and directions for future research, which are many. The <italic>Brut</italic> looms large in ‘Historical Writing’ (pp. 175–94), but Alfred Hiatt shows that many other works can count as histories or chronicles, even a number that are normally received as literary works. Fiona Somerset opens by dividing the study of ‘Wycliffite Prose’ (pp. 195–214) into periods before Anne Hudson and after Anne Hudson, and few will disagree; her article then describes the state of the art, with valuable notes on desiderata. ‘Prose Romances’ (pp. 215–29) is in the good hands of Helen Cooper, who points out that prose as the medium for secular fiction is a fifteenth-century development that we are still using and, with our historical spectacles colouring literary history, that we thereby overlook romances in prose other than Malory's and some Caxton prints; her chapter broadly surveys the use of prose for romance and history, the close ties between those two, translations and adaptations or revisions, and a good number of romances from the fifteenth century into the sixteenth.</p>
<p>Fresh (or tired) from his thick <italic>Manual</italic> volume [1998] on scientific and educational writings in Middle English, George Keiser brings that great knowledge to ‘Scientific, Medical and Utilitarian Prose’ (pp. 231–47), with the further aid of the 2000 electronic bibliography <italic>Scientific and Medical Writings in Old and Middle English</italic> by Voigts and Kurtz; rather than summarize his <italic>Manual</italic> coverage by subject matter, Keiser thinks about the implications of length of text, readers’ guides such as alphabetization and tables, lack of such guides (notably in alchemistry), original language when in translation, and recent electronic tools, editions, and studies. The difficulties he faces certainly confront O.S. Pickering, whose bibliography for ‘Saints’ Lives’ (pp. 249–70) begins with a standard primary/secondary listing but then continues with a <italic>Manual</italic>-style series of brief entries for individual saints and collections; the text is brief on general overview but more detailed on Simon Wynter as hagiographer, the <italic>Legenda aurea</italic>, fifteenth-century lives, and early printed lives.</p>
<p>Dealing with the unlikely pair ‘Reginald Pecock and John Fortescue’ (pp. 271–87), James Simpson finds similarities in their lives, which were almost exactly contemporary. No explanation other than politics appears for Pecock's being held a heretic, and even the political hostility is of uncertain origin, though Simpson's description of Pecock's works (in Latin and in English) emphasizing reason even to the point of agreeing with Lollard views begs that question. Fortescu, also writing in Latin and English, seems to have navigated political waters better than Pecock did theological ones, and he also influenced succeeding generations more effectively than he did his own. Richard Beadle takes on the difficult task of ‘Private Letters’ (pp. 289–306), with the problems of formulas complicating indexing by opening words, of secretaries or amanuenses affecting whose language may be represented in the written texts, and of contents overwhelmed by invasive business boilerplate, and covers all these points as well as noting the fascinating resonances of personal lives we can find in the letters; his bibliography is short, but gives guides to general materials as well as editions of the Paston, Stonor, Cely, Plumpton, and Shillingford, and the recently published Armburgh papers. Finally, Alexandra Gillespie reviews ‘Caxton and After’ (pp. 307–25), that is, the early printing of prose into the middle of the sixteenth century, whether the works be old or new (gratifyingly, IPMEP and STC numbers are supplied). The volume closes with an index of names, titles, and (very few) topics and an index of manuscripts</p>
<p>I.C. Cunningham presents ‘Sir James Balfour's Manuscript Collection: The 1698 Catalogue and Other Sources’ (<italic>EBST</italic> 6[1997–9] 191–255), a 1698 purchase that made the Advocates’ Library ‘the largest repository of manuscripts in Scotland’ (p. 191), and this annotated and expanded edition of the catalogue marked its tercentenary. With such works as Andrew Winton's <italic>Chronicle</italic>, a Wyclifite New Testament, heraldry, and more, the collection's importance extends beyond legal matters. A concordance to modern Advocates’ shelfmarks is the final appendix. Philip E. Bennett's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><italic>The Cycle of Guillaume d’Orange or Garin de Monglane: A Critical Bibliography</italic></xref> is an annotated bibliography of this cycle, which had its origins in France but spread throughout Europe, covering works in the last century and a half but largely not including editions and studies of the external versions. Over 800 entries are listed by author within a highly subdivided classification system, and Bennett adds occasional pointers to reviews of books and leans towards evaluative comments, particularly on vagaries of criticism prior to our own times. Items not seen are marked with an asterisk, but some nevertheless receive abstracts.</p>
<p>Robert G. Babcock, Lisa Fagin Davis, and Philip G. Rusche have reached the fourth volume of the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><italic>Catalogue of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University</italic></xref>, which covers apparently only five manuscripts numbered 481 to 485, but these actually are five collections of about 300 fragments, amply justifying over 400 pages and over 150 plates (the image at the bottom of plate 108 is inexplicably upside-down), though more fragments in bindings of manuscripts and printed books are not catalogued, and some have been or will be treated elsewhere. Sadly for us, none of these is actually an English text. Most are in Latin, with a very few in Middle High German and even fewer in Hebrew; however, there are fragments of English provenance: a number of initials from a thirteenth-century psalter, bits from a fifteenth-century English or French missal, more from another fifteenth-century English missal and sacramentary that seem to have been companion volumes, and a leaf from a fifteenth-century English noted breviary. A valuable aspect of this catalogue is the inclusion of high-quality plates showing every item, and thus providing a convenient one-volume palaeographic survey for European scripts from the seventh century to the sixteenth.</p>
<p>Richard H. and Mary A. Rouse's edition of Henry of Kirkestede's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><italic>Catalogus de libris autenticis et apocrifis</italic></xref>, previously thought to be by ‘Boston of Bury’, marks an important point in the publication of the Corpus of British Medieval Library Catalogues. Henry (<italic>c</italic>.1314–<italic>c</italic>.1378 or later) was among the Benedictines of Bury St Edmunds, librarian from 1338 on, and prior from 1361 until 1369 or even 1374/5, thus a rough contemporary of Chaucer and Gower, though we have no information to indicate they ever met each other. Since Henry died when Lydgate was a child it is fairly certain they never met, but Lydgate was certain to have heard of him, and probably benefited from his efforts regarding the abbey's library and perhaps even this catalogue, which was intended to sort out what authors there were and what works they wrote, with extremely brief biographical notes and a key to what libraries held their works. Henry did not start from scratch and did not travel about the country, in good Neil Ker style, to inspect library holdings; rather, he used a prior union catalogue put together by the Oxford Franciscans in or around the 1320s, the <italic>Registrum Angliae de libris doctorum et auctorum ueterum</italic> (edited earlier in this series by R.A.B. Mynors and also Rouse and Rouse), and he expanded it with authors listed in works such as Jerome's <italic>De uiris illustribus</italic>, Vincent of Beauvais's encyclopedia, and Higden's <italic>Polychronicon</italic>. The result has some 674 authors with about 3,895 works, arranged alphabetically by author, unlike the organization of his sources. Each entry is succinct: ‘author's name, date, titles, incipits and explicits [of works], and library location numbers’ (p. xciii). The <italic>Registrum</italic> numbered about 186 libraries, and Henry added nine more; oddly, Rouse and Rouse mark by underlining not the library numbers provided by Henry, but those he apparently copied from the <italic>Registrum</italic>, though one would expect his additions to be the ones marked for special attention. Often Henry provides the earliest lists of English authors’ works, including Alcuin, Aldhelm, Bede, Grosseteste, William of Malmesbury, Neckam, King Alfred, Holcot, Bromyard, John of Salisbury, Matthew Paris, Nicholas Trivet, Richard of Bury, Kilwardby, Thomas Becket, FitzRalph, and Richard Rolle (including an English work which Henry probably saw personally). Rouse and Rouse's introduction is lengthy but highly informative, touched by good sense and even humour: Bury was exempt from diocesan obligations, but the local bishop understandably wished them not to be; accordingly, he investigated and discovered crimes which ‘included adultery, fornication, incest, kidnapping, rape, deflowering virgins, engendering bastards, carrying offensive weapons, highway robbery, being out of habit, and two perennial favourites for good measure, simony and usury. (Inevitably, some of these charges were true, just as, inevitably, most of them were not)’ (pp. xxxv–xxxvi). There are many goodies in this highly welcome, densely researched, valuable volume.</p>
<p>Two years ago we omitted Hiroyuki Matsumoto's edition of John Clerk of Whalley's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><italic>The Destruction of Troy: A Diplomatic and Color Facsimile Edition</italic> [<italic>of</italic>] <italic>Hunterian MS V.2.8 in Glasgow University Library</italic></xref>. In many ways this electronic edition resembles traditional printed ones: there is a title page, a preface, an introduction covering the usual topics (manuscript, source, dialect, date, author, etc.), and the text. The intent was to include a critical edition, no doubt with notes and a glossary, but editing work was delayed and thus the CD contains only a short introduction, a diplomatic text, and the images. The design has some peculiarities, but despite these, the text seems carefully transcribed and is easy to compare against the full-colour images once one learns how to resize the windows and move them about. Apparently Matsumoto continues to work on the <italic>Destruction</italic> and perhaps a revised version will appear in due course.</p>
<p>The TEAMS Middle English Texts series has had a busy year. Michael Livingston's edition of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><italic>Siege of Jerusalem</italic></xref> appeared hot on the heels of Hanna and Lawton's (see <italic>YWES</italic> 84[2005] 165). Because it is meant to be a student edition and because of the existence of Hanna and Lawton's, textual material is minimalized, but the textual notes still take up twenty-two pages, somewhat swelled because of their legible but non-standard manner of presentation. Livingston proposes that the work's structure is <italic>hysteron proteron</italic> with strong thematic links, and he also presents the text in quatrains with a prologue and six passus, though he leaves off detailing how the passus divisions match the <italic>hysteron proteron</italic> overall. The thematic parallels in the structure may support a new interpretation of the <italic>Siege</italic>: ‘The <italic>Siege</italic>-poet's answer to … a just war is that there was one: Titus and Vespasian's vengeance for the death of Christ … Further efforts to avenge Christ are unnecessary and could only have ulterior motives behind them’ (p. 29). The text, as is general with TEAMS editions, is somewhat modernized, hard words are glossed in the side, longer hard passages are done in the bottom margins, there is a large group of explanatory notes at the end, and a bibliography at the very end; the usual glossary is, however, not supplied.</p>
<p>Instead of editing one work, John Conlee edited <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><italic>William Dunbar: The Complete Works</italic></xref>, here enumerated as a total of eighty-four poems and organized into four groups: devotional and moral, public and private, courtly, and comic, satiric, and parodic (putting the most fun, the ‘Flyting’ and the ‘Tretise of the Tua Mariit Wemen and the Wedo’, at the very end). Of course, one could easily quibble and point out that the ‘Tretise’ and ‘Flyting’ could equally be ‘public and private’ and that devotional works could just as easily be public, as the ‘Tretise’ can be taken as satire urging morality; a private conversation taken as an example of how public morality is subverted. After a brief biography and appreciation of the variety of poems (including verse forms), Conlee briefly discusses the rationale for the groupings and then turns to comment on poems in the groups, notes the witnesses providing Dunbar's texts, and provides a select bibliography. Then come the poems, explanatory notes (taking up more pages than the poems themselves), some textual notes, an index of first lines, and a brief glossary.</p>
<p>TEAMS has also issued three topical anthologies. First, Dana M. Symons's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><italic>Chaucerian Dream Visions and Complaints</italic></xref> offers three works at times ascribed to Chaucer and one more: John Clanvowe's <italic>The Boke of Cupide, God of Love</italic> or <italic>The Cuckoo and the Nightingale</italic>, John Lydgate's <italic>A Complaynte of a Lovers Lyfe</italic> or <italic>The Complaint of the Black Knight, The Quare of Jelusy</italic> (never attributed to Chaucer), and Richard Roos's <italic>La Belle Dame sans Mercy</italic>. Each is preceded by its own introduction and followed by explanatory and very brief textual notes, and the whole is sandwiched by a general introduction and a very brief glossary, followed by a more generous bibliography. Edward E. Foster's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><italic>Three Purgatory Poems: The Gast of Gy, Sir Owain, The Vision of Tundale</italic></xref> is similar, but its bibliography (and abbreviations) follow the introduction. While the amorous dream visions and complaints are not as often read as they might be, they are far more familiar to modern students than these more serious visions of a portion of the afterlife, especially since many students will have only a dim concept of purgatory and thus will fail to understand a driving aspect of medieval thought. Foster's introductions and texts therefore offer higher value for the low cost of the volume, especially since <italic>The Gast of Gy</italic> has not been published in over a century, though the others have (<italic>Sir Owain</italic>, more commonly as <italic>Owein Miles</italic> or <italic>St Patrick</italic>'<italic>s Purgatory</italic>, and the international, multi-century hit also known as the <italic>Visio Tnugdali</italic>). For student use, minor errors such as identifying Vincent of Beauvais as a saint and not knowing that the Takamiya manuscripts are definitely in private, though friendly, hands, will pose no obstacle, and tutors can flesh out the background discussions more; happily, the glossary is more fulsome. Finally comes E. Gordon Whatley, Anne B. Thompson, and Robert K. Upchurch's edition of selected <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><italic>Saints’ Lives in Middle English Collections</italic></xref>, including (not quite in this order) St Andrew from the <italic>South English</italic> (the martyrdom) and <italic>Scottish</italic> (the demon-temptress's three questions) <italic>Legendaries</italic>, SS George (the martyrdom and the dragon story), Benedict, Scholastica, and Francis from the <italic>South English Legendary</italic>, Simon Winter's St Jerome, St Thaïs from the <italic>Northern Homily Cycle</italic>, John Lydgate's <italic>St Austin at Compton</italic>, and St Julian the Hospitaller from the <italic>Scottish Legendary</italic>. The selections, much reduced from an original plan, are intended to represent various stages of Christianity: the apostolic age, persecution and martyrdom, patristic learning, desert hermits, conversion of the north, later ‘pastoral energy’, and eternal timelessness. The volume's structure resembles that of the others above, but textual notes are more complete and the editors have added comments on the language (not repeated when multiple texts come from the same collection, such as from the <italic>South English Legendary</italic>), perhaps indicating postgraduate students among the envisaged audience.</p>
<p>The Early English Text Society has issued Stephen H.A. Shepherd's edition of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70"><italic>Turpines Story: A Middle English Translation of the ‘Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle’</italic></xref>, an incomplete rendition of Charlemagne's battle at Roncevaux, unique to Huntington Library MS HM 28,561, which also contains a goodly number of works by and ascribed to John Trevisa and some Latin documents about the kings of England from a Lancastrian point of view. Those Latin documents and <italic>Turpines Story</italic> were added to the Trevisan texts, which were commissioned by Thomas Mull, who died in 1460 and owned properties in Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, and elsewhere, and who was thus quite close to Berkeley Castle, where Trevisa worked. Since the Mulls and Berkeleys had a long quarrel, the circumstances of this commission are uncertain. Shepherd gives a date of 1460–1 for the manuscript, hypothesizing that the deaths of Mull, Humphrey Stafford, and John Talbot explain the incomplete work and the combining of what might have been intended as separate books or parts of them. Unhappily, the text breaks off in the twenty-fifth of thirty-five chapters, opening with Charlemagne's dream that he must rescue the body of James the Apostle from the Saracens of Galicia and continuing until just after the battle at Roncevaux, when Roland makes the captive Saracen show him Marseri. As implied by the preceding discussion, the introductory matter is a bit more historical than is usual, but usefully so; the introduction continues with English contexts of the story, this version as a translation, and the difficulty of identifying any dialect other than the <italic>Mischsprache</italic> of London in the late fifteenth century. The extensive commentary leaves out material more relevant to the Latin or other versions, giving references instead to other editions, and concerns itself with matters more germane to this particular rendition from one branch of the whole textual tradition; nevertheless, the commentary is about twice the length of the text. The glossary is limited to obsolete or difficult words, but does identify grammatical forms and provide line references, even for varying uses.</p>
<p>A number of texts, whole or partial, also appear in Middle or modern English in Daniel T. Kline's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><italic>Medieval Literature for Children</italic></xref>, a by-product of a 1997 US National Endowment for the Humanities summer seminar. Kline's introduction sets the volume among others in the anti-Ariès camp and briefly considers the problem of definition, stressing that literature may be didactic and evidently assuming that didactic works are for children, who swiftly become more general youth (pp. 1–11). This didactic literature for youth is then presented, leaning towards late medieval England, with non-English texts in translation, and with Old English and some potentially difficult Middle English texts modernized or with modernization added, and with each editor providing an independently derived introduction. These texts are presented in five groups, beginning with ‘Didactic and Moral Literature’, which includes William F. Hodapp's selection of twelve from ‘The Fables of Avianus’ (pp. 12–28), Lynnea Brumbaugh-Walter's eight ‘Selections from the <italic>Gesta Romanorum</italic>’ (pp. 29–44), and Lauren Keifer's three ‘Selections from Gower's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><italic>Confessio Amantis</italic></xref>’ (pp. 45–61). The second part, ‘Courtesy and Conduct Literature’, includes Martha Dana Rust's ‘The “ABC of Aristotle”’ (pp. 62–78), Deanna Delmar Evans's ‘<italic>The Babees Book</italic>’ (pp. 79–92), and Cindy Vitto's ‘Selections from <italic>The Book of the Knight of the Tower</italic>’ (pp. 93–111). Part 3, ‘Educational and Instructional Literature’, has Stephen J. Harris's ‘Ælfric's <italic>Colloquy</italic>’ (pp. 112–30), Kathleen Kennedy's extracts from ‘<italic>Le Tretiz</italic> of Walter of Bibbesworth’ (pp. 131–42), Paul Acker's ‘A Schoolchild's Primer (Plimpton MS 258)’ (pp. 143–54), and Sigmund Eisner's introduction (first appearing as ‘Chaucer as Teacher’ <italic>CLAQ</italic> 23[1998] 35–9) and Marijane Osborne's modernization in ‘Chaucer as Teacher: Chaucer's <italic>Treatise on the Astrolabe</italic>’ (pp. 155–87). Part 4 is ‘Religious Literature’, with Patrick Cook's ‘The <italic>Ecologa Theoduli</italic>’ (pp. 188–203), Julie Nelson Couch's ‘ “The Child Slain by Jews” and “The Jewish Boy” ’ (pp. 204–26), and Judith Deitch's ‘<italic>Ypotis</italic>: A Middle English Dialogue’ (pp. 227–48). Finally, part 5 is ‘Entertainment and Popular Literature’, with Brian S. Lee's ‘<italic>Occupation and Idleness</italic>’ (pp. 249–83), Stephen Yandell's ‘Selections from <italic>Math Son of Mathonwy</italic>, from the <italic>Mabinogi</italic>’ (pp. 284–98), and Mary E. Shaner's ‘<italic>Sir Gowther</italic> (Advocates MS. 19.3.1)’ (pp. 299–321). Not all these works may strike readers as likely candidates for ‘children's literature’, but the large selection provides plenty from which to choose for furthering study in the area.</p>
<p>Despite the title, Ronald Waldron's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><italic>John Trevisa</italic>'<italic>s Translation of the</italic> Polychronicon <italic>of Ranulph Higden, Book VI: An Edition Based on British Library MS Cotton Tiberius D. VII</italic></xref> is not a diplomatic, best-text, or one-text edition but a step towards a full critical edition, since it includes collation of the base manuscript, thirteen originally complete other manuscripts, and Caxton's printed edition, and it uses five copies of Higden's Latin text. Book VI was chosen because it contains English history from Alfred to the Norman Conquest and because five manuscripts substitute a fairly literal translation not by Trevisa where one (the archetype) has a long gap and another adds this ‘Minor Version’ as a separate booklet. The introduction provides background on Higden and Trevisa, manuscript descriptions and their textual relations, the language of the copy-texts (including LALME profiles), and editorial procedures. The text is presented with Trevisa on top, textual variants below, and Higden (based on one of the manuscripts but collated and corrected from the others as need be) at the bottom; in the long section which the Minor Version covers, Trevisa's Major Version is on the left-hand pages and the Minor on the right. Commentary notes focus on names but include details on corrections to the Latin, and these are followed by a fairly detailed glossary, a glossary of proper nouns, a bibliography, and collation-card-like variants of the Minor Version.</p>
<p>Alan J. Fletcher's ‘Variations on a Theme Attributed to Robert Holcot: Lessons for Late-Medieval English Preaching from the Castle of Prudence’ (<italic>MS</italic> 66[2004] 26–98) edits and discusses one macaronic and three vernacular sermons based on headwords and their <italic>membra</italic> illustrated by mnemonic shields and the Castle, found in an addition to Holcot's <italic>Moralitates</italic> in one manuscript. Through the textual relations, Fletcher argues cogently that here four different authors have clearly dipped into a Latin tradition for separate purposes, yet they were not unique in doing so, and the Latin roots of many vernacular texts and motifs should be assumed and sought.</p>
<p>In ‘Passion Devotion, Penitential Reading, and the Manuscript Page: “The Hours of the Cross” in London, British Library Additional 37049’ (<italic>MS</italic> 66[2004] 213–52), Marlene Villalobos Hennessy edits, with four illustrative plates, this Passion meditation in a Carthusian miscellany from late in the fifteenth century, and presents an extensive discussion of the ‘text-image units’ directed at the senses, which pervade the poem, its manuscript, and their surrounding cultural tradition. And in ‘Pipwel's St Mary’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 106–9), Ruth Kennedy re-edits and comments upon the fifteenth-century aureate poem on the Five Joys in Bodley Rolls 20, proposing Pipwel, probably a Stamford Carmelite from Holland, Lincolnshire, as the author. Peter Grund edits and discusses ‘Albertus Magnus and the Queen of the Elves: A 15th-Century Verse Dialogue on Alchemy’ (<italic>Anglia</italic> 122[2004] 640–60), wherein Elchyell reveals how to make an elixir to turn mercury into silver and gold, or turn silver into gold. The short verse is entitled <italic>Semita Recta Albertus peribet testimonium</italic> and survives in two manuscripts; it seems unrelated to the Latin prose <italic>Semita Recta</italic> but is to some extent structured like a recipe and presents ingredients in anagrams or coded forms. We cannot fail to mention Sophie Page's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><italic>Magic in Medieval Manuscripts</italic></xref>, well illustrated in colour from manuscripts in the British Library and emphasizing English texts as much as possible. In a very short space, she offers a readable yet learned overview of magicians, natural magic, images, the ‘magical universe’, and black magic, adding a short bibliography well suited for professional medievalists not in magic studies and of instructional value to the general public.</p>
<p>Though not strictly an edition, Priscilla Heath Barnum's second volume of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><italic>Dives and Pauper</italic></xref> cannot be omitted; this volume supplies the apparatus for the first volume, which came out in two parts [1976 and 1980]. The author is still anonymous, but he wrote <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><italic>Dives and Pauper</italic></xref> around 1402–5, seems sympathetic to the friars (even if he is not one), was well trained in theology and both canon and civil law, and may later have been in hiding for his views, as implied in his sermons in Longleat 4. The introduction discusses such historical matters as well as broader theological concerns of the author, and it adds treatment of the textual witnesses and their relationships. The bulk of the volume consists of the explanatory notes, which often range widely among the <italic>Glossa ordinaria</italic>, law, Augustine, Bede, <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>, and many texts and commentators. In addition to a longish glossary there are indices to biblical, legal, and other references, a bibliography, and some errata and corrigenda to the text.</p>
<p>Michael G. Sargent has published a new edition of Nicholas Love's <italic>The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ</italic> in paperback as ‘a reading text’, but since the edition has a matching hardback ‘full critical edition’ copyrighted in 2005 the two will be treated together in the next volume of <italic>YWES</italic>.</p>
<p>In manuscript studies, Daniel W. Mosser identifies as one and the same ‘The Scribe of Takamiya MS 32 (Formerly the “Delamere Chaucer”) and Cambridge University Library MS Gg.1.34 (Part 3)’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 121–30), using palaeographic and linguistic evidence, and correcting LALME to point out that the Takamiya actually shares LP Ely 619 with this part of the Cambridge manuscript. Plates and descriptions of both are provided, as are the contents of Takamiya 32. Using somewhat different sorts of information, in ‘Are Auchinleck Manuscript Scribes 1 and 6 the Same Scribe? The Advantages of Whole-Data Analysis and Electronic Texts’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 10–26) Alison Wiggins uses the electronic transcriptions made available by her and David Burnley (see <<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.nls.uk/auchinleck/">http://www.nls.uk/auchinleck/</ext-link>>) to argue that Pamela Robinson's identifying the two as one palaeographically is not supported on the linguistic grounds of orthography, dialect, or copying practice, nor on several palaeographic grounds. However, Wiggins does find a connection between Scribe 2 and Scribe 6, and observes that using complete texts has a number of advantages over sampling.</p>
<p>Constance B. Hieatt works with contents and their order in 'The Third Fifteenth-Century Cookery Book: A Newly Identified Group within a Family’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 27–42), focusing on Douce 55 and British Library Additional MS 5467, representing one original collection now lost, and different from the set in Harley 279 and 4016 and Ashmole 1439. She edits eight new recipes in this group at the end of the discussion. Jill C. Havens's ‘A Narrative of Faith: Middle English Devotional Anthologies and Religious Practice’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 67–84) urged a stance often recommended and used in recent years: to extract the compiler's sense of order from, not impose our own upon, medieval miscellanies, here surveying briefly a number of mainly vernacular devotional anthologies. Continuing her series of manuscript descriptions, Betty Hill offers ‘Cambridge, Trinity College MS B.14.52’ (<italic>TCBS</italic> 12[2000–3] 393–402), containing the <italic>Conduct of Life</italic> and thirty-two homilies in English, written in the late twelfth century, plus a fragmentary homily written in the early thirteenth, and having been used in the Parker circle. In ‘Poets, Printers, and Early English <italic>Sammelbände</italic>’ (<italic>HLQ</italic> 67[2004] 189–214), Alexandra Gillespie focuses upon the gathering and binding, followed by later breaking up, of booklets with works by Chaucer, Lydgate, and others, casting interesting light on how those responsible for those collections may have perceived them.</p>
<p>Siân Echard and Stephen Partridge edit a collection of essays, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><italic>The Book Unbound: Editing and Reading Medieval Manuscripts and Texts</italic></xref>, arising from a 1999 workshop on manuscripts and editing. Anne L. Klinck opens with a comparison of Sarah Horrall's and John J. Thompson's approaches to ‘Editing <italic>Cursor Mundi</italic>: Stemmata and the “Open” Text’, noting that the two are complementary but that Horrall achieves in practice what theory alone seems incapable of accomplishing (pp. 3–13). Julia Marvin's ‘The Unassuming Reader: F.W. Maitland and the Editing of Anglo-Norman’ (pp. 14–36) urges a respect for Anglo-Norman on its own grounds in editions, not as corrupted French. In ‘ “Alas! Who may truste thys world”: The Malory Documents and a Parallel-Text Edition’ (pp. 37–57), Meg Roland circles around the Caxton/Winchester divide and urges a parallel-text edition for Malory, with examples and sample pages from the Roman War, as well as Middle English texts in general. Peter Diehl looks at ‘An Inquisitor in Manuscript and in Print: The <italic>Tractatus super materia hereticorum</italic> of Zanchino Ugolini’ (pp. 58–77) and stresses the need for a hypertext edition in broad terms, while Andrew Taylor's ‘Editing Sung Objects: The Challenge of Digby 23’ (pp. 78–104) very interestingly explores the difficulties of assuming that <italic>La Chanson de Roland</italic> was sung but treating it as a written text and not considering how it might have been sung, and he includes other works, some in Middle English. Carol Symes studies the French ‘<italic>The Boy and the Blind Man</italic>: A Medieval Play Script and its Editors’ (pp. 105–43) and shows how the alterations to it from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century belie any single editorial presentation. A transcript and an analysis are appended. Leaning upon semiotics, William Robins theorizes ‘Towards a Disjunctive Philology’ (pp. 144–58) and, like Roland, enjoys the idea of a parallel-text edition to show that different editions present different texts, using as examples passages from the <italic>Lai de l’ombre, Piers Plowman</italic>, and Pucci's <italic>La Reina d’Oriente</italic>. William Schipper illustrates and discusses ‘Digitizing (Nearly) Unreadable Fragments of Cyprian's <italic>Epistolary</italic>’ (pp. 159–68) with a high-quality digital camera and good commercial software, making available portions of a fascinating fourth-century fragment. The intention of Stephen R. Reimer's ‘Unbinding Lydgate's <italic>Lives of SS. Edmund and Fremund</italic>’ (pp. 169–89) is to describe a project wherein the omissions or losses of scholarly editions are supplied for readers through electronic media, and to which matters such as glossorial concordances and extensive commentaries can be added. His fairly theoretical discussion is followed by a more practical one: Joan Grenier-Winther's ‘Server-Side Databases, the World Wide Web, and the Editing of Medieval Poetry: The Case of <italic>La Belle dame qui eut mercy</italic>’ (pp. 190–220), though it discusses the conceptual aspects of mark-up and delivery more than the nuts and bolts, such as why the files were created with a text-editor or spreadsheet program rather than a database program itself. The volume closes with indices of manuscripts and of names and subjects.</p>
<p>Lauryn S. Mayer finds the terms ‘template’, ‘matter’, and ‘entity’ from recombinant genetics useful for explaining the varying details of contents in different manuscripts of chronicles, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><italic>Worlds Made Flesh: Reading Medieval Manuscript Culture</italic></xref>, where the eye is very much on the variants rather than the tradition. After an excursus on the <italic>Metrical Chronicle</italic> and how long-established editing practice is inadequate, the tome offers to replace ‘nationalism’ with ‘strategic deployment of coalitional identity’, exemplified by Arthur and the Danish invasions as presented in two manuscript families in the standard textual tradition of the <italic>Metrical Chronicle</italic>. Mayer then wishes to resituate <italic>Brunanburh, Maldon</italic>, and <italic>Beowulf</italic> in their contexts through the <italic>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</italic>, and closes with a consideration of how Caxton, Wynkyn de Worde, and Pynson (not Hoccleve or others before them, evidently) aimed to establish Chaucer as a literary forefather when shifting the medium of <italic>Troilus and Criseyde</italic> and the <italic>House of Fame</italic> to print. The text is followed by several appendices—a hasty list of manuscripts, ‘Dominican Laments’ in <italic>Metrical Chronicle</italic> manuscripts (meaning just Caligula A.xi), and the old knight's speech in three manuscripts with lines marked by paragraph marks in bold font rather than preceded by paragraph markers—a bibliography, a brief subject index, and a short index of modern critics.</p>
<p>Reaching from Late Middle English to the end of the seventeenth century is a collection edited by Julia Crick and Alexandra Walsham: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><italic>The Uses of Script and Print, 1300–1700</italic></xref>, which grew out of a conference of that title in Exeter in 2000. After the editors’ introduction surveying the last twenty or twenty-five years of work extending our understanding of ‘Script, Print and History’ (pp. 1–26), the first part, ‘Script, Print and Late Medieval Religion’, begins with Felicity Riddy's ‘ “Publication” before Print: The Case of Julian of Norwich’ (pp. 29–49), first reviewing prior discussions and secondly proposing a type of informal publication by which the availability of a text is made known, then permission given for it to be made publicly available, with word of mouth preceding actual dissemination and duplication. In ‘Printing, Mass Communication and Religious Reformation: The Middle Ages and After’ (pp. 50–70), David d’Avray makes a complicated argument that the loss of model sermon collections is much greater than we guess, continues unsurprisingly—that mendicants continued to produce both written model sermons and oral preaching alongside the activities of professional scribes—and closes by arguing that the printing press had less of a causal relationship with the Reformation than is often generally assumed, as the earlier spread of heresy helps demonstrate. Furthering the topic, after a fashion, James G. Clark looks at Benedictine ownership and patronage of printed books that included vernacular literature, including Lydgate, in ‘Print and Pre-Reformation Religion: The Benedictines and the Press in Early Tudor England’ (pp. 71–92). Part 2, ‘Script, Print and Textual Tradition’, opens with ‘Law and Text: Legal Authority and Judicial Accessibility in the Late Middle Ages’ by Anthony Musson (pp. 95–115), looking at the authority of and accessibility to the law from the thirteenth century to the sixteenth, with occasional references to Chaucer. Julia Crick's ‘The Art of the Unprinted: Transcription and English Antiquity in the Age of Print’ (pp. 116–34) studies antiquarian transcription for itself, not for its witnessing of a more distant past. In ‘The Authority of the Word: Manuscript, Print and the Text of the Bible in Seventeenth-Century England’ (pp. 135–53), Scott Mandelbrote studies compromises made in the editing, translating, and publishing of the Bible in English.</p>
<p>Part 3, ‘Script, Print and Speech’, refers to Riddy's and d’Avray's earlier necessary reminders of orality in culture and begins with Andrew Butcher on ‘The Functions of Script in the Speech Community of a Late Medieval Town, <italic>c</italic>.1300–1550’ (pp. 157–70), looking at the urban records of Hythe, one of the Cinque Ports. Christopher Marsh's ‘The Sound of Print in Early Modern England: The Broadside Ballad as Song’ (pp. 171–90) makes a point that ‘Melody made meaning’ (p. 171): tunes often carried associations with them because they were used for particular types of song, and thus when new ballads were set to them the tunes directed interpretation of the words. Jonathan Barry returns to urban records in ‘Communicating with Authority: The Uses of Script, Print and Speech in Bristol 1640–1714’ (pp. 191–208) and carries on into various records of public affairs. Part 4 is on ‘Script, Print and Persecution’, wherein first Alexandra Walsham's ‘Preaching without Speaking: Script, Print and Religious Dissent’ busies itself with how the written word still represented the persecuted before and after the Reformation (pp. 211–34). Thomas S. Freeman's ‘Publish and Perish: The Scribal Culture of the Marian Martyrs’ (pp. 235–54) takes that a step further in that manuscript circulation was more surreptitious and controlled access better, making it easier to hide dangerous materials from the authorities, and it was actually easier to produce manuscripts than to print books. In ‘Print, Persecution and Polemic: Thomas Edwards’ <italic>Gangraena</italic> (1646) and Civil War Sectarianism’, Ann Hughes surveys attitudes towards information in print, in letters, in manuscript, and in oral form. Finally, in her epilogue, Margaret Aston takes the essays as springboards to topics such as sermons, private vs. public letters, and speed of production, urging the reader to consider the previous essays as calls for re-examining preconceptions and asking new questions. Curiously, of the six plates, only two show a manuscript, and that is a manual transcription of a text printed by Wynkyn de Worde, made a century or so after his print.</p>
<p>Finally among manuscript studies we should note Albert Derolez's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><italic>The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books: From the Twelfth to the Early Sixteenth Century</italic></xref>, a very fully illustrated handbook of the changes in the script of books spanning half a millennium and almost all of Europe. By taking a broad definition of ‘Gothic scripts’ as anything not humanistic, Derolez can include all the book scripts he wishes, mainly using the extensive sources of various recent catalogues of dated manuscripts. Expanding upon Lieftinck's typology of scripts, and embracing vernacular texts, he defines six classes, which may be modified in certain ways: Textualis, Semitextualis, Cursiva (Recentior), Cursiva Antiquior, Semihybrida, and Hybrida. Each type, then, is discussed in detail in its own chapter, with sample letter forms provided liberally as illustrations, English Anglicana being treated in ‘Cursiva Antiquior in England’ (pp. 134–41), and illustrated by six plates.</p>
<p>Criticism of Early Middle English literature may begin with Orrm. Placing the work in the context of the anti-Jewish uprising after 1189, Guzman Mancho's ‘Considering <italic>Orrmulum</italic>'s Exegetical Discourse: Canon Orrmin's Preaching and his Audience’ (<italic>ES</italic> 85[2004] 508–19) argues from a variety of evidence in the work and from the Arrouaisian character of Bourne Abbey that, as an evangelical Canon Regular addressing catechumens, Orrm was preparing to become fully baptized Christians, specifically Jews, and that Orrm was such a one himself. Elsewhere, Guzmán Mancho answers his question ‘Is <italic>Orrmulum</italic>'s Introduction an Instance of an Aristotelian Prologue?’ (<italic>Neophil</italic> 88[2004] 477–92) in the affirmative. Following Minnis's handy formulation [1988], he poses a revised division of the prologue into discussions of the <italic>causa formalis, causa finalis, causa efficiens</italic>, and <italic>causa materialis</italic>, with a brief return to the <italic>causa finalis</italic> in the introduction's final five <italic>septenaria</italic>.</p>
<p>Mostly on French literature but including England because of its multilingual culture is William Burgwinkle's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><italic>Sodomy, Masculinity, and Law in Medieval Literature: France and England, 1050–1230</italic></xref>. The first section discusses attitudes towards and reactions to sodomy in law in a very broad sense, meaning not just the corpus of legal texts and institutions, civil and canon, but also in the moral, ethical, and social senses (sources include Peter Damian and John of Salisbury), which are reflected in general discussions but also in attitudes to specific cases, such as that of Richard the Lionheart. Turning to literary treatments, Burgwinkle first takes a long look at Perceval and his peculiar heterosexuality, and then his eventual settlement in the <italic>siège périlleux</italic>, which frees six knights who report that judgement will punish the ‘disloyal, who love young men more than young ladies’ (p. 126). Marie de France's Guigemar is placed in the context of Narcissus, mysteriously doomed by Rhamnusia (Ovid does not reveal exactly how) assenting to a prayer ‘by a spurned male lover, eager for revenge’ (p. 143) (or just by a toyed-with boy); Guigemar is not gay or a sodomite, but the resolution of his asexuality is described thus: ‘What we have witnessed is a queer young buck led to the heterosexual trough and taught to drink’ (p. 160). At the end of the chapter, marital and sexual issues in other <italic>lais</italic> are dealt with in summary fashion to present possible queer readings. Finally, Alain de Lille's <italic>De planctu naturae</italic> has fairly explicit difficulties with homosexuality; it is discussed with reference to clothing (or ‘dress’), art, grammar, and gender and reproduction.</p>
<p>Christopher Cannon's ‘The Owl and the Nightingale and the Meaning of Life’ (<italic>JMEMS</italic> 34[2004] 251–78) relishes its gambit that the words of the poem ‘adequate the world’ and thus it is composed of feints that have taken us in. Here, the ‘cratylism’ that identifies things with their words extends to uniting grammatical with natural gender; the dialectic nature of the poem has long been known, but this view draws it out further and places it into the misogynistic tradition, noting that the owl and the nightingale—both female—agree to debate, and the wren (also female) interrupts not to argue but to oppose opposition. The debate functions to expose misogyny's assumptions and ideas to dialectic and its tools, laying out the weaknesses of those assumptions. The birds are in agreement, but it takes the poem to reveal that. Susan Uselmann surveyed ‘Women Reading and Reading Women: Early Scribal Notions of Literacy in the <italic>Ancrene Wisse</italic>’ (<italic>Exemplaria</italic> 16[2004] 369–404), with overviews of the author's prime audience and the Cleopatra scribe B's revisions, in concomitant contrast with A, and observations on the broader audiences and manuscript tradition. Andrew Breeze offers a simple and reasonable correction in ‘Jonas, Jason, and the Harley Lyric <italic>Annot and John</italic>’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 237–9): gentle ‘Ionas’ is not the biblical one, nor the abstruse Jonaans, but Jason, well known and often described as ‘gentle’, though not in the <italic>Legend of Good Women</italic>. The error is a simple scribal transposition, influenced by the scribe's personal background.</p>
<p>Claire McIlroy's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><italic>English Prose Treatises of Richard Rolle</italic></xref> is the first book-length literary study of Rolle's English works, with the three prose treatises at its core. The first chapter, largely a convenient review of background material, observes that Rolle evidently did not expect his vernacular works to be as influential as they became in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but a growing audience for such works expanded his reputation beyond his actual canon. Rolle's addressing himself to the soul, not the body, makes the works non-gendered. The second chapter continues to establish a context, near Rolle in time and place, of affectivity in the mystical tradition, using known readers’ interests to help set out an understanding of an implied reader. From this we move to the first treatise: <italic>Ego Dormio</italic> woos the soul as in the <italic>Song of Songs</italic>, with Rolle taking on curious authorial roles, such as the <italic>Song</italic>'s <italic>sponsa</italic>, and the three grades of love appealing to different audiences. Next, <italic>The Commandment</italic> uses a plain style to instruct the soul of both its purported young female religious and any reader needing guidance, buttressed by his use of the trope of dress both literally and metaphorically. Last, <italic>The Form of Living</italic> offers the soul friendship in a life of contemplation, exemplified through Rolle's relationship with Margaret Kirkeby, which is here played off against other medieval friendships; <italic>The Form</italic> is addressed to all men and women, however, and works towards its goal using familiar motifs such as sitting and melody or song.</p>
<p>Michael Livingston has found ‘More Vinland Maps and Texts: Discovering the New World in Higden's <italic>Polychronicon</italic>’ (<italic>JMH</italic> 30[2004] 25–44), though Higden's text apparently came from a <italic>Geographia universalis</italic>, which was also used by a <italic>Eulogium historiarum</italic> (both also early fourteenth century). Higden's Wyntlandia then appears, of course, in the translations by Trevisa and an unknown hand, as well as in most of the T-O maps in the <italic>Polychronicon</italic>. In 'Christ the Codex: Compilation as Literary Device in <italic>Book of a Mother</italic>’ (<italic>LeedsSE</italic> 35[2004] 81–100), Elisabeth Dutton looks at the author's selection and use of sources and at selected key images, notably the book and a mother, which shuttle between physical and spiritual modes. John Burrow traces ‘“St Erkenwald”, Lines 231–244’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 347–8) to Deuteronomy 16:18–19 as used in Innocent III's <italic>De miseria humanae conditionis</italic>. Joyce Coleman ‘Handling Pilgrims: Robert Mannyng and the Gilbertine Cult’ (<italic>PQ</italic> 81[2002] 311–26) reads <italic>Handlyng Synne</italic> as a work aimed at pilgrims to Sempringham Priory and states that Mannyng was probably the priory's guest-master, who also appealed for donations. Graeme Dunphy offers a solution to ‘The Devil's See: A Puzzling Reference in the Auchinleck <italic>Life of Adam</italic>’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 93–8), suggesting that the homophones ‘see’ (throne) and ‘sea’ and the idea of Lucifer's restlessness reminded the poet of the relationship between the tides of the sea and the moon, which thus became Lucifer's support for his claim of sovereignty.</p>
<p>David Aers's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><italic>Sanctifying Signs: Making Christian Tradition in Late Medieval England</italic></xref> embraces more than the late fourteenth century but has its heart there. The subtitle's claim is clearly hyperbole, and there is some variety in coverage. The first four chapters concern themselves with the eucharist and what it signifies, briefly mixing Thomases Netter, Aquinas, and Brinton with the <italic>Fasciculus morum</italic>, Mirk's <italic>Festial</italic>, Roger Dymmock, others, and inevitably Nicholas Love; then moving for greater depth into Langland's <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> (mainly the B-text), John Wyclif's major treatise <italic>De eucharistia</italic>, the views of Walter Brut (the farmer who read Latin to study his theology) as Aers carefully teases them out from his testimony at his trial for heresy, and the <italic>Testimony</italic> of William Thorpe, a travelling preacher interrogated by Archbishop Arundel for suspect beliefs. This is followed by a study of poverty as represented in the <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> C-text and how signs there both work and cease to work, and finally by a survey of signs of sanctity in the medieval home as represented in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><italic>Dives and Pauper</italic></xref>, Nicholas Love's <italic>Mirrour of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ</italic> again, and marriage in, again, the C text of Langland's <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>.</p>
<p>In ‘The Invention of the Anglo-Latin Public Poetry (circa 1367–1402) and its Prosody, esp. in John Gower’ (<italic>Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch</italic> 39[2004] 389–407), David R. Carlson applies some concepts from Anne Middleton's ‘The Idea of Public Poetry in the Reign of Richard II’ (<italic>Speculum</italic> 53[1978] 94–114) to educated circles that could appreciate Latin, the new poetry covering more broadly secular topics by doing so in simpler forms, often unrhymed dactyls. This new verse appears already in Walter of Peterborough's <italic>Victoria belli in Hispania</italic> [1367], and is traced through to Gower, his first production being the <italic>Visio Angliæ</italic>, now surviving as Book I of the <italic>Vox Clamantis</italic>. Additional examples include Richard Maidstone's <italic>Concordia facta inter regem et cives Londonie</italic> and the metrical continuation to the <italic>Historia regum Angliæ</italic>. A different take on public poetry, involving attitudes towards Richard II in the last few decades of the fourteenth century, is W.M. Ormrod's ‘Knights of Venus’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 290–305), which focuses on the passage describing Richard's circle as engaging in unmanly behaviours in the two versions of Thomas of Walsingham's <italic>Chronica maiora</italic>, with comparative looks at Gower and others (though not Hoccleve's ‘Remonstrance’ to Oldcastle, perhaps because it is later); from the first to the second version, Ormrod takes the passage as increasingly negative, implying a shift from effeminate heterosexuality towards, if not into, homosexual vice.</p>
<p>According to Suzanne M. Yeager's ‘<italic>The Siege of Jerusalem</italic> and Biblical Exegesis: Writing about Romans in Fourteenth-Century England’ (<italic>ChauR</italic> 39[2004] 70–102), read literally the Romans are contemporary Christian knights, suitable crusaders for others to emulate. The city's fall was read typologically as fulfilment of divine prophecy; when exegetes like Joachim of Fiore made Rome the New Jerusalem they also transferred to it the problems of the old, and Rome began to split into <italic>Roma civitas</italic> and <italic>Roma ecclesia</italic>. The former corrupting the latter, the tribulations of the Jews became the those of Christianity, made more explicit in England by Ralph of Coggeshall and visible in Higden, Trevisa, and others when reacting to Church corruption and the anti-pope. Thus, in the <italic>Siege</italic> the physical city is unimportant and Christians will not be able to hold it until spiritual renewal has taken place; reading the poem literally and exegetically lets Saracens and the schism be dangers to the embodiment of a spiritual New Jerusalem. Larissa Tracy surveys ‘Torture Narrative: The Imposition of Medieval Method on Early Christian Texts’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 33–50), at times using some examples conveniently available in the <italic>Gilte Legende</italic>. Valerie Edden briefly describes ‘Felip Ribot's <italic>Institution of the First Monks</italic>: Telling Stories about the Carmelites’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 141–51) from the end of the fourteenth century, in advance of an edition of the late fifteenth-century translation by the Norwich friar Thomas Scrope, from which two short extracts are presented.</p>
<p>John M. Bowers shows how ‘political meanings coalesce with shifting ideologies of chivalric performance male erotic attraction to expose significant cultural transitions’ across the Ricardian and into the Lancastrian period in ‘Three Readings of the <italic>Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic>: Sir John Clanvowe, Geoffrey Chaucer, and James I of Scotland’ (<italic>JMEMS</italic> 34[2004] 279–307). He summarizes the evidence for Clanvowe's homosocial bonding with Neville, placing Chaucer's <italic>The Love of Palamon and Arcite</italic> in the 1380s as among a virile camaraderie that is not homosexual but whose values find no central role for women. By the time Chaucer assigned this tale to the Knight, whose son (the apparent result of some affair) is also on the pilgrimage, the warrior troop had been becoming more like a courtier nobility, and Bowers briefly explores the theme of patriarchal succession among the courtly. The <italic>Kingis Quair</italic> certainly reflects a good deal of Chaucer, perhaps thanks to Scogan's tutelage of the royal prisoner and pre-Renaissance man; the Englishing of James went so far as to influence the dynasty so well that James VI was ‘a wholly acceptable successor to the English throne’ (p. 297).</p>
<p>In <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><italic>Late-Medieval Prison Writing and the Politics of Autobiography</italic></xref>, Joanna Summers surveys a handful of late medieval texts united by their authors’ imprisonment, although the type and duration of imprisonment varied widely and, unrelated to these factors, the motives for and types of writing also varied, though Summers is very interested in the circumstances behind what type is selected and what outcome is expected, or at least desired. Of course, these writers usually justify themselves and generally seek some sort of assistance or at least sympathy, with Boethius constantly hovering in the background and Gower putting in many appearances. The chapters have a basic organization: the imprisonment and author's narrative identity, the construction of that identity and its sources or analogues, and how that identity was crafted to affect readers and external affairs. This then is applied to Thomas Usk's <italic>Testament of Love, The Kingis Quair</italic>, Charles d’Orléans's <italic>English Book of Love</italic>, William Thorpe's <italic>Testimony</italic> and Richard Wyche's <italic>Trial</italic>, and Ashby's <italic>A Prisoner</italic>'<italic>s Reflections</italic>. Charles d’Orléans stands apart from the rest: perhaps due to his character but more probably due to his different status, Charles used a different narrative persona and wrote amatory verses unrelated to his literal imprisonment. The conclusion opens with consideration of the best-known ‘knyght presoner’, Sir Thomas Malory. Summers believes that six of the Winchester manuscript's colophons to the books are authorial and takes these together with selected editorial comments in the text of the books to show him possessed of a prisoner identity, like the rest, but more explicitly aware of the ‘transience of his own life’ (p. 186). All but Charles d’Orléans present authorial identities in line with contemporary attitudes and hope for political gains in their favour; apparently, even Malory hoped to sway his audience to his benefit.</p>
<p>Ralph Hanna has another romp through ‘Middle English Books and Middle English Literary History’ (<italic>MP</italic> 102[2004] 157–78), again unbalancing some of our preconceptions; for example, the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><italic>Siege of Jerusalem</italic></xref> may better fit among saints’ lives or biblical narrative, given how it was anthologized in manuscripts. He identifies several kinds of evidence—quiring, provenance, features of layout, dialect, and more—that combined with texts can be collocations of details leading to better understandings of local textual communities or of ‘the history of Middle English literatures’ (p. 177). In ‘ “Pleyng with a yerd”: Folly and Madness in the Prologue and Tale of <italic>Beryn</italic>’ (<italic>SP</italic> 101[2004] 299–314), Stephen Harper sees a sophisticated but neglected ‘All Fool’ work, no doubt because of its rejection as non-Chaucerian. In several ways Beryn resembles Sir Gowther and Robert of Sicily, and upon his repentance he shifts from an unholy to a holy fool. His rescuer Geffray plays the role of a natural fool. Both employ a rod or ‘yerd’ reminiscent of the Pardoner's in the Prologue, but other motifs connected with fools occur throughout. Robert J. Meyer-Lee's ‘Laureates and Beggars in Fifteenth-Century English Poetry: The Case of George Ashby’ (<italic>Speculum</italic> 79[2004] 688–726) presents Ashby as a would-be laureate after the apparent one (Lydgate) and the contrasting ‘beggar poet’ (Hoccleve, obviously), within an understanding of laureateship formulated by Petrarch's oration and filtered through Lydgate and Hoccleve. Though writing <italic>Fürstenspiegel</italic> and citing Lydgate, whose position he would gladly assume, Ashby is more obliged to Hoccleve, whose social position resembled his more. Prison can do that sort of thing.</p>
<p>With ‘ “And long to sue it is a wery thing”: Legal Commentary in <italic>The Assembly if Ladies</italic>’ (<italic>SP</italic> 101[2004] 20–37), Wendy A. Matlock steps into new critical waters, for she looks at current opinion concerning the judicial system in the late fifteenth century and demonstrated how the <italic>Assembly</italic> reflects it in a literary environment, thus enabling its readers to focus more on considering the situation. In the real world, the judiciary is slow to act and guarantees no results; so does Lady Loyalty's, though it might have been presumed to be an ideal court. Philippa Hardman's very interesting ‘ “This litel child, his litel book”: Narratives for Children in Late-Fifteenth-Century England’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 51–66) ranges widely to consider what evidence might and might not be useful in identifying works and books for children and adolescents: size (references, manuscripts, and Caxton prints), texts (ABCs, paternosters, Lydgate's <italic>Stans puer ad mensam</italic>, and other works by physical association), and consequently selected anthologies (such as the Heege manuscript and Bishop John Moore's <italic>Sammelband</italic>). Hot upon the heels of her edition, Ruth Kennedy poses the question ‘Spalding's <italic>Alliterative Katherine Hymn:</italic> A Guild Connection from the South-East Midlands?’ (<italic>Viator</italic> 35[2004] 455–82), reprising some of the information in greater detail and working with the appearance of ‘giyld’ in line 268 plus later documentary evidence for a guild of St Katherine and the existence of two other guild-connected, alliterative texts in fourteen-line stanzas to argue in favour of such a connection. Niamh Pattwell finds ‘A Sentence of Cursing in Pembroke College, Cambridge MS 285’ (<italic>LeedsSE</italic> 35[2004] 121–36) that does not match the Sentence usually accompanying the <italic>Sacerdos Parochialis</italic>; although it resembles Pickering's group 10 of Middle English Sentences, it was probably deliberately selected and edited as shorter than the original and more appropriate for the intended ‘simple cleric’ or even the lay reader.</p>
<p>In ‘The Occasion, Author, and Readers of <italic>Knyghthode and Bataile</italic>’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 260–72), Daniel Wakelin narrows the date and authorship posed in 1935 by Dybowski and Arend, the editors of <italic>Knyghthode and Bataile</italic> (EETS <sc>os</sc> 201), pointing to 1 March 1460 and the king's entry into London with presentations but not full pageant, Beaumont as intermediary, and John Neele as the author, rather than Robert Parker, especially taking into account the politics of early 1460, given Neele's ties to Waynflete and inability to reach his post at St Mary's in Yorkist Calais. Following Neele's career and clues from the three manuscripts’ provenance, Wakelin argues for readership among both Henry VI's and Edward IV's administrations, and perhaps in the court and in Calais. In ‘Imagining Genoa in Late Medieval England’ (<italic>Viator</italic> 35[2004] 387–434), Joseph L. Grossi Jr. attempts to explain the different representations—most negative, a few hopeful—which the Genoese are given by the likes of Laurence Minot, the alliterative <italic>Morte Arthure</italic>, Mandeville, the <italic>Libelle of English Polycye</italic>, Lydgate, Higden's <italic>Polychronicon</italic>, and others. Even brief references may be illuminating, such as the mention that the cannibalistic giant of Mont Saint-Michel is Genoese. What is clear is that Genoa mattered to England, though English attitudes were largely ambivalent. Karen Elaine Smyth's ‘Changing Times in the Cultural Discourse of Late Medieval England’ (<italic>Viator</italic> 35[2004] 435–53) gives a synopsis of how time was marked, mostly by manufactured devices, and increasingly noticed. Then as now, a multiplicity of representations betrays public, private, personal, relative, and absolute perceptions. David Scott-Macnab extracts and discusses two items of ‘Hawking Information in the Tollemache “Book of Secrets”’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 348–50), in a sort of review of the Roxburghe Club facsimile [2001], begun by the late Jeremy Griffiths and completed by A.S.G. Edwards, with notes on manuscripts, sources, and provenance. Joseph Grossi Jr., in ‘John Capgrave's “Small Pypying”: Marveling at Rome in <italic>Ye Solace of Pilgrimes</italic>’ (<italic>M&H</italic> 30[2004] 55–83), presents a rather priggish Capgrave finding Rome and Romans proud of their classical heritage and even obstructing pious pilgrims’ quest for truth, pitted ‘against Roman paganism, past and present’ (p. 590).</p>
<p>A.J. Pollard's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><italic>Imagining Robin Hood: The Late-Medieval Stories in Historical Context</italic></xref> takes a historian's view in explaining social and historical background in order to help general readers better understand a number of important and often unexplained concepts. Thus, after discussing how the substantial texts are late fifteenth-century, though there are significantly earlier references, and that later versions are reworkings within new social environments, Pollard explains what late medieval people would have understood in terms of yeomanry, forests, criminal behaviour such as that performed by the Merrie Men, the religious establishment, fellowship, social order and its subversion, and historical memory. The quality of detail varies from chapter to chapter, but the whole is a pleasant and informative read.</p>
<p>Turning to scientific works, we see that George R. Keiser has worked on how two medieval reactions to the Black Death were adapted by changing readership and technology in ‘Two Medieval Plague Treatises and their Afterlife in Early Modern England’ (<italic>Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences</italic> 58[2003] 292–324). Thomas Moulton's <italic>Myrour or Glasse of Helthe</italic> appears in Sloane 3489 [<italic>c</italic>.1475], which was originally a large miscellany including Hoccleve, Lydgate, Berners’ <italic>Boke of Huntyng</italic>, and <italic>The Awntyrs of Arthure</italic> and is now broken up, largely among Rawlinson and Douce manuscripts. Moulton actually adapted a popular late medieval plague treatise by John of Burgundy, using a long version of it and significantly improving its organization and coherence. The printing history sadly garbled portions of the text, but Moulton's moralizing evidently struck a resonating chord and ensured his long popularity, until faced with more sophisticated moralizing medicine. By contrast, Thomas Paynell's <italic>Moche Profitable Treatise Against the Pestilence</italic> was not a popular version of the ‘Canutus treatise’ already twice translated into Middle English; his other works were well received, but this one seems to have failed due to insufficient stress on the plague as divine retribution for sin. Continuing his series on the organization of this encyclopedia, David Moses asked the deceptive question ‘Why Is a Cow Below a Lettuce? The Anomalous Placement of the Animal in Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ <italic>De proprietatibus rerum</italic>’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 17–19), using Trevisa's translation. The point is actually that the book on animals follows that on plants, but this happens because of the overall structure following Christian spiritual hierarchy and then Aristotelian nature, based on the four elements in their physical order: fire, air, water, and earth, with the last subdivided into a kind of re-ascension.</p>
<p>Bryon Lee Grigsby's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><italic>Pestilence in Medieval and Early Modern English Literature</italic></xref> takes a page from social constructionism, leaning heavily on secondary materials, to recapture how medical, theological, and consequently literary thought related leprosy, the plague, and later syphilis to morality. After tracking the roots from classical to medieval medicine, he uses some medical and penitential writings to show the cultural construction of diseases, though he seems to have missed Linda Ehrsam Voigts and Patricia Deery Kurtz's <italic>Scientific and Medical Writings in Old and Middle English: An Electronic Reference</italic> [2001]. Looking at leprosy in <italic>Amis and Amiloun</italic>, Chaucer's <italic>Summoner</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic>, Gower, and Henryson's <italic>Testament of Cresseid</italic>, Grigsby finds that individual simony and envy are its causes and lust may be a consequence. Langland, the York plays (assuming the extant texts are as early as possible performances there), and Chaucer's <italic>Pardoner</italic>'<italic>s Prologue</italic> and <italic>Tale</italic> are early reactions to the plague; they seem to connect it to broken or false oaths and even pride. By the time of Lydgate's <italic>Dietary</italic> and ‘Doctrine for Pestilence’ and William Bullein's <italic>Dialogue against the Fever Pestilence</italic> [1564], the plague was viewed less as punishment for sin and more as a natural phenomenon that needed treatment. Spenser and Bacon still find a relationship between leprosy and spiritual sin, but Shakespeare, Jonson, and Ford also connect leprosy to syphilis and carnal sins.</p>
<p>Based on their work in the last few years one might have expected Irma Taavitsainen and Päivi Pahta's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><italic>Medical and Scientific Writing in Late Medieval English</italic></xref> to be a selection of edited texts, but it is actually a collection of studies about such works by many hands, including their own. Thus, they open with an introductory ‘Vernacularisation of Scientific and Medical Writing in its Sociohistorical Context’ (pp. 1–19), providing a literature review, general survey of topics ranging from language use through composition to reception, and highlighting a forthcoming electronic <italic>Corpus of Middle English Medical Texts</italic> used in some of this volume's essays. Claire Jones begins discussing ‘Discourse Communities and Medical Texts’ (pp. 23–36) by explaining what these communities are, and then turns to brief examples of them in Keiser's Stockholm Group and Voigt's Sloane Group of manuscripts. Taavitsainen continues by looking at ‘Transferring Classical Discourse Conventions into the Vernacular’ (pp. 37–72), following <italic>loci communes</italic> in the learned and popular traditions (using commentaries and encyclopedias) and seeing how the question–answer formula also made its way from one to the other. In a related fashion, Päivi Pahta analyses ‘Code-Switching in Medieval Medical Writing’ (pp. 73–99) and finds that Latin quotations occur most often in surgical texts, remedy books tend to switch to Latin for religious purposes, Latin is fairly rare in specialized texts, and all types do use it for metadiscourse. Juhanni Norri's ‘Entrances and Exits in English Medical Vocabulary, 1440–1550’ (pp. 100–43) prompts us to rethink the sixteenth century as a fount of scientific lexicons, for only thirty-three treatises provide 2,364 names of sicknesses and body parts, with 1,319 of these names continuing after 1550. Using the electronic editions of the <italic>Corpus</italic> to study ‘Herbal Recipes and Recipes in Herbals—Intertextuality in Early English Medical Writing’ (pp. 144–73), Martti Mäkinen concludes that both are basically the same and come from the <italic>materia medica</italic> of classical antiquity, though the herbals tend to borrow from other medical texts, such as recipe collections. Ruth Carroll finds that for ‘Middle English Recipes: Vernacularisation of a Text-Type’ (pp. 174–91) was a fourteenth-century phenomenon and quickly standardized format, though that format changed with time. In ‘The <italic>Declarations</italic> of Richard Wallingford: A Case Study of a Middle English Astrological Treatise’ (pp. 197–208), Linda Ehrsam Voigts announces a previously unknown translation surviving in six manuscripts with three versions or possibly translations. Finally, Irma Taavitsainen's ‘Scriptorial “House-Styles” and Discourse Communities’ (pp. 209–40) reviews prior work before examining linguistic features of a number of texts in the <italic>Corpus</italic> and finding two main language types: Central Midland Standard and a ‘house style’ common to Guy de Chauliac surgical texts and the <italic>Rosarium</italic> (no doubt meaning the <italic>Rosarium theologiae</italic>), implying a London base.</p>
<p>Marcin Krygier and Liliana Sikorska's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><italic>For the Loue of Inglis Lede</italic></xref>, a selection of eight papers from the Second Medieval English Studies Symposium held in Poznań, Poland, in November 2003, is a mixed bag of articles. The first four are explicitly on language, beginning with D. Gary Miller's ‘The Morphosyntactic Legacy of Scand–English Contact’ (pp. 9–39), which summarizes about fifteen influences that are fairly certain, including <italic>they</italic>, participle endings, generalized noun -<italic>(e)s</italic> plural and genitive singulars, reflexive -<italic>self</italic>, phrasal genitives, P-stranding, and V2. Rafał Molencki looks at ‘The Use of the Pluperfect Tense in Early Middle English’ (pp. 41–54), using the 1150–1250 part of the Helsinki Corpus and finding increased placement of the largely undeclined participle immediately after the auxiliary. In ‘Observations on Assonance of Fricative Consonants in the Rhymes of Scribal Manuscripts of LME Verse’ (pp. 55–76), Saara Nevanlinna finds that f/v, s/z, and þ/ð distinctions were probably not universal, among other fricatives, and fricatives could have rhyming assonance even with plosives, velars, and alveolars. Matylda Włodarczyk-Golka's ‘Reported Speech Analysis in a Historical Pragmatic Perspective: In Search of a Database’ (pp. 77–96) lays out some theoretical groundwork and then surveys some secular Middle English and more early modern English texts—respectively, fiction and romance vs. fiction and travelogue—for various kinds of reported speech. The section on literature starts with Liliana Sikorska ‘Imagining Heaven: Visions of Bliss in Medieval Mystical Discourse’ (pp. 97–131), mainly through the Middle English texts by Elizabeth of Hungary, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena, Margery Kempe, and Julian of Norwich, covering their being chosen, their being taught (especially of divine love), the architecture and plan of heaven, and what the senses could perceive: angels, colours, tastes, smells, and music. Andrzej Wicher's ‘The Breton Lay and the Tale of Magic: A Preliminary Attempt at Arriving at the Internal Unity and Ideology of Selected Breton Lays’ (pp. 133–48) works mainly with <italic>Sir Launfal</italic> and <italic>Lay Le Freine</italic> to note that Breton <italic>lais</italic> feature a <italic>femme fatale</italic> or an <italic>homme fatale</italic>, or at least semi-supernatural spouses; this places Marie de France elsewhere, though there remain resemblances. Barbara Kowalik's ‘Addressing God in Middle English Lyrics’ (pp. 149–59) is really on the pronouns (and nouns) used in Middle English prayer lyrics, noting the obvious preference for the second person singular pronoun. Finally, Rafał Borysławski takes us on a Bakhtinian jaunt through ‘The Co(s)mic Space in Chaucer's “Knight's Tale”’ (pp. 161–72), noting opposites in private vs. public spaces and the like, with observations on the Knight's travels, the <italic>Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> vs. the <italic>Miller</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic>, literary convention, and the human condition.</p>
<p>Deanne Williams's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><italic>The French Fetish from Chaucer to Shakespeare</italic></xref> extends from pre-early modern into early modern. Two tendencies, both still extant today, are identified: one is attraction to France and things French, here typified first by Chaucer's <italic>Book of the Duchess</italic>, and the other is rejection of them, as in the Corpus Christi plays’ having Herod speak French. The attraction is traced to the Norman Conquest, of course, but is exemplified by French embrace of a wide variety of content and literary forms, following the <italic>Ovide moralisé</italic>'s version of ‘everything that is written is written for our doctrine’ (Romans 15:4 is not recognized here). Chaucer shows an ‘English’ rusticity not comprehending ‘French’ urbanity yet straining to import and translate it into the native literary model, a picture supported by the Prioress's imperfect French, piety, and sexuality, even though Chaucer's attitude towards his characters and his literary career would seem to move away from a French fetish. Williams's contrasting character is the Corpus Christi Herod, who ‘expresses a large-scale, collective “English” resistance to the French-speaking ruling class’ (p. 52). William Caxton's publications had a ‘Burgundian focus’ (p. 93), explained more in terms of his audience than his background, and this foreign literary taste is made responsible for the English pedagogical works he printed, such as Lydgate's <italic>Stans puer ad mensam</italic>, though in later years Caxton was directed by an interest in masculine identity. The gaze shifted to the self recurs in Stephen Hawes and John Skelton, yet while Hawes looks back at Chaucer and the French tradition with desire, Skelton finds much to object to in French superficiality. Finally, in Shakespeare's histories there is a uniting of the two attitudes, with one being clearly rejected: while France is Richard II's ‘spiritual homeland’, it is a foreign land for Bolingbroke's exile (p. 185), and the roan Barbary becomes emblematic through their hands. La Pucelle, of course, is demonized, though <italic>2 Henry VI</italic> is problematic, as are identities, relationships, and even language in <italic>King John</italic>. These issues and more culminate in <italic>The Merry Wives of Windsor</italic>, which also toys with French and English as if to underscore the political and personal matters arising in the Henry plays.</p>
<p>E.A. Jones edits the papers from the seventh Exeter symposium on <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><italic>The Medieval Mystical Tradition in England</italic></xref>, read in July 2004 and published with remarkable swiftness within about a month, displaying a fetish for quotations as titles and titles as subtitles. Essays relevant to other sections of this chapter are reviewed below. Of general relevance are the following: In ‘ “We are united with God (and God with us?)”: Adapting Ruusbroec in <italic>The Treatise of Perfection of the Sons of God</italic> and <italic>The Chastising of God</italic>'<italic>s Children</italic>’ (pp. 21–36), Marleen Cré notes the cautious treatment the English Carthusian translators’ gave to Ruusbroec's theme of the union of God and the soul in contemplation.</p>
<p>David Griffith's ‘The Reception of Continental Women Mystics in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century England: Some Artistic Evidence’ (pp. 97–117), focuses on rood-screen paintings of the same three women saints. In ‘ “Thiself a cros to thiself”: Christ as <italic>Signum Impressum</italic> in the <italic>Cloud</italic>- Texts against the Background of Expressionistic Christology in Late Medieval Devotional Theology’ (pp. 133–47), Karl-Heinz Steinmetz finds that the <italic>Cloud of Unknowing</italic> and related texts, taken as by a single <italic>Cloud</italic>-author, assert that contemplatives must ‘imitate the normative structure of the life of Christ’ (p. 146). Valerie Edden's ‘ “The prophetycal lyf of an heremyte”: Elijah as the Model of the Contemplative Life in <italic>The Book of the First Monks</italic>’ (pp. 149–61) summarizes and comments on this Carmelite text and its emphasis on Elijah, using the mid-fifteenth-century English translation by Thomas Scrope. In ‘ “Makedes of me | wrecche þi leofmon & spuse”: Mystical Desire and Visionary Consummation” (pp. 163–76), Susannah Chewning compares similarities between mystical material (exemplified by the <italic>Wohunge</italic> Group of texts) and dream visions (exemplified by <italic>Pearl</italic>), both regarding the unconscious mind, desire, and transcendence. Finally, Vincent Gillespie explores the depth of ‘ “Hid diuinite”: The Spirituality of the English Syon Brethren” (pp. 189–206) to show that their devotion to vocation, seen briefly in the difficulties over supremacy in the 1530s, can be better understood through the anonymity and learning of the documents that remain.</p>
<p>Corinne Saunders, Françoise Le Saux, and Neil Thomas edit the collection <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><italic>Writing War: Medieval Literary Responses to Warfare</italic></xref>, which is not limited to the British Isles. After the introduction, Christopher Allmand surveys the reception of ‘The <italic>De re militari</italic> of Vegetius in the Middle Ages and Renaissance’ throughout Europe (pp. 15–28), Marianne J. Ailes presents ‘Heroes of War: Ambroise's Heroes of the Third Crusade’ (pp. 29–48) in the Norman chronicle <italic>Estoire de la Guerre Sainte</italic> from shortly after 1192, with Richard the Lionheart as the principal hero, and W.H. Jackson examines ‘Warfare in the Works of Rudolf von Ems’ (pp. 49–75), who flourished as a vernacular German writer in the second quarter of the thirteenth century but incorporated French and Latin traditions. In ‘Chronicling the Hundred Years War in Burgundy and France in the Fifteenth Century’ (pp. 77–92), Georges le Brusque discusses three responses to war: the heroic vision, the denunciation of its horrors, and a pragmatic view. A Francophone work is also the subject of Françoise Le Saux's ‘War and Knighthood in Christine de Pizan's <italic>Livre des faits d’armes et de chevallerie</italic>’ (pp. 93–105). The volume then shifts to works in English, beginning with Thea Summerfield's ‘Barbour's <italic>Bruce</italic>: Compilation in Retrospect’ (pp. 107–25), which looks at the political environment when Barbour wrote, how Barbour matched Bruce's strategies with contemporary notions of war, and how Barbour mined different traditions to create a heroic leader. Corinne Saunders approaches ‘Women and Warfare in Medieval English Writing’ (pp. 187–212) surveying women in the battle situations and taking as examples the writings of Margaret Paston, Wulfstan, Roger of Wendover, <italic>Genesis A, Havelok the Dane</italic>, Malory, the <italic>Siege of Jerusalem</italic>, Chaucer, and more. She concludes that most often women's role was one of several placed within men's world. Finally, in ‘Speaking for the Victims’ (pp. 213–31), Helen Cooper examines French pastoral verse and drama sympathizing with the peasantry during the Hundred Years War.</p>
<p>A few articles concern language and literature. John Frankis's ‘Layamon and the Fortunes of Yogh’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 1–9) reminds us that the name's first syllable comes from the Old Norse <italic>lagu</italic>, and observes that around 1250 insular in English texts split to Caroline for the plosive and yogh for the fricative. After a survey of earlier attempts to offer what the insular or the yogh represented, Frankis concluded that ‘Lawman’ is practical and would be in line with what the author of the <italic>Historia Brutonum</italic> believed his name to be. C.D. Fletcher examined the ‘language of disinheritance’ in ‘Narrative and Political Strategies at the Deposition of Richard II’ (<italic>JMH</italic> 30[2004] 323–41), with analogues, if not sources, found in romances such as <italic>Beues of Hampton, Fulk Fitz Waryn</italic>, and <italic>The Erle of Tolouse</italic>. And Ad Putter's study of ‘The Language and Metre of <italic>Pater Noster</italic> and <italic>Three Dead Kings</italic>’ (<italic>RES</italic> 55[2004] 498–526) argues against their authorship by John Audelay with opening observations that the sole manuscript witness does not ascribe them to him and that their texts are very corrupt, unlike Audelay's. Careful analysis of the language indicates it is more northerly (not just due to an alliterative tradition) and a bit earlier than the known Audelay poems. The metrical form is a highly complicated mixture of alliteration and rhyme, which Putter finds exceeds Audelay's skills, but the form also helps identify where errors lie and how they might be dealt with. Some difficult readings are discussed at the end, with suggestions for emendation.</p>
<p>More general coverage appears in a number of publications. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><italic>Medieval Rhetoric: A Casebook</italic></xref>, edited by Scott D. Troyan, is somewhat deceptive in title, for its genesis through the New Chaucer Society shows it to be more accurately a consideration of rhetoric in England in the late Middle Ages, with particular reference to Chaucer. The essays in this volume on Chaucer are reviewed in Chapter IV. Those of general relevance are the following. Douglas Kelly opens the volume with ‘The Medieval Art of Poetry and Prose: The Scope of Instruction and the Uses of Models’ (pp. 1–24), meaning mainly Latin and French models more than theory, but including anthologizing, commenting, and even excerpting. Georgiana Donavin's ‘Alphabets and Rosary Beads in Chaucer's <italic>An ABC</italic>’ (pp. 25–39) ‘demonstrates how Chaucer compares alphabetic letters to rosary beads and thereby prompts his readers—probably adult foreigners at court—to remember their ABCs’ (p. 25), raising an obvious question, and then turns to ABCs in general and other matters germane to Chaucer's text and elementary education. Taking an ancient clue repeated by Marx as a difference between actual use of an item as opposed to its barter value as a commodity, Ann W. Astell ponders ‘On the Usefulness and Use-Value of Books: A Medieval and Modern Enquiry’ (pp. 41–62), and places this difference into the context of <italic>utilitas</italic> in the <italic>Accessus ad auctores</italic>, where the use is considered as value to the reader and also at times to the author, thus being related to authorial intent, whereas in Aristotelian <italic>accessus</italic> it is considered as <italic>causa finalis</italic>; she applies these considerations to the use of the Bible and of mystical writings, and quickly closes with their applicability to Chaucer's <italic>Canterbury Tales</italic>. In an interesting and detailed article, Timothy L. Spence compares ‘The Prioress's <italic>Oratio ad Mariam</italic> and Medieval Prayer Composition’ (pp. 63–90) as described by various <italic>artes orandi</italic> from Chaucer's time and the century before. Martin Camargo summarizes “Time as Rhetorical Topos in Chaucer's Poetry” (pp. 91–107), covering chronological time, time or stage in life from infancy to old age, and ‘cosmic time’. Peter W. Mack's ‘Argument and Emotion in <italic>Troilus and Criseyde</italic>’ (pp. 109–26) takes to task the rhetorical strategies and effects in Book IV, where the principals express their grief at parting but where they and others provide numerous arguments which employ both logic and emotion to urge their goals. In ‘Advice without Consent in <italic>Troilus and Criseyde</italic> and <italic>The Canterbury Tales</italic>’ (pp. 127–45), Marc Guidry looks at power relationships, focusing mostly on Criseyde, with glances at a few of Chaucer's other women and with a tip of the hat to Foucault. A shift beyond Chaucer begins with ‘The Traces of Invention: Phatic Rhetoric, Anthology, and Intertextuality in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>’ by Melissa Putman Sprenkle (pp. 147–60), which sets itself in a polarity of orality vs. bookishness to determine whether oral-performance strategies (principally tense-shifting, with additional comments on references to sound and performance) ‘are truly empty and meaningless or if they serve textual and rhetorical functions’ (p. 149); unsurprisingly, the latter is selected. Robin Hass Birky's ‘ “The Word was made flesh”: Gendered Bodies and Anti-Bodies in Twelfth- and Thirteenth-Century Arts of Poetry’ (pp. 161–215) offers alternative rhetorics through a theorized lens (Foucault, Barthes): incarnational, naked, disembodied, effeminized, Marian, chaste, pedestalized and wanton, and domesticated. Finally, in ‘Unwritten between the Lines: The Unspoken History of Rhetoric’ (pp. 217–45), Scott D. Troyan proffers hopes for discovering an implicit medieval rhetoric through reviewing its history, our misconceptions of it, rhetoric and hermeneutics, the manuals’ influence upon it, and the function of texts within medieval hermeneutics.</p>
<p>Valerie J. Allen leads us on a joyous frolic in ‘Broken Air’ (<italic>Exemplaria</italic> 16[2004] 305–22), the title being Isidore's definition of sound, which she ascribes to Chaucer though it was well known. But the phrase easily reminds us of breaking wind, and after a summary of Priscian on oral sounds Allen turns to its baser refractions in music (the bagpipes, farting as music), battle (‘bombard’ and ‘petard’ both come from flatulence), and marital relationships, with examples long and short from Chaucer, Norton's <italic>Ordinal of Alchemy</italic>, Langland, and more, but mostly from medieval French literature.</p>
<p>The contributors to Kathy Lavezzo's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><italic>Imagining a Medieval English Nation</italic></xref> use various theoretical approaches to reveal but also complicate the concept of nationhood. The essays in this collection of general relevance are the following. L.O. Aranye Fradenburg's ‘Pro Patria Mori’ (pp. 3–38) works to show that chivalric texts do not find a contradiction between the destruction of war and construction of a nation. Two pieces use language as their entry point. Andrew Galloway's ‘Latin England’ (pp. 41–95) looks into the chronicles by Ranulph Higden and Thomas Walsingham for diversity as a problem that foregrounds a national vision, even as the linguistic weight hastened a secular, vernacular nationalism. To this, Jill C. Havens adds one ready vernacular force: ‘ “As Englishe is comoun langage to oure puple”: The Lollards and their Imagined “English” Community’ (pp. 96–128). As a persecuted people, the Lollards felt a strong sense of community despite broad geographic dispersal; more to the point, their religious views were enhanced by their desire for English as a sacral language.</p>
<p>Lynn Staley's ‘Translating “Communitas” ’ (pp. 261–303) shows how Charles V was able to establish himself as France, and vernacular textuality as an official court culture, but that this was not possible for Richard II. Staley sees the <italic>Nun</italic>'<italic>s Priest</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> as an allegory of how posturing will lead to ruin. Claire Sponsler takes ‘The Captivity of Henry Chrystede: Froissart's <italic>Chroniques</italic>, Ireland, and Fourteenth-Century Nationalism’ (pp. 304–39) as a tale of how national identities may not be neatly defined, for Chrystede was an Anglo-Irishman who was captured and went native, only to be rescued years later, resettled near Bristol, and asked by Richard II to civilize four captured Irish kings, and his tale is told by Froissart, himself a long-term resident in a foreign land.</p>
<p>We are given another important reminder of multilingual medieval England this year: Richard Firth Green and Linne R. Mooney present the Festschrift <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><italic>Interstices: Studies in Middle English and Anglo-Latin Texts in Honour of A.G. Rigg</italic></xref>. After the usual prefatory material, including a list of George Rigg's publications since 1963, in ‘ “Envoluped in synne”: The Bolton Hours and its Confessional Formula’ (pp. 3–13) Alexandra Barratt briefly discusses the manuscript and formula, whose late Middle English text she edits here. J.A. Burrow also presents things to think about in ‘Nonverbal Communication in Medieval England: Some Lexical Problems’, in that what we understand as, for example, ‘laughing’ and ‘winking’ seem to have referred to smiling and a meaningful look, and so these and other gesture terms need to be examined with care (pp. 44–54). Turning from words to narrative elements in ‘John of Glastonbury and Borrowings from the Vernacular’ (pp. 55–73), James P. Carley repeats his early dating of John's <italic>Chronicle</italic> and asserts that a select group of Arthurian materials was available in Latin in Glastonbury by the late fourteenth century, that John was involved in assembling these materials and in their rendition into Old French, and that the Latin materials or their Old French versions made his sources better known than his chronicle. In ‘Greeks in England, 1400’ (pp. 74–98), David R. Carlson describes how inconsequential was the visit of Manuel II Palaeologus, the Greek emperor of the East, who arrived just before Christmas 1400 and stayed for a month or two, since it only served to enhance English notions of cultural and political superiority. Richard Firth Green presents ‘<italic>The Hermit and the Outlaw</italic>’ (pp. 137–66), an edition of an entertaining late fifteenth-century poem based on two common sermon <italic>exempla</italic>. Anne Hudson investigates ‘Peter Pateshull: One-Time Friar and Poet?’ (pp. 167–83), a disenchanted (if not apostate) Augustinian and quite a character, who may be responsible for about five anti-fraternal and anti-establishment Latin poems in the late 1370s and early 1380s which are badly in need of an editor. The last item is Linne R. Mooney's wide-ranging survey of ‘Manuscript Evidence for the Use of Medieval English Scientific and Utilitarian Texts’ (pp. 184–202).</p>
<p>In addition, Thomas C. Moser Jr. presents <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><italic>A Cosmos of Desire: The Medieval Latin Erotic Lyric in English Manuscripts</italic></xref>, mainly during the period after the Conquest and before the so-called resurgence of English literature, thus emphasizing Anglo-Norman cultural circles and the background for subsequent English texts. For centuries, a good education involved classical verse, and made heavy use of Ovid, Virgil, Horace, and others who wrote of love and desire, which schoolchildren imitated into adulthood, to various degrees (like Chaucer, some rejected their earlier lascivious works). Moser begins with some northern French poets <italic>c</italic>.1060–1120 and moves to look closely at some (probably) Anglo-Latin Ovidian poems in two English manuscripts from around the end of that period. He then turns to secular, upper-class introspective efforts towards self-realization and their relationships with twelfth-century education and its new Neoplatonic impulses, reflected in numerous texts. From here it is a simple step to look at Ovidian poems in pedagogical contexts, including those by the young Gerald of Wales, and afterwards to make a closer, more detailed examinations of works both anonymous and by named authors that represent mature poets’ efforts, with special attention to three erotic poems on Orpheus, Hercules, and Leda. Throughout, the poems of concern are discussed carefully and presented in Latin and English translation, while ancillary materials are only in English because their content and not their formal characteristics are the focus.</p>
<p>Uwe Böker's collection <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><italic>‘Of Remembraunce the Keye’: Medieval Literature and its Impact through the Ages</italic></xref>, a Festschrift for Karl Heinz Göller, ranges widely though it has a medieval English focus. Derek Brewer offers ‘Some Notes on the Nature of Medieval Romance and the Modern Novel’, musing at large about narratives (pp. 47–59). In ‘Authority and Representation in Medieval Romance: Chrétien and Malory’ (pp. 61–78), Robert Weimann actually begins with <italic>Beowulf</italic>, where the narrator's authority comes from sharing a communal identity with the audience; by Chrétien, he argues, authority had moved to the literary text, while for Malory it lies in a balance between the text and its presentation.</p>
<p>Turning to nineteenth-century Germany, Rainer Schöwerling follows the origins, development, and contemporary reception of ‘<italic>The Letters of a Dead Man</italic> and the <italic>Life-Atlas of Fürst Pückler-Muskau as Results of his English Tour</italic>’ (pp. 173–88). Back in England, Elisabeth Brewer surveys more than simply ‘The Love–Death Motif in Some Little-Known Nineteenth-Century Novels’ (pp. 189–202), noting religious themes, historical background, exotic locales, sisterhoods, and the reaction to Kingsley's <italic>Hypatia</italic>. Michael Dallapiazza returns to German literature but moves us to early in the twentieth century with ‘Medieval Tristan and Fin de Siècle Aestheticism: Georg Kaiser's König Hahnrei’ (pp. 203–14). After returning to the Vulgate cycle and Malory, Joerg O. Fichte turns to Tennyson, Morris, T.H. White, Thomas Berger, and Marion Zimmer Bradley in ‘ “If you achieve perfection, you die”: The Treatment of Galahad in Modern Arthurian Literature’ (pp. 215–32). Dieter A. Berger looks at David Lodge's <italic>Small World</italic>, A.S. Byatt's <italic>Possession</italic>, and Fay Weldon's <italic>Life and Loves of a She-Devil</italic> in ‘Resurgent Romance and the Comic in Contemporary British Fiction’ to conclude that romance is not yet dead and that gender plays a larger role now, especially in critical eyes (pp. 233–50). One of these novels returns in Rüdiger Ahrens's ‘The Revival of the Quest in David Lodge's Novel <italic>Small World</italic>’, scanning over a few romance leitmotifs, such as the quest, parallel structures (because multiple people are on the same quest), and intertextuality with Eliot's <italic>Waste Land</italic> (pp. 251–65). Franz Meier turns to very recent science fiction and the rightly praised ‘Neuromancer/New Romancer: Cyberpunk and the Tradition of Romance’ (pp. 267–90) to place Gibson's novel among medieval, picaresque, and Gothic romances. In ‘ “But what about Gawain?” Intertextual Reflections on Iris Murdoch's <italic>The Green Knight</italic>’, Hans-Jürgen Diller does, indeed, offer a number of reflections on correspondences between the two works, with Clement as Gawain (pp. 291–305). Peter Lenz's ‘Circular Quest in the Vale of Tears: Eamonn Sweeney's <italic>Waiting for the Healer</italic> as Swan Song to the Romanticised Image of Ireland’ (pp. 307–19) features a traditional motif of an exile's return to Ireland, only this time as prelude to the realization that one must move forwards. Medieval fantasy, rather than science fiction, is the subject of Władysław Witalisz's ‘Saving the Legend: Andrzej Sapkowski's Re-reading of <italic>Tristan</italic> in <italic>La Maladie</italic>’ (pp. 321–9), where Morholt and Branwen are the principals and the latter becomes Iseult. Of greater interest to readers of these pages is Hans Sauer's ‘Heaneywulf, Liuzzawulf: Two Recent Translations of <italic>Beowulf</italic>’ (pp. 331–48), much of which is summarized data-gathering, but which favours Heaneywulf over Liuzza's translation, despite the Celticisms. Finally, in ‘Literary Historians’ Gothic, the Romance of the “Ancient Gothic Constitution”, and Peter Ackroyd's Gothic Imagination in <italic>The Clerkenwell Tales</italic>’, Uwe Böker surveys several literary meanings of the term ‘Gothic’ (the ancient constitution being a concept of old laws and customs preceding the Norman yoke), of which only the idea of the Gothic novel seems relevant to Ackroyd, whose <italic>Tales</italic> lean heavily upon the dark side (pp. 349–78).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2"><title>2. Women's Writing</title>
<p>The most important event in this field in 2004 was the publication of Helen Castor's gripping monograph on the Pastons: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><italic>Blood and Roses: The Paston Family in the Fifteenth Century</italic></xref>. This book brilliantly conveys the anxious aspirational energy driving the Pastons as they struggled to improve and to maintain their position in the world. It draws a compelling picture of the hardships undergone by the nouveaux riches as legal rights over property did battle with aristocratic insistence on ancient rights and privileges—and influence, not integrity, ultimately determined the outcome of disputes. Castor gives us a strong sense of the characters of the Paston protagonists, and Margaret emerges as the central figure in the family, her letters revealing her changing attitudes towards husband and son, and her attempts to hold the family together. The book has a primarily political and legal focus, using the Pastons as a lens through which fifteenth-century England can be observed. In particular, Castor reveals the mutual dependence of local and national struggles, as the power shifts of the Wars of the Roses had direct influences on property disputes in Norfolk. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><italic>Blood and Roses</italic></xref> also juxtaposes the public and private crises that shaped the Pastons’ lives: while she was distracted over the siege and loss of Caister Castle and concerned about the fate of her sons and servants there, Margaret Paston was also trying to claw back her daughter Margery from her secret marriage with a family retainer. In telling the story of the macro-politics of the fifteenth century, Castor also has time to dwell on detail, telling us, for example, about Thomas Stumps, the handless Paston servant who swore he could still fire an arrow. This monograph is accessible to the non-academic reader, and includes explanations of Middle English words unfamiliar to the non-medievalist (such as <italic>worship</italic>). It also includes useful apparatus: twenty-seven illustrations (including details from the Luttrell Psalter and the Gough map, photographs of Alice Chaucer's tomb and Caister Castle, and copies of some of the letters themselves), a Paston family tree, a royal family tree, a map, a note on currency, and a glossary. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><italic>Blood and Roses</italic></xref> will also prove invaluable to the more specialist scholar for its detail and coherence; it draws together an impressive mass of information into a well-paced narrative. The Paston letters are, of course, the key source, and they give us most of our information about this fascinating family. Castor concludes by pointing out that those things that the Pastons thought would last—buildings and memorials—have crumbled or vanished, but their seemingly ephemeral letters have assured them a secure place in English social and literary history.</p>
<p>Some of those letters have been translated and edited by Diane Watt this year, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><italic>The Paston Women: Selected Letters Translated from the Middle English with Introduction, Notes and Interpretive Essay</italic></xref>. The selection focuses exclusively on letters by women, namely Agnes Paston, Elizabeth Paston, Margaret Paston, Elizabeth Clere, Elizabeth Brews, Cecily Daune, Constance Reynyforth, and Margery Brews. The letters by Daune and Reynyforth (mistresses of John II) are an interesting inclusion, as these women are little discussed. Each group of letters, arranged by writer, is in chronological order, and each letter is supplemented by a brief description, the date, and useful footnotes where necessary. The wills of Agnes, Elizabeth, and Margaret are also included. Watt discusses the Pastons’ biographies, medieval letter-writing, female letter-writing, and women's writing in the vernacular in the introduction, setting the letters in several useful contexts. The edition also contains a family tree, a calendar of saints’ days and festivals, an annotated bibliography, and a glossary of technical terms. The volume concludes with a substantial essay: ‘ “In the absence of a good secretary”: The Letters, Lives, and Loves of the Paston Women Reconsidered’, in which Watt considers the Pastons’ milieu by exploring contexts such as the medieval household, education, the law, fifteenth-century East Anglia, relationships between mothers and children, and late medieval attitudes to marriage.</p>
<p>The relationships between mothers and daughters in the Paston letters are also considered in Candace Gregory's ‘Raising the Good Wife: Mothers and Daughters in Fifteenth-Century England’ (in Biggs, Michalove, and Reeves, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><italic>Reputation and Representation in Fifteenth Century Europe</italic></xref>, pp. 145–67). This essay discusses ‘How the Good Wif Taughte Hir Douhtir’ at length, and examines women's depiction of the relationship between mother and daughter primarily through the Paston letters; it also includes brief discussions of Margery Kempe and Julian of Norwich. A special issue of the <italic>JHiP</italic>, concentrating on ‘Letter-Writing’, contains two articles on the Paston letters. One, ‘Letters: A New Approach to Text Typology’ (<italic>JHiP</italic> 5[2004] 207–27), by Alexander T. Bergs, explores the possibility of dividing the Paston letters into subgroups (e.g. requests, orders), and argues that this can be done by looking at grammatical variation. The second essay, ‘Text in Context: A Critical Historical Approach to Margaret Paston’, by Johanna L. Wood (<italic>JHiP</italic> 5[2004] 229–54), uses a three-dimensional framework for discourse analysis to examine Margaret Paston's letters. Corinne Saunders briefly discusses Margaret's attitude to the violence and civil war in which she was caught up, commenting on her pragmatic and robust attitude, in ‘Women and Warfare in Medieval English Writing’ (in Saunders, Le Saux, and Thomas, eds., pp. 187–212).</p>
<p>The Pastons are also a principal subject of the chapter on ‘Private Letters’ by Richard Beadle (in Edwards, ed., pp. 289–301), which discusses the Paston, Plumpton, Cely, Stonor, and Armburgh collections. As befits an essay in a volume focused on a particular form of writing, this has much to say about the style of the letters. Beadle discusses the way that the letters often play with conventions, in particular dictaminal conventions, and also explores the mixed style of many letters. He also includes an interesting comparison with the fictional letter by Chaucer's Troilus. The other essays in this volume relevant here are those on Julian of Norwich by Barry Windeatt (pp. 67–81), and on Margery Kempe by A.C. Spearing (pp. 83–97). Again, both essays spend time discussing the prose style of these women's writing, and both contributors accurately note that this has been a neglected area of discussion. Windeatt examines the way in which Julian inserts interpolations into existing sentences when rewriting the text, transforming the style and tone of her meditation. The essay also covers a range of other aspects of Julian's texts, providing useful introductory material, considering responses to her writing, and examining issues such as authority and the discourse of enclosure and inclusion. Windeatt also frequently emphasizes the film-like quality of her revelations. Spearing's article also contains a good deal of useful introductory material and consideration of important aspects of the text, such as the traditions that Margery is following and the importance of fantasy in her life and book. The discussion of style is particularly interesting, even controversial, as Spearing focuses on the aspects of the text that clearly belong to prose, rather than speech, foregrounding the role of the scribe, and ultimately proposing ‘an experimental envisaging of <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic> as <italic>The Book of Robert Spryngolde about Margery Kempe</italic>’. All three essays are compact and authoritative, and the volume also includes a thorough bibliography for each chapter. The nature of the volume encourages students to think about these texts from generic, rather than (or as well as) gendered perspectives.</p>
<p>The burgeoning of the ‘companion’ culture continues, and 2004 saw the publication of another one relevant to this field: Arnold and Lewis, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><italic>A Companion to the Book of Margery Kempe</italic></xref>. The editors are both historians, and they emphasize in the preface and in the afterword that their primary focus is on historically based criticism. All of the essays are overtly interested in history in some way. Kate Parker, in ‘Lynn and the Making of a Mystic’, focuses on Margery's Lynn family and connections, especially her identity as John Brunham's daughter. Parker traces the history, geography, and economy of Lynn, examining trade disputes and urban tensions. She uses these East Anglian contexts to read parts of Margery's <italic>Book</italic>, pointing out that the conflicts between bishop and mayor in Lynn in the 1370s might make it natural for Margery to be confident in standing up to bishops, and that the movement of peoples to and from Lynn would make extensive travel seem unexceptional to her. Parker also discusses the downfall of the Brunham family in the fifteenth century, arguing that their disparagement mirrors Margery's own persecutions. Diane Watt's essay on ‘Political Prophecy in the Book of Margery Kempe’ also examines Lynn politics, before moving on to look at international and national political contexts. Watt sees Margery Kempe as a woman laying claim to a prophetic and political role, and argues that understanding the historical events underpinning Margery's <italic>Book</italic> is central to understanding the text itself. She focuses on three parts of the <italic>Book</italic>: Margery's involvement in a dispute in which a local chapel sought parochial rights, Margery's attitude to Roman politics in 1414–15 as the schism came to an end, and Margery's attempts to distance herself from the Lollards after Oldcastle's rising. Margery's trials are the subject of John H. Arnold's essay, ‘Margery's Trials: Heresy, Lollardy and Dissent’, and he too compares the descriptions of her arrests and interrogations with Wyclifite trial narratives. Arnold suggests that the accusations against Margery were not always of heresy, and also points out the difficulties inherent in using Margery's own account as a source, when she is determined to present herself as persecuted. Arnold also explores the nature of ‘dissent’, separating social from religious dissent, and arguing that Margery generally kept within the orthodox discourses of her time.</p>
<p>Claire Sponsler and Jacqueline Jenkins also consider Margery's connections with discourses of dissent. Sponsler's article, ‘Drama and Piety: Margery Kempe’, sets the text in literary and historical contexts. She begins by pointing out that the Kempes’ row about chastity happens when they are returning from York on Midsummer's Eve—a setting that strongly suggests the influence of religious theatre. Sponsler then discusses the kind of plays that Margery could have seen, and compares her with the Digby Mary Magdalene. Sponsler characterizes Margery's piety as theatrical, and discusses its connections with popular religion. She suggests that this piety, like drama, negotiates the boundaries between the orthodox and the non-orthodox, cloaking dissidence with conformity. Jenkins is also interested in the blurred boundaries between the orthodox and the heterodox, and in the strategies that Margery uses to deflect accusation. In her article on ‘Reading and the Book of Margery Kempe’, Jenkins discusses the nuances of the idea of literacy at this time, and the texts that Margery knew and used. She argues that Margery was probably able to read English, but that she constructs herself as illiterate to avoid the potential taint of Lollardy.</p>
<p>P.H. Cullum and Katherine J. Lewis's essays are both concerned with English religious practice in the fifteenth century and its relevance to Margery Kempe. Cullum's article on charity—‘ “Yf lak of charyte be not ower hynderawnce”: Margery Kempe, Lynn, and the Practice of the Spiritual and Bodily Works of Mercy’—examines contemporary practices of charity, and contrasts Margery's reluctance to give with the practice of her Continental contemporary, St Frances of Rome. Cullum argues that Margery's charitable practices were generally parochial and conformed with Lynn norms, while she herself was often dependent on the open-handedness of others. In ‘Margery Kempe and Saint-Making’, Lewis discusses the promotion of the idea of sanctity in the <italic>Book</italic>, and the need to emphasize Margery's miraculous and intercessory powers to conform to English desires. Lewis contextualizes Margery's failure to become a saint or an object of veneration by examining the kind of English native saints who were popular at this time, demonstrating that they tended to be male ecclesiastics or martyred boy children. She points out that devout lay people attracted little interest generally (except for the occasional high-status layman such as Edward II), and that devout laywomen were particularly neglected. She also discusses the Anglicization of Continental female saints as obviating the need for home-grown female ones.</p>
<p>Gender is an explicit focus for Sarah Salih, Isabel Davis, and Kim M. Phillips. In ‘Margery's Bodies: Piety, Work and Penance’, Salih compares Margery with Marguerite Porete, discussing their shared focus on moving beyond renunciation/bodily pieties in the search for God. Salih explores affective piety and critical attitudes towards women and the body, discussing hagiographers’ tendency to exaggerate the sufferings of the flesh. She points out that seemingly gendered practices may in fact be generic. She then discusses Margery's devotional focus on objects and on Christ's body, and her substitution of slander and social degradation for bodily suffering. Davis uses Hoccleve's ‘Ballade to Sir John Oldcastle’, as an entry point to Margery Kempe's text, in ‘Men and Margery: Negotiating Medieval Patriarchy’. She argues that both Oldcastle and Margery challenge a range of orthodoxies, and examines the ways in which Margery interacts with patriarchy, exploiting and challenging its norms and structures. ‘Margery Kempe and the Ages of Woman’, by Phillips, is also concerned with those structures. Phillips looks at cultural and socio-historical approaches to life-cycles, demonstrating that the stages of Margery's life do not fit well with traditional models, and comparing her story with other holy women's life stories.</p>
<p>Finally, two essays focus on reception. Barry A. Windeatt's introduction, ‘Reading and Re-reading <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ examines reactions and attitudes to the book over the years, detailing the changing approaches to the text. Windeatt argues that Margery's conversations with Christ are at the centre of the book, and that this aspect of the text is still largely ignored by modern critics, just as it was by commentators in the early and mid-twentieth century. Allyson Foster's ‘<italic>A Short Treatyse of Contemplation: The Book of Margery Kempe</italic> in its Early Print Contexts’, concentrates on de Worde and Pepwell's early editions of the book. She looks at other treatises published by de Worde at the same time as his edition of Margery's text, and at the other texts excerpted by Pepwell alongside the <italic>Book</italic>. In particular, she takes Catherine of Siena's <italic>Divers Doctrines</italic> as a point of comparison, demonstrating the ways in which the two texts reinforce and affirm each other. Foster also explores the question of audience, both lay and monastic (especially Carthusian and Bridgettine), in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.</p>
<p>Other articles published this year speak to some of the articles in Arnold and Lewis's collection. C. Annette Grisé, ‘Holy Women in Print: Continental Female Mystics and the English Mystical Tradition’ (in E.A. Jones, ed., pp. 83–95), has similar concerns to Foster's essay. Grisé considers the influence of Continental female mystics in England in the late medieval manuscript tradition and the early printed textual tradition. She examines Pepwell's edition of Margery Kempe, arguing that he is not sanitizing the text, but cutting it to fit changing devotional fashions, as he did with other mystical texts. Grisé also compares the <italic>Short Treatyse of Contemplation</italic> with the <italic>Divers Doctrines</italic>, and suggests that early editors’ attitude to Margery was part of a general change in taste from the mystical to the devotional, the contemplative to the didactic. Christine F. Cooper's ‘Miraculous Translation in <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ (<italic>SP</italic> 101[2004] 270–98), intersects with Lewis's emphasis on the importance of miracles in English understandings of sainthood. Cooper discusses the importance of xenoglossia—miraculously being able to be understood in languages not known by the speaker—in the <italic>Book</italic>, focusing on Margery's intercession that enables the priest to read her text, and on her confession to the German priest in Rome. She discusses different traditions of miraculous translation, and suggests that Margery's experiences draw on two different gendered traditions of the miracle. Cooper also points out that her use of the trope relates both to Margery's desire for clerical support, and to her desire to emphasize her direct relationship with Christ.</p>
<p>Two articles published this year examine the recent trend for deeply personal readings of Margery Kempe, as exemplified in Gluck's novel and in Dinshaw's treatment of that novel. Anne Clark Bartlett's, ‘Reading it Personally: Robert Gluck, Margery Kempe and Language in Crisis’ (<italic>Exemplaria</italic> 16[2004] 437–56), argues that much literary criticism tends to homogenize texts, and to make them formulaic and predictable. Bartlett uses Gluck's novel as an example of how a highly personal reading can bring a text to life. Diane Watt, in contrast, points out many of the shortcomings of Gluck's interpretation of Margery Kempe and discusses the ways in which it follows in the pattern of many hostile and misogynist interpretations of her, and seeks to appropriate her text. Watt also discusses and critiques Dinshaw's work on Margery, and suggests that highly personal readings can obscure the text, and that queer readings in particular have sidelined feminist interpretations of the <italic>Book</italic>. This article—‘Critics, Communities, Compassionate Criticism: Learning from <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ (in D’Arcens and Feros Ruys, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><italic>Maistresse of My Wit: Medieval Women, Modern Scholars</italic></xref>, pp. 191–210)—also explores the idea of interpretative communities in other ways. Watt discusses the scribe as an interpreter or critic of the <italic>Book</italic>, and also explores the different kinds of communities in which Margery participated. Here, as in her article in the <italic>Companion to Margery Kempe</italic>, Watt argues forcefully for the political nature of criticism.</p>
<p>Several other articles published this year also discuss <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>. Caroline M. Barron's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><italic>Pilgrim Souls: Margery Kempe and Other Women Pilgrims</italic></xref> compares Margery's pilgrimages with the journeys of other medieval Englishwomen, using archaeological evidence such as pilgrim badges, and exploring fifteenth-century social contexts. C. David Benson includes a chapter entitled ‘Public Writing: <italic>Mandeville</italic>'<italic>s Travels</italic> and <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’, in his <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><italic>Public Piers Plowman: Modern Scholarship and Late Medieval English Culture</italic></xref>. He fits Margery's <italic>Book</italic> into a kind of genre of ‘public writing’, writing that is aimed at a general and mixed readership, and that aims to publicize elite thought. He compares <italic>Piers Plowman, Mandeville</italic>'<italic>s Travels</italic>, and <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic> from a variety of perspectives, suggesting, for example, that all three are amalgams of diverse elements and genres, that all are similarly critical of contemporary Christian practice, and that all imagine a spirituality that reaches into the mundanity of everyday life. In ‘Profaning Margery Kempe's Tomb or the application of a Constraint-Grammar Parser to a Late Middle English Text’ (<italic>IJCP</italic> 9[2004] 225–51), Dolores Gonzalez-Alvarez and Javier Perez-Guerra compare the extent of grammar variation in late Middle English with that in present-day English, using an online parser to analyse part of <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>. In ‘The Augustinian Subject, Franciscan Piety and <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ (<italic>PhilR</italic> 30[2004] 67–88), Brad Herzog compares the <italic>Confessions</italic> and <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>, and argues that Margery transforms Augustine's concept of the soul, constructing her soul as a domestic and social space. Marea Mitchell foregrounds the modern researcher's relationship to the medieval text, in ‘Uncanny Dialogues: “The Journal of Mistress Joan Martyn” and <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ (in D’Arcens and Ruys, eds., pp. 247–66). Mitchell compares a short story by Virginia Woolf with the actual discovery of the <italic>Book of Margery Kempe</italic>, and also explores modernizations of the text. Ann M. Hutchinson includes some discussion of the influence of St Bridget on Margery Kempe in ‘Reflections on Aspects of the Spiritual Impact of St. Birgitta, the Revelations, and the Bridgettine Order in Late Medieval England’ (in E.A. Jones, ed., pp. 69–82).</p>
<p>Other work examines the connections between Margery and Julian of Norwich. Naoë Kukita Yoshikawa's ‘<italic>Discretio Spirituum</italic> in Time: The Impact of Julian of Norwich's Counsel in the <italic>Book of Margery Kempe</italic>’ (in E.A. Jones, ed., pp. 119–32) suggests that Julian's advice to Margery underpins Margery's understanding of the working of the Holy Spirit, and compares some passages from Julian's Long Text with passages from <italic>The Book of Margery Kempe</italic>. A monograph has also been published this year on the works of these two writers: Liz Herbert McAvoy's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><italic>Authority and the Female Body in the Writings of Julian of Norwich and Margery Kempe</italic></xref>. McAvoy is interested in drawing these writers together, and argues that they both attempt to deconstruct the idea of the female body as sinful, instead suggesting that it can be a means of redemption. She focuses on both authors’ use of the language of female bodily experience, and explores the language and imagery used by both women. The book is divided into three sections, on motherhood, female sexuality, and the public female voice, and each section contains a chapter on Julian and a chapter on Margery. <italic>Authority and the Female Body</italic> draws on a wide range of feminist theorists, and on both medieval and modern contexts, suggesting that both writers transgress expectations to enter proscribed arenas, and to challenge established ideas about the female body. Similarly, in, ‘ “Neb … sumdeal ilich wummon and neddre is behinden”: Reading the Monstrous in the Anchoritic Text’ (in E.A. Jones, ed., pp. 51–67), McAvoy suggests that Margery and Julian reverse the idea of the monstrous female in their texts. McAvoy has also published an article this year that builds on chapter 4 of her monograph, ‘ “The fend set him in my throte”: Sexuality and the Fiendish Encounter in Julian of Norwich's <italic>Revelations of Divine Love</italic>’ (<italic>RMSt</italic> 30[2004] 33–55). In this piece, she argues that the diabolic encounter described by Julian is implicitly sexual, and analyses the differences between Short and Long Text versions of the encounter.</p>
<p>Some of the most interesting work published on Julian this year focuses on reading her text socially. Building on her article on lordship and the Holy Spirit in Julian's writings (reviewed here two years ago), Alexandra Barratt has published an essay on ‘Lordship, Service and Worship in Julian of Norwich’ (in E.A. Jones, ed., pp. 177–88). Here, she discusses a range of words and concepts that find their roots in bastard feudalism and are redeployed in Julian's writings. Barratt examines the much-discussed lord and servant parable in its political and social framework, emphasizing the secular aspects of Julian's writing, and ultimately suggesting that we should try to reconstruct a ‘ “social” Julian’ (p. 188). The final section of Felicity Riddy's ‘ “Publication” Before Print: The Case of Julian of Norwich’ (in Crick and Walsham, eds., pp. 29–49), focuses on Julian Norwich. Riddy discusses the anchorite's public role, and the trope of the anchoress's window as site of gossip. She links Julian's insistence that her visions are general, not specific, with the putative circulation of the text itself, suggesting that awareness of the book, and the book itself, circulated in the public sphere through word of mouth. Riddy suggests that we should not think of the book as existing in a private, limited space, but as circulating within the public sphere, to unpretentious lay people, in unbound booklets—booklets which are now lost to us.</p>
<p>Several articles from E.A. Jones, ed., <italic>Medieval Mystical Tradition</italic>, have been reviewed above, and indeed this dense and varied volume makes a particularly strong contribution to scholarship on Julian of Norwich. Two articles—‘ “Oure feyth is groundyd in Goddes worde”: Julian of Norwich and the Bible’, by Annie Sutherland (pp. 1–20), and ‘The Structure of the Soul and the “Godly Wylle” in Julian of Norwich's <italic>Showings</italic>’ (pp. 37–49), by Denise Baker—emphasize both Julian's learning and her creative and original development of that learning. Both critics also suggest that her knowledge is somewhat masked by vernacularity. Sutherland discusses the extent to which biblical language is embedded in Julian's vernacular, exploring the different ways in which Julian may have known the Bible. She emphasizes the creative ways in which Julian uses biblical ideas, and the way that her own voice is saturated with biblical language. She suggests that one reason for Julian's not acknowledging the depth of her biblical indebtedness may be political acuity in the climate of suspicion against Lollards. Baker explores Julian's assimilation and use of Latin theological discourses originating with Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. She focuses on Julian's use of ‘point’ for ‘apex mentis’ and ‘ground’ for ‘fundus’/‘profundum’, and also suggests that Julian's concept of the ‘godly wylle’ finds inspiration in ‘synderesis’ and ‘scintilla’. She concludes that, although Julian's use of the vernacular somewhat obscures the depth of her knowledge, the way that she uses these terms and concepts demonstrates both her impressive knowledge and her profound originality.</p>
<p>One article published this year stands out as a unique description of the development of a way of reading Julian of Norwich's writings. In ‘ “With mekeness aske perseverantly”: On Reading Julian of Norwich’ (<italic>MysticsQ</italic> 30[2004] 126–41), Vincent Gillespie and Maggie Ross explain how their well-known collaboration came about, how it functioned, and how their methodology developed. They discuss their recognition that Julian's <italic>Showings</italic> demands a rejection of many traditional critical and analytical tools. Instead, they cultivated a meditative, reflective way of opening themselves up to the text, of resigning the hermeneutic initiative. The article details some of the crucial insights into the text's language and imagery made by Gillespie and Ross, but perhaps its most timely message is a reminder of the value of reading slowly.</p>
<p>Several other articles published this year also discuss Julian. Another article in E.A. Jones, ed., <italic>Medieval Mystical Tradition</italic>, includes discussion of Julian in the context of the problematic boundary between the genres of dream vision and mysticism: Susannah Mary Chewning, ‘ “Makedes of me | wrecche þi leofmon and spuse”: Mystical Desire and Visionary Consummation’ (pp. 163–76). Cristina Marie Cervone produces a detailed reading of a specific passage from Julian's <italic>Showings</italic> in ‘The “Soule” Crux in Julian of Norwich's <italic>A Revelation of Love</italic>’ (<italic>RES</italic> 55[2004] 151–6). Cervone argues that a passage from chapter 6 of the Long Text usually assumed to be about excretion is actually about death, and that the word ‘soule’ has been consistently misinterpreted here. In ‘Tarantino's Incarnational Theology: Reservoir Dogs, Crucifixions and Spectacular Violence’ (<italic>CrosscurrentsJ</italic> 54[2004] 66–75), Kent L. Brintnall compares the image of the brutalized male body in Christianity and in modern film, taking <italic>Reservoir Dogs</italic> and Julian's visions as his key texts. Claire Sisco King, ‘The Poetics and Praxis of Enclosure: Julian of Norwich, Motherhood, and Rituals of Childbirth’ (<italic>Comitatus</italic> 35[2004] 71–82), examines Julian's interest in motherhood and the body in the context of the material practices of midwifery and birthing practices in the late Middle Ages.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC3"><title>3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics</title>
<p>Carole Hough, in ‘A Note on Harley Lyric No. 3 Line 21’ (<italic>RES</italic> 54[2003] 173–7), suggests that in the first line of the third stanza of ‘Annot and John’, ‘papeiai in pyn’ should be interpreted as ‘parrot in pine tree’. This interpretation avoids straining the syntax and corresponds to the other lines’ parallelism. The <italic>MED</italic> uses the citation for pine tree, despite editors’ efforts to make ‘pyn’ refer to the speaker's woe. Andrew Breeze discusses another line of the same lyric in ‘Jonas, Jason and the Harley Lyric Annot and John’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 237–8). There are problems identifying the list of heroes at the end of this poem; who is ‘Ionas’? Carleton Brown suggested Jonaans from the <italic>Queste del Saint Graal</italic>, while exegetes prefer Jonah from the Bible. Breeze proposes an anagrammatic emendation to ‘Iason’, to produce a well-known figure in the Middle Ages.</p>
<p>Yasuyo Moriya studies a substantial number of alliterative poems in ‘Alliteration Vs. Natural Speech Rhythm in Determining the Meter of Middle English Alliterative Verse’ (<italic>ES</italic> 85[2004] 498–507). Moriya's examination of the <italic>Pearl</italic>-poet's oeuvre, the <italic>Alliterative Morte</italic>, the <italic>Siege of Jerusalem, St. Erkenwald, Winner and Waster</italic>, the <italic>Parlement of the Thre Ages</italic>, the <italic>Pistel of Susan, Somer Soneday</italic>, the <italic>Three Dead Kings</italic>, the <italic>Dispute between Mary and the Cross</italic>, the <italic>Quatrefoil of Love</italic>, and excerpts from the <italic>Destruction of Troy</italic>, the <italic>Wars of Alexander</italic>, and the A and B versions of <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> reveals tension between alliteration and natural rhythms of speech. Moriya concludes that certain lines allow ‘metrical flexibility’, indicating that in the fourteenth century English stress was already mobile (p. 507).</p>
<p>Britton J. Harwood, in ‘The Displacement of Labor in <italic>Winner and Waster</italic>’ (in Robertson and Uebel, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><italic>The Middle Ages at Work</italic></xref>, pp. 157–77), explains <italic>Winner and Waster</italic>'s generic shifts by turning to Cheshire's 1353 rising against an eyre administered by Sir William Shareshull. Harwood's reading, however, is less historicist than psychoanalytical, seeing the poem as a series of displacements: for the threat of lower-class uprisings, substitute ‘a war that confuses the issue of class’ (p. 161); for such a war, substitute a debate within the ‘military aristocracy’ (p. 168); then displace the debate in favour of attention to the king's needs and requirements.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC4"><title>4. The <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet</title>
<p>This year's contribution to scholarship on the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet includes articles on <italic>Pearl</italic> and <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>, as well as analyses that are part of larger, book-length studies of medieval literature. In ‘<italic>Pearl</italic>: The Shadow of the Object, the Shape of the Law’ (<italic>SAC</italic> 26[2004] 29–63), George Edmondson offers a psychoanalytical reading of this poem. Aligning himself with ‘the (mid-period) Lacanian project’ (p. 39), Edmondson seeks to build on earlier psychoanalytical analysis of <italic>Pearl</italic> by David Aers and Sarah Stanbury to address what he sees as the two key issues of this text: the status and relationship of pearl and pearl-maiden to one another, and how Christian doctrine functions in the work. In so doing, he argues that from the opening lines of the poem we are confronted by the desire of an Other, and that the poem itself brings together the loss of the dreamer and the desire of the Other at a gravesite, ‘with the pearl functioning at that moment simultaneously as the dreamer's lost object and that which indicates the Other's lack’ (p. 44). Arguing that the Lacanian concept of the S(Ø) perfectly captures the shifting nature of the signifier ‘perle’, Edmondson contends that in the end, ‘perle’ is both ‘the shadow of the object and the shape of the Law [and] is all that the dreamer has lost, and all that he has ever had’ (p. 63).</p>
<p>An article in the online journal <italic>New Compass</italic> also deals with <italic>Pearl</italic>; J.A. Burrow's ‘Thinking in Poetry: Three Medieval Examples’ (<italic>New Compass</italic> 4[2004] 18–23), was originally given as part of the William Matthews Lectures at Birkbeck College, London, in May 1993. In this article Burrow suggests that arguments made in medieval poetry should not necessarily be taken less seriously, or read as more fictive, than those made in other medieval genres of writing such as theology or philosophy. Centring his argument on three texts—<italic>Pearl, St. Erkenwald</italic>, and <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>, with special attention paid to Dante's <italic>Commedia</italic>—Burrow examines moments in each text that depict the encounter of a living person with someone who is dead. In his analysis of <italic>Pearl</italic>, he focuses particularly on the pearl-maiden's use of the Parable of the Vineyard and the vision of the New Jerusalem at the end of the poem. He concludes ultimately that, although the characters in these poems are obviously fictitious, ‘their arguments cannot simply be read as dramatic utterances … [i]n these poems fictivity involves no abandonment of truth claims’ (p. 18), and asserts that it is ‘wrong to read these poems … as if the writers were not seriously concerned with truth’ (p. 20).</p>
<p>The rest of the criticism in this year's round-up focuses primarily on <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>. In ‘ “Bi contray caryez this knyght”: Journeys of Colonisation in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>’ (<italic>Philament</italic> 1 [September 2003]), Helen Young argues for a rereading of the first lines of the poem, arguing that the opening stanza focusing on Troy is linked to the rest of the poem through the theme of colonization. She contends that there are two colonization narratives in the poem—one in the opening, and one in the account of Gawain's journey through North Wales—and that each has a strikingly different tone, largely due to the descriptions of the landscape in each. In the end, although both colonization narratives appear to conclude positively, Young suggests in her final paragraph that ‘neither is a whole-hearted endorsement for colonisation’; rather, what is important is how the opening of the poem establishes the theme of colonial activity as important to <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> as a whole.</p>
<p>In ‘Rereading Gawain's Five Wits’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 225–34) Peter Whiteford examines perhaps the second most analysed symbol in the poem: the pentangle. Whiteford asserts that that he wants to ‘suggest a reading of Gawain's “fyue wyttez” that acknowledges the artistry and design of the poem, and prevents us from concluding that a poet whose skills both in storytelling and in handling of detail are so conspicuous elsewhere should suddenly be trapped by the demands of an elaborate numerical scheme that he had freely adopted’ (p. 225). Arguing against interpretations of the pentangle that focus primarily on the five wounds of Christ, the five joys of the Virgin, the five virtues, and the five senses, Whiteford contends that the phrase ‘fyue wyttez’ should ‘be taken as referring to the inner wits, or “gostli” wits’ (p. 225): in other words, those faculties that process sensory information. In making his argument, Whiteford suggests that the most compelling case for not reading the ‘wyttez’ as merely the five bodily senses is the occurrence of the word on three other occasions in the poem in which an interpretation of ‘wyttez’ as the senses is not supported. In the end, Whiteford argues, an interpretation of ‘wyttez’ as ‘inner senses’ helps us to make sense of the outcome of the poem, in which Gawain's mistake ‘is an error of judgement, a failure that has a clear cognitive dimension just as much as it has social and moral dimensions’ (p. 232).</p>
<p>Melissa Putman Sprenkle's ‘The Traces of Invention: Phatic Rhetoric, Anthology, and Intertextuality in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>’ (in Troyan, ed., pp. 147–60) examines <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> in light of the argument that medieval romances mark a ‘transitional’ period between cultures of orality and literacy. The aim of her essay is to analyse ‘the range of oral performative strategies that occur in the text of the poem to determine whether such strategies are truly empty or meaningless or if they serve some textual and rhetorical functions’ (p. 149). In her analysis Sprenkle pays careful attention to oral-performative devices such as tense-shifting, onomatopoeia, extra-narrative comment, and ‘minstrel tags’ (p. 154). Such an analysis, she concludes, is useful in that it ‘allows us to get an inkling of how the poem might have been processed among the textual communities within which [the poet] worked’ (p. 159).</p>
<p>Two articles in the Festschrift in honour of P.J.C. Field discuss different aspects of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet's work. In ‘ “False Friends” in the Works of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet’ (in Wheeler, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><italic>Arthurian Studies in Honour of P.J.C. Field</italic></xref>, pp. 173–80) Ad Putter discusses in detail six examples of words found in the works of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet that look like familiar modern words but which are used very differently in their medieval context. To demonstrate the difficulties attendant upon interpreting much of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet's lines, Putter begins with an example that has long caused trouble for editors and translators of <italic>Cleanness</italic> (ll. 431–4), working through the many possible interpretations of the problematic words in the lines. He then turns to what he sees as a more insidious problem—words that have caused editors no or little trouble because they look familiar—stating that ‘I should like to consider some words which, I suspect, are false friends, and which, if my suspicions are justified, have conned most, if not all, of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet's editors’ (p. 176). These include words/phrases such as <italic>layden in, rode, lake, horyed, brused</italic>, and <italic>saynt</italic>. Putter's careful detailing of how these words have been consistently misread sounds a cautionary note for all editors and translators of medieval texts. Where Putter is concerned with words, David Mills focuses on generic expectations and convention in ‘Romantic Self-Fashioning: Three Case Studies’ (in Wheeler, ed., pp. 235–46). Mills theorizes that readers and the narrators and characters in the texts which they are reading share ‘a knowing self-awareness of the genres within which they are placed’ (p. 235). He explores this proposition by examining three moments of what he calls ‘self-questioning’ in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> and Malory's accounts of Sir Gareth and the Fair Maid of Astolat. Focusing in particular on the moment of Gawain's acceptance of the green girdle, his relationship to the pentangle, and his reaction to Bertilak's wife in his bedchamber, Mills suggests that each of these moments has a different generic valence, and that Gawain's behaviour in each instance reflects an awareness of the demands of each particular generic convention. He concludes that ‘writers … through their heroes expose the limitations, paradoxes, and dangers inherent in [narrative expectations] … playing literary games with their readers, confident in their alertness to the generic conventions writers are transgressing’ (p. 246).</p>
<p>Colleen Donnelly's ‘Blame, Silence, and Power: Perceiving Women in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>’ (<italic>Mediaevalia</italic> 24[2003] 279–97) takes Gawain's anti-feminist rant from the conclusion of the poem as a starting point to investigate how women are represented and understood by the characters in this text. Paying careful attention to what she identifies as significant Celtic pagan elements of the poem, Donnelly suggests that Gawain's diatribe should be read ironically—as yet another failure on the part of this knight to understand and learn the lessons that Bertilak and his wife have been attempting to teach him during his sojourn at Haut Desert. In her analysis of the temptation scenes, Donnelly argues that Lady Bertilak's goal is not to seduce Gawain, but rather to educate him, and that to this end she gives him clues that help him behave properly. On the third day, Gawain's acceptance of the girdle indicates that he has failed to learn his lesson; his rant ‘reads as an insincere confession, an unwillingness to be held personally accountable. Gawain's complaint says far more about his own character than that of women’ (p. 286). Donnelly concludes that ‘the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet recognises that there is a problem with the whore-madonna dichotomy endorsed by the church’ (p. 291) and that ‘through his dis-ease in placing blame on the women in the text, he pens a profeminine text acutely aware of the sources of antifeminist rhetoric and sentiment’ (p. 292).</p>
<p>Two articles that deal with the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet appeared in the November issue of <italic>Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses—</italic>Carmen Lara Rallo's ‘ “Flashing into the Crystal Mirror”: The Recurrence of the Mirror Motif in Three Arthurian Works’ (<italic>RevAli</italic> 17[2004] 6–44)—and Bill Phillips's ‘ “The taint of a fault”: Purgatory, Relativism and Humanism in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’</italic> (<italic>RevAli</italic> 17[2004] 6–31 (<italic>sic</italic>—pagination is not continuous in this journal)). In the former, Rallo argues that in Tennyson's ‘The Lady of Shalott’ the motif of the mirror is central, suggesting that the ‘duplications and contrasts on which the poem is based emerge from encounter of symmetrical and opposing forces face to face, precisely the type of encounter which lies at the heart of the process of refraction in a mirror’ (p. 6). Rallo further contends that the use of this motif is not original on Tennyson's part, but is a deliberate ‘revival’ by the poet of a motif that functions significantly in both Malory's <italic>Morte Darthur</italic> and <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>. In her discussion of <italic>Gawain</italic>, Rallo pays particular attention to the structural symmetry of the poem itself, arguing that the mirror motif is significant in terms of both form <italic>and</italic> content. Phillips's article also engages <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>, but from a much different perspective; in ‘ “The taint of a fault” ’ Phillips makes the case that this poem is much less concerned with chivalry and courtesy than it is with contemporary religious issues. Suggesting that the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet may have been influenced by John Wyclif's teachings, Phillips argues that <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> is ‘a religious allegory in which the intractability of the chivalric code stands in for a Church assailed both for its corruption and intransigent absolutism’ (pp. 6–7). In this interpretation, Gawain fails as both knight and Christian, and the Green Knight, who occupies a Christ-like position, helps Gawain to recognize his sins and be purged of them.</p>
<p>The question of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet's identity is touched on in Lawrence Beaston's ‘The <italic>Pearl</italic>-Poet and the Pelagians’ (<italic>R&L</italic> 36:i[2004] 15–38), and Andrew Breeze's ‘Sir John Stanley (<italic>c</italic>.1350–1414) and the <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:i[2004] 15–30). Beaston notes that many scholars have persuasively argued both for and against a Pelagian interpretation of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet's works. Wishing to explore this question from what he identifies as a heretofore unexamined angle, Beaston chooses to focus on the representation of God in <italic>Pearl</italic>, arguing that ‘the poet presents God in two logically incongruent ways’. He then explores the ‘implications of the juxtaposition of these two portraits of God’ (p. 18): one in which God seems deliberately distanced from humankind (what Beaston identifies as a more Pelagian representation), the other in which God is depicted as immanent in the details of the narrator's life (an anti-Pelagian representation). Beaston carefully delineates those moments in the poem that emphasize God's otherness—the narrator's inability to describe God in anything but metonymic terms, and the representation of the second person of the Trinity in the non-human form of a lamb. In contrast to this is the final stanza, in which the narrator claims that he has come to know God as a ‘frende ful fyin’. Beaston concludes that the narrator's dream is itself an ‘intervention of God’ (p. 29) and finally that these two very different representations of God in the same poem ‘might be the attempt of … a vernacular theologian … to represent poetically … the point where God and humans meet’ (p. 35).</p>
<p>Breeze's article moves beyond an attempt to identify the beliefs and values of the anonymous <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet to make a case for Sir John Stanley's authorship of the poems in MS Cotton Nero A.x. Using the linguistic, geographical, and historical evidence that Gervase Matthew first put forth as an argument for Stanley's <italic>patronage</italic> of the poet, Breeze expands upon Matthew's hypothesis, carefully elucidating the points that suggest Stanley's connection to the poem and then examining moments in <italic>Patience, Pearl, Cleanness</italic>, and <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> that seem to support such an interpretation. He then moves beyond the texts themselves to examine Stanley's correspondence for further evidence of his authorship, paying particular attention to language and style. While Breeze hesitates to assert definitively that Stanley is the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet, he concludes that ‘even if Stanley was not the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet, to prove that he was not is still a useful exercise, sharpening out critical and linguistic wits, and perhaps also our appreciation of the poems in MS Cotton Nero A.x’ (p. 28).</p>
<p>Two books which appeared in late 2003 engage with <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>. Laura D. Barefield's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><italic>Gender and History in Medieval English Romance and Chronicle</italic></xref> explores the interrelationship of gender and genre in medieval British literature. Acknowledging that medieval romance has received considerable attention in terms of its relationship to gender, Barefield brings the chronicle tradition into the gender–genre discussion, arguing that the juxtaposition of romance and chronicle traditions offers a broader context for reading gender in medieval texts. After an introductory chapter on the genres of historiography and romance, Barefield examines Geoffrey of Monmouth's <italic>Historia Regum Britanniae</italic> (chapter 1) and Nicholas Trevet's <italic>Les Cronicles</italic> alongside Chaucer's <italic>Man of Law</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> (chapter 2); in chapter 3 she analyses <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> in relationship to the Middle English Prose <italic>Brut</italic> chronicle. Claiming that both these texts demonstrate a ‘shift in the treatment of gender and history’ Barefield argues that this ‘would appear to indicate significant changes in the kind of gendered positionings that could be presented to medieval readers and could also indicate changes in the options courtly women had for participating in the production of culture’ (p. 74).</p>
<p>Richard E. Zeikowitz's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85"><italic>Homoeroticism and Chivalry: Discourses of Same-Sex Desire in the Fourteenth Century</italic></xref> engages a diverse group of fourteenth-century chivalric texts to question ‘heteronormative assumptions regarding late medieval culture by offering an alternative paradigm … not seeking to articulate medieval “queer” desire … [but] rather … focusing on late medieval normative homoerotic desire, which is today considered “queer” ’ (p. 2). The texts Zeikowitz examines include Geffroi de Charny's <italic>Book of Chivalry</italic>, Chaucer's <italic>Troilus and Criseyde</italic>, and (briefly) <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>. In his analysis of <italic>Gawain</italic>, he maps out various competing triangulations of desire among the lady, Bertilak, and Gawain, and argues that the Green Knight's performance when he first appears at Arthur's court is erotically charged. Zeikowitz's ultimate conclusion is that a ‘homoerotic normativity’ is unearthed through a queer reading of chivalric texts, and that the ‘closer we look at these cultural artifacts the more we come to realize the inadequacy and inaccuracy of our modern categories of sexuality and desire’ (p. 150).</p>
<p>Thorlac Turville-Petre's ‘Afterword: The Brutus Prologue to <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic>’ (in Lavezzo, ed., pp. 340–6) reminds us that it may not have been nationhood that was important but making a place for England in an international community. [JL]</p>
<p>Diehter Mehl briefly mentions <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> in his discussion of representations of old age in ‘Old Age in Middle English Literature: Chaucer, Gower, Langland and the <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet’ (in Jansohn, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><italic>Old Age and Ageing in British and American Culture and Literature</italic></xref>, pp. 29–38).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC5"><title>5. <italic>Piers Plowman</italic></title>
<p>Two books specifically on <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> appeared this year. Anne M. Scott's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><italic>Piers Plowman and the Poor</italic></xref> aims to show that ‘its discourse of need’ (p. 24) has implications for the present. Scott sees <italic>Piers</italic> as providing a theological answer to the problem of poverty, and as such Langland's writing forms part of his effort towards reform: by emotionally engaging readers, the poem prompts them to personal reform and charity. Scott lists five views of poverty that appear in the poem: it is an evil one should avoid; a problem to eliminate from society; freedom from worry over material goods; a Christian virtue; ‘a voluntary … imitation of Christ’ (p. 25). In chapter 2 Scott shows Langland's connections between physical labour (especially agrarian), poverty, charity, and salvation. Langland elevates the poor, who deserve charity and forbearance, as examples to society. Chapter 3 addresses ways Langland sees for the rich to be saved: charity directly to the poor, not to religious foundations; justice for the poor; and placing ‘love of God before love of material things’ (p. 116). Scott concludes that ‘for Langland, the life of poverty <italic>is</italic> the better life here and now’ (p. 155). Chapter 4 turns to Will, a poor Christian who endures humiliation, and through whom the poem questions its culture. Will's flaws and failures exemplify human shortcomings and show the need for the redeeming vision of the last few passus. Need must be as real for someone who voluntarily accepts poverty as it is for those born poor; though experiencing Need leads to salvation, ‘the condition of utter need’, Scott argues, is not acceptable to Langland (p. 191). Scott's final chapter turns to needs beyond the merely physical: ‘dignity, charity, and justice’, which the poor deserve to receive on earth. Medieval banqueting practices, which Langland satirizes, include provisions to feed the poor, but formulate ‘the poor as “other” ’ (p. 199), where Langland demands that the rich truly treat the poor as brothers and sisters in Christian community.</p>
<p>Like Langland's poem, C. David Benson's <italic>Public Piers Plowman</italic> is filled with individual voices, as he draws liberally from other scholars, and at the same time fresh, persuasive, and individual. In the first half of the book Benson explodes the ‘Langland myth’ (p. 3), of both poet and poem, showing how both developed from hints, speculations, and assertions. Nonetheless, he treats the perpetrators of these myths respectfully, understanding the desire to create an author and a story behind this great and perplexing poem. In part 2, Benson develops his argument that <italic>Piers</italic> is a ‘public poem’ (p. 111), first defining ‘public writing’ by ‘a series of associated and overlapping qualities’ (p. 113), in order to compare <italic>Piers</italic> to Mandeville's <italic>Travels</italic> and Margery Kempe's <italic>Book</italic>, all of which address a wide, lay readership, present multiple voices, and deal with some sort of travel. Benson then turns to parish church wall paintings for another type of public art comparable to Langland's, arguing that these murals formed part of the cultural backdrop of Langland's readers, while also providing—in some cases—analogies for Langland's withholding of background details. Finally, Benson studies the significance of Langland's (few) references to Cornhill, not a low-rent district but a site of important markets, substantial churches, and legal enforcement by means of the pillory. This is an important book, suggesting clearly, simply, and sometimes amusingly how <italic>Piers</italic>'s early readers would have received it.</p>
<p>Lavezzo, ed., <italic>Imagining a Medieval Nation</italic>, contains two essays dealing with <italic>Piers</italic>. Larry Scanlon, in ‘King, Commons, and Kind Wit: Langland's National Vision and the Rising of 1381’ (pp. 191–233), reconsiders Donaldson's view, accepted by many scholars, that the rebels misunderstood politically conservative Langland. Studying the chronicles that report the rebellion, Scanlon suggests other ways of interpreting Langland's revisions of B. Prologue 112–22 in C. As a western outsider, Langland's vision of the organization of power, in which the king draws authority from the Commons, parallels the insistence of the rebels on loyalty to king and ‘trew commons’ (<italic>Anonimalle Chronicle</italic>, quoted p. 215). Where Donaldson reads C as clarifying B's conservative but perhaps ambiguous viewpoint, Scanlon proposes either Skeat's interpretation, wherein the early radical Langland became conservative with age, or that the C-revisions ‘represent the fear of… external sanction’ (p. 224), rather than changes in Langland's views. D. Vance Smith's ‘<italic>Piers Plowman</italic> and the National Poetic of Edward III’ (pp. 234–57) studies the role of money in creating community in <italic>Piers</italic> and in Langland's England. Though Langland places merchants ‘in the margin of the pardon that truth sends’ (p. 236), their presence shows Langland's awareness of Edward III's efforts to create an estate of merchants, of the importance of merchants to the king's wars, and of the centrality of the metaphor of redemption in <italic>Piers</italic> and Christian culture.</p>
<p>Robertson and Uebel, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><italic>The Middle Ages at Work</italic></xref>, also has two essays that treat <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>. Andrew Cole presents a two-part argument, in ‘Scribal Hermeneutics and the Genres of Social Organization in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ (pp. 179–206). First he studies the rhetorical strategy of the list, which Langland uses to ‘<italic>produce</italic> allegorical effects… rather than allegory’ (p. 180; italics in original), and which has parallels in many kinds of legal document, particularly those listing types of labourers. In part 2, Cole presents Passus VI's ploughing of the half-acre as an assembly of workers, with Piers as overseer, so that Langland telescopes urban and agrarian models of work. In ‘Poetic Work and Scribal Labor in Hoccleve and Langland’ (pp. 209–28), Ethan Knapp examines medieval ideas about writing as both physical and intellectual effort. Langland, he says, ‘seems to flirt with’ suggesting that reading, writing, and praying might be ‘allegorically displaced … agricultural labour’ (p. 216), but finally treats peasant labour and clerical work as distinct in kind.</p>
<p>Two is again the magic number for Kerby-Fulton and Hilmo, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><italic>The Medieval Reader: Reception and Cultural History in the Late Medieval Manuscript</italic></xref>. Tanya Schaap writes ‘From Professional to Private Readership: A Discussion and Transcription of the Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Marginalia in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> C-text, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Digby 102’ (pp. 81–116). This mid-fifteenth-century manuscript, at some point owned by Sir Thomas Allen (1540–1632), contains 480 annotations, three-quarters of them from at least fifty years after the manuscript was written. Of the ninety-seven that are scribal, 60 per cent ‘highlight key passages of religious, social, moral or political significance’ (p. 83). The sixteenth-century annotations mainly use words and phrases from the text itself. They seem to be a reader's private notes for personal use. The reader pays particular attention to marriage, topics ‘dealing with sexual immorality’, and children (p. 90). A complete transcription of the annotations follows the essay. Patricia A. Baer looks at ‘Cato's “Trace”: Literacy, Readership and the Process of Revision in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ (pp. 123–47). The distichs of Cato were important both for medieval students and as a source in <italic>Piers</italic>; they were heavily Christianized in medieval textbooks. Baer takes issue with Galloway's argument that Langland removed Cato references from the C-text: counting cited and uncited quotes and including repetitions, eighteen references to Cato appear in B, fifteen in C, but only four in A. What C does is to cut references to Cato as a teacher. Langland's use of the distichs and the Bible as his major sources for quotations ‘suggests that the search for grace does not require Latin literacy at a sophisticated level’ (p. 138). Baer appends a list of the distichs quoted or paraphrased in <italic>Piers</italic>.</p>
<p>Emily Steiner includes two chapters on <italic>Piers</italic> in her <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><italic>Documentary Culture and the Making of Medieval English Literature</italic></xref>. Part of chapter 3 appeared in <italic>Yearbook of Langland Studies</italic> 14[2000] as ‘Langland's Documents’. In this chapter, now called ‘<italic>Piers Plowman</italic> and the Archive of Salvation’, Steiner argues that in-text documents such as Truth's pardon, Mede's charter, and official letters provide a record of salvation history that integrates romance and chronicle. Various medieval literary comparisons reinforce the notion that salvation is often ‘imagined [as] a formal written contract’ (p. 113). The tearing of Truth's pardon puts the charter into effect by echoing the treatment of medieval indenturing, in which legal documents were ripped and the pieces given to the parties to the agreement they codified. Patents in <italic>Piers</italic> remain key in chapter 4; Langland envisages spiritual truths as documents open to all to read. But, for the dreamer, the connection between writing and action remains problematic. The 1381 rebels’ letters and <italic>Mum and the Sothsegger</italic> ‘clos[e] the gap between the dreamer and Piers’, the letters by making ‘social action’ out of poetry (p. 173), <italic>Mum</italic> ‘by making legal documents the desired end to narrative action’ (p. 178). The safe-conduct in <italic>Mum</italic> reacts to B. 12/C. 5. Through the contents of the narrator's sack of documents, Steiner connects poetry and bureaucratic writing.</p>
<p>The second chapter of Elizabeth Fowler's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><italic>Literary Character: The Human Figure in Early English Writing</italic></xref>, is mainly her <italic>Speculum</italic> article, ‘Civil Death and the Maiden: Agency and the Conditions of Contract in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ [1995], recast in the light of Fowler's concept of ‘social persons’ (p. 2). These are ‘abstract figurations’ (p. 16) that may include corporate, civic, social, racial, and literary entities. Langland's allegory shows how social persons depend upon interactions with one another to create their meaning.</p>
<p>Kathryn Kerby-Fulton presents ‘The Women Readers in Langland's Earliest Audience: Some Codicological Evidence’ (in Sarah Rees Jones, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>Learning and Literacy in Medieval England and Abroad</italic></xref>, pp. 121–31), noting that six manuscripts of <italic>Piers</italic> contain women's names, including one annotated by a husband and wife, Sir Adrian and Lady Anne Fortescue. Along with attention to the annotations, Kerby-Fulton observes that libraries belonging to women's religious houses contain the sort of works Langland draws upon, and suggests that he might have selected his sources so as to appeal to a female audience.</p>
<p><italic>The Yearbook of Langland Studies</italic>, of course, is the main source for essays on <italic>Piers</italic>. In 2004 Jill Mann, in ‘The Nature of Need Revisited’ (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 3–29), reviews arguments for and against the orthodoxy of Need's contention that ‘nede hath no lawe’ (B.XX.10), then notes that need (unpersonified) has appeared at intervals throughout <italic>Piers</italic>, beginning in the first passus. Need, like Kynde Wit, is a ‘natural principle’ (p. 17), which Langland invokes in order to ‘reconcil[e] justice and mercy’ (p. 27), although Mann does not see Langland as solving the problems raised by Need.</p>
<p>A.V.C. Schmidt asks ‘<italic>Ars</italic> or <italic>Scientia</italic>? Reflections on Editing <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 31–54), presenting his editorial principles. Schmidt begins by reviewing earlier editions and the principles of their editors, then presents his own, and finally illustrates these with thirteen examples from his edition. He uses four ‘canons’: unanimity, acceptability, ratification, and economy (pp. 36–7). Lines that agree in all version of <italic>Piers</italic> provide the ‘core-text’ (p. 36), which establishes Langland's usage. Lines appearing in only one version, provided they follow the principles of the core-text, are acceptable. If a single version retains a reading attested in its predecessor, then that version's reading is ratified. The principle of economy demands the simplest possible explanation of the facts.</p>
<p>‘<italic>Piers Plowman</italic> and the Case of the Missing Book’, by George Shuffelton (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 55–72) asks why, although Langland frequently refers to books, they never actually appear in the narrative. ‘Books belong to others, and [Will] experiences them “secondhand” ’ (p. 58), as they instruct him to look up passages. Shuffelton studies clerics’ relationship to the books they owned as a way of clarifying this paradox. Clerks know their books intimately, as Will hopes to know Truth; Will's own primer and psalter leave him ‘on the margins of book ownership’ (p. 65). When Book appears in Passus XX, he changes swiftly from ‘unifying symbol’ (p. 70) back to possession, renewing the problem of who has a right to books and knowledge of truth.</p>
<p>Susan E. Deskis and Thomas D. Hill collaborate on ‘ “The longe man ys selde wys”: Proverbial Characterization and Langland's Long Will’ (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 73–9). Will is long and lean, as are many other characters associated with him, such as Wit. Medieval proverbs in Latin and vernacular languages attest to a widespread belief from the eleventh to sixteenth centuries that tall men were foolish. Langland's repeated references to Will's height are part of a ‘pattern of self-deprecation’ (p. 79). Frank Grady addresses the problem of ‘Contextualizing <italic>Alexander and Dindimus</italic>’ (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 81–106). <italic>Alexander and Dindimus</italic> is ‘a paradigmatic alliterative poem’ (p. 82), with connections to the Latin Alexander tradition and themes in <italic>Piers</italic>. Like Will, Alexander enquires into the laws and customs of those reputed wise and virtuous; both poems are concerned with the deserts of virtuous pagans; both use the metaphor of ploughing; and, of course, both involve debate. The exchange between these ‘two virtuous pagans produces a fully secularized … set of arguments about the merits of worldly action versus ascetic withdrawal’ (p. 99).</p>
<p>In ‘A New Theory of Alliterative A-Verses’(<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 107–32), Noriko Inoue follows up on Hoyt Duggan's argument about b-verse structure, arguing that a-verses have exactly two metrical stresses, and that their alliteration does not necessarily coincide exactly with the metrical stresses. She focuses particularly on the form she calls ‘the crowded a-verse’ (p. 110), with three or more potentially stressed words, and concludes that ‘its metrical structure roughly mirrors that of the b-verse’ (p. 131). Simon Horobin, in ‘The Dialect and Authorship of <italic>Richard the Redeless</italic> and <italic>Mum and the Sothsegger</italic>’ (<italic>YLS</italic> 18[2004] 133–52), argues that these two poems, once thought to be fragments of a single whole and only later separated, share a dialect and so may also share an author. Drawing on <italic>LALME</italic>, Horobin claims that both texts use the Bristol dialect, considering alliterative practices and linguistic profiles. He attributes differences between the two works’ linguistic usages to scribal alterations.</p>
<p>Turning to other journals, ‘A Misattributed Speech in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>, A XI 182–218’, by A.V.C. Schmidt (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 238–40), argues that the speech on Dowel that all editors give to Scripture because of the female pronoun in line 182 in fact should be assigned to Clergy; otherwise, Clergy does not get to speak at all in A. The other two versions give the corresponding speeches to Clergy, and in the continuation of <italic>Piers</italic> A that three manuscripts give, Clergy claims to have taught Will about Dowel, a claim that makes no sense if he has not spoken. Furthermore, the m-family of manuscripts gives ‘he’ in Passus XI.182; Schmidt believes the introduction of ‘sche’ had to do with scribal misrecognition of a hypothetical archetypal form ‘a’.</p>
<p>Lawrence Warner questions ‘<italic>Piers Plowman</italic> B XV 417–428a: An Intrusion from Langland's C-Papers?’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 119–22). These lines are not traditionally a crux, but they ‘interrupt a developing discourse about <italic>evangelism</italic>’ (p. 120). Kane and Donaldson moved the B-passage on the Donation of Constantine, hypothesizing misfolded loose papers; but the Russell–Kane C-edition suggests that the Constantine passage needs further explanation. The evidence further suggests another way to explain B.XV.417–28a. Warner believes that this passage was not original B material that Langland planned to revise but a rejected draft of an opening for C.XVII, which got mixed in with the ur-B papers.</p>
<p>In ‘The Questions Asked, the Answers Given: Langland, Scotus, and Ockham’ (<italic>ChauR</italic> 38[2004] 255–75), David Strong analyses passages about Dowel, Study, and Imagynatyf to show Langland's debts to Scotus and William of Ockham. These Franciscans, who ‘[stress] the constructive abilities of the human thinker’ (p. 257), provide a framework for Will's effort to integrate ‘a cerebral journey with a spiritual one’ (p. 260). The friars who claim Dowel and Do-evil as confreres demonstrate Scotus's belief that the same entity can include ‘two distinct qualities’ (p. 261); the search for Dowel will teach four important principles about truth. Study helps Will distinguish between <italic>scientia</italic> and <italic>sapientia</italic>; Imagynatyf explains the importance of human knowledge through Kind Wit and Clergy.</p>
<p>Peter R. Moore shows, in ‘<italic>Hamlet</italic> and <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>: A Matter of Conscience’ (<italic>CahiersE</italic> 65[2004] 11–24), that Shakespeare seems to have known the B-version of <italic>Piers</italic>, which ‘contributed ethical quandaries to the Prince of Denmark’ (p. 11). The phrase ‘hire and salary’ (III.iii.79) has caused editors some difficulty, but Moore locates it in B.XIV, distinguishing between salary paid in advance and hire paid after a job is completed. He also argues, less convincingly to this reviewer, that the famous ‘To be or not to be’ soliloquy draws specifically on Langland's eight functions of Anima, from Passus XV, and that, in these shared themes, ‘Langland's words … complete Hamlet's thoughts’ (p. 20).</p>
<p>‘The Politics of Consuming Worldly Goods: Negotiating Christian Discipline and Feudal Power in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ (<italic>Traditio</italic> 59[2004] 339–68) offers Margaret Kim's argument that Langland sees consumption as both necessary and sinful, while labour is ‘not inherently moral’ (p. 350) but a neutral behaviour. Where the author of <italic>Winner and Waster</italic> sees getting and spending as activities that support society, Langland implicates them both in corruption. The rats and mice in the introductory fable are wasteful consumers, and the cat ‘rapacious and ravenous … destructive by instinct’ (p. 369); this fable shows all the animals as selfish and wasteful, a dark vision of human society in Langland's moral critique.</p>
<p>Once again, a pair of <italic>Piers</italic> essays appears in <italic>Studies in the Age of Chaucer</italic> 26[2004]. ‘A <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> Manuscript by the Hengwrt/Ellesmere Scribe and its Implications for London Standard English’, by Simon Horobin and Linne Mooney (<italic>SAC</italic> 26[2004] 65–112), identifies the scribe who wrote <italic>Piers</italic> in Trinity College, Cambridge B.15.17 (a B-text) as the Hengwrt/Ellesmere writer, based on hand and spelling, and explores the implications for Langland's place in London's literary circles. These manuscripts have been used to argue for the rise of a London standard for English, but if they are all the product of one man's pen, that argument falters. Basing editions on the Trinity text because of its uniformity of language likewise becomes more problematic. John M. Bowers studies ‘Two Professional Readers of Chaucer and Langland: Scribe D and the HM 114 Scribe’ (<italic>SAC</italic> 26[2004] 116–46), both of whom copied both <italic>Piers</italic> and works by Chaucer. Scribe D (as Doyle and Parkes call him) produced an early fifteenth-century copy of the C-text, University of London Library S.L.V.88 (the Ilchester MS) before working on two very fine <italic>Canterbury Tales</italic> manuscripts. The Huntington copyist, however, spent his career on ‘relatively cheap, no-frills’ manuscripts (p. 143) with a variety of texts, presaging later fifteenth-century manuscript production. Yet the Huntington scribe also deliberately altered the texts he copied, and assembled the three versions of <italic>Piers</italic> into an ‘omnibus edition’ (p. 136) four centuries before Skeat's work.</p>
<p>J.A. Burrow's ‘Thinking in Poetry: Three Medieval Examples’ (<italic>New Compass</italic>, 1[December 2004] unpaginated) publishes the William Matthews lectures delivered at Birkbeck College, London, in 1993. Burrow's general topic is the problem of whether poets can be said to think or to argue, rather than simply imitating argumentation. The <italic>Piers</italic> section of the essay focuses on Trajan's appearance in B.XI, and Langland's argument that the emperor was saved. Here, as in <italic>Pearl</italic> and <italic>St. Erkenwald</italic>, Burrow argues, the poet does not represent argument to further plot, as does Chaucer in Troilus's philosophical debates, but genuinely struggles to find and present truth.</p>
<p>Briefer mentions of Langlandian material appear in a few places. Graham D. Caie, in ‘Lay Literacy and the Medieval Bible’ (<italic>NJES</italic> 3[2002] 125–44), explores ‘the nature of … biblical reference in vernacular literature’ (p. 125), focusing mainly on Chaucer but including brief consideration of an exchange between Mede and Conscience. Mary Clemente Davlin addresses Langland's metaphors for the third member of the Trinity in ‘The Kindness of God: The Holy Spirit in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ (<italic>Spirituality</italic> 10[2004] 275–9) to show the orthodox, ‘biblical, liturgical’ nature of <italic>Piers</italic> (p. 275). James Simpson's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><italic>Reform and Cultural Revolution</italic></xref> refers to <italic>Piers, Pierce the Plowman</italic>'<italic>s Crede</italic>, and <italic>Piers</italic> tracts in the chapter called ‘Edifying the Church’.</p>
<p>Finally, Andrew Galloway's ‘Reading <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> in the Fifteenth and the Twenty-First Centuries: Notes on Manuscripts F and W in the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive’ (<italic>JEGP</italic> 103[2004] 232–52) is a stimulating review essay, arguing that the utility of the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive lies in its ‘combined capacities to sift, search and display the archeological layers’ of <italic>Piers</italic> texts (p. 232). Galloway engages in such archaeology, demonstrating the F redactor's adaptations, which emphasize plot rather than allegory, and the W manuscript's interaction with sophisticated London book culture. He concludes that the Archive offers scholars materials with which to explore ‘the status of the literary’ as well as <italic>Piers</italic> and manuscript studies (p. 252).</p>
<p>Not available for review were: David Aers's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><italic>Sanctifying Signs: Making Christian Tradition in Late Medieval England</italic></xref>, which has two chapters on <italic>Piers</italic>: chapter 2, ‘The Sacrament of the Altar in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’ and chapter 5, ‘The Sign of Poverty: <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> (the C-Version)’; ‘The Ricardian Revival of English Literature’, by Matthew Blackbourne (<italic>Medieval History Magazine</italic> 6[2004] 30–3); Andrew Cole's essay, ‘William Langland and the Invention of Lollardy’, in Fiona Somerset et al., eds., <italic>Lollards and their Influence in Late-Medieval England</italic>; ‘The Practice of Medicine in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’, by Rosanne Gasse (<italic>ChauR</italic> 39[2004] 177–97); Gillian Rudd's ‘Thinking Through Earth in Langland's <italic>Piers Plowman</italic> and the Harley Lyric “Earthe too of erthe” ’ (<italic>Ecotheology</italic> 8[2003] 137–49); ‘ “Figural” Mode of Expression in <italic>Piers Plowman</italic>’, by Minwoo Yoon (<italic>MES</italic> 11[2003] 259–82).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC6"><title>6. Romance</title>
<p>Helen Cooper's impressive book <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><italic>The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey of Monmouth to the Death of Shakespeare</italic></xref>, analyses romance memes—motifs, figures, or ideas that propagate and adapt through time—in the medieval and early modern periods. This is not formal analysis like Propp's of folktales, for Cooper, instead of looking for elements that transcend immediate context, is interested in how features respond to changing social conditions (the Reformation, for instance, transforms the penitential quest). Her chapters focus on quests, providence and the sea, magic and its failures, fairy monarchs and lovers, desire, women on trial, lost heirs, and death and unhappy endings. The book closes with a useful bibliography of medieval romances that were known in manuscript or print in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, citing the modern scholarly editions that are available.</p>
<p>A number of less-studied romances are analysed in McDonald, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><italic>Pulp Fictions of Medieval England: Essays in Popular Romance</italic></xref>. After McDonald's ‘Polemical Introduction’ (pp. 1–21), in which she argues that romance is under-studied despite being of important cultural and literary interest, Suzanne Conklin Akbari suggests that images of bodies serve to incorporate a vulnerable but triumphant Christendom by excluding (not converting) heathens, in ‘Incorporation in the <italic>Siege of Melayne</italic>’ (pp. 22–44). In ‘The Twin Demons of Aristocratic Society in <italic>Sir Gowther</italic>’ (pp. 45–62) Alcuin Blamires reads <italic>Sir Gowther</italic> as dealing with aristocratic fears that the system of primogeniture was vulnerable to breeding pride abstractly and wild heirs concretely. Sheila Delany traces the circulation of same-sex desire in ‘A, A, and B: Coding Same-Sex Union in <italic>Amis and Amiloun</italic>’ (pp. 63–81). Arlyn Diamond picks apart what it means to say that <italic>Sir Degrevant</italic> reflects the desires of great houses by analysing the varied, mixed-gender audiences and interests that the great estates might house in ‘<italic>Sir Degrevant:</italic> What Lovers Want’ (pp. 2–101). The lump of flesh born to the Christian queen and the Sultan of Damscus in <italic>The King of Tars</italic> marks in many ways the bestial role of infidels and their lack of capacity for effective, Christian paternity, argues Jane Gilbert in ‘Putting the Pulp into Fiction: The Lump-Child and its Parents in <italic>The King of Tars</italic>’ (pp. 102–23). McDonald, ‘Eating People and the Alimentary Logic of <italic>Richard Cœur de Lion</italic>’ (pp. 124–50) looks at medieval cookery, especially meat pies decorated as ‘Turks’ Heads’, to argue that the cannibalism in <italic>Richard Cœur de Lion</italic> expresses the metaphorical desires to dominate and obliterate present in crusading ideology. Elisa Narin van Court, in ‘<italic>The Siege of Jerusalem</italic> and Recuperative Readings’ (pp. 151–70), argues that <italic>The Siege of Jerusalem</italic>'s anti-Judaism is not as simple as univocal as imagined, and that it reveals the complexities in the fourteenth-century Christian attitude toward Jews. Ad Putter, ‘Story Line and Story Shape in <italic>Sir Percyvell of Gales</italic> and Chrétien de Troyes's <italic>Conte du Graal</italic>’ (pp. 171–96), argues that translators of French Romance into Middle English often deliberately emphasized story, and the ‘crude’ nature of the result is due to critics’ preferences for other styles, not an accurate description of competence. Distinctly bourgeois ways of imagining bodies and suffering (imagining the body matter-of-factly, not as a source of fleshly shame or knightly honour) occupy the essay by Felicity Riddy: ‘Temporary Virginity and the Everyday Body: <italic>Le Bone Florence of Rome</italic> and Bourgeois Self-Making’ (pp. 197–216). Concerns growing out of the Crusades influence <italic>Guy of Warwick</italic>: the Christian East is depicted as treacherously friendly and feminine, and the Muslim East is gigantically and dangerously masculine, argues Rebecca Wilcox in ‘Romancing the East: Greeks and Saracens in <italic>Guy of Warwick</italic>’ (pp. 217–40).</p>
<p>Laurie Finke and Martin Shichtman, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><italic>King Arthur and the Myth of History</italic></xref>, argue that King Arthur serves as an under-determined signifier, allowing histories in times of turmoil to assign their own meaning to him in efforts to shape their contemporary societies. They focus on three historical periods: the twelfth century, with William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace, and Layamon; the fifteenth century, with Hardyng and Malory; and the twentieth-century texts describing Hitler's search for the Grail, by Jean-Michel Angebert and Trevor Ravenscroft.</p>
<p>Corinne Saunders edits <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><italic>A Companion to Romance: From Classical to Contemporary</italic></xref>. Chapters focus on the generic characteristics and historical background of romances throughout history, with suggestions for further reading at the end of each section. The emphasis, despite a classical first chapter and some attention to Continental and American works, is heavily English. Medieval chapters include ‘Insular Beginnings: Anglo-Norman Romance’, by Judith Weiss (pp. 26–44); ‘The Popular English Metrical Romances’, by Derek Brewer (pp. 45–64); ‘Arthurian Romance’, by W.R.J. Barron (pp. 65–84); ‘Chaucer's Romances’, by Corinne Saunders (pp. 85–103); and ‘Malory and the Early Prose Romances’, by Helen Cooper (pp. 104–20).</p>
<p>Several essays on Middle English Romance, along with many others on Malory and Continental romance, appear in Wheeler, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><italic>Arthurian Studies in Honour of P.J.C. Field</italic></xref>. Maldwyn Mills, ‘The Lost Beginning of <italic>The Jeaste of Syr Gaweyne</italic> and the Collation of Bodleian Library MS Douce 26’ (pp. 133–41), uses a signature mark in the printed version of <italic>The Jeaste of Syr Gaweyne</italic> to reconstruct the length of the gathers and thus to determine how much is missing from the print version and the better but still incomplete manuscript version. Douglas Gray, ‘A Note on the Percy Folio <italic>Grene Knight</italic>’ (pp. 165–71), defends the unloved <italic>Grene Knight</italic> in the Percy Folio, suggesting among other things that it might not be simply a butchering of <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> but a descendant drawing on the same tradition the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet used, perhaps, therefore, shedding light on the greater poet's treatment of the story. Ad Putter considers linguistic traps, words that sound like familiar terms but actually mean something quite different, in ‘ “False Friends” in the Works of the <italic>Gawain</italic>-Poet’ (pp. 173–80). Rosamund Allen, ‘Place-Names in <italic>The Awntyrs off Arthure</italic>: Corruption, Conjecture, Coincidence’ (pp. 179–98), argues that the place names in <italic>The Awntyrs</italic> show concern with the early fifteenth-century political situation and would reflect concerns of northern magnates. Elizabeth Archibald, ‘Lancelot as Lover in the English Tradition before Malory’ (pp. 199–216), analyses allusions to Lancelot in English chronicles, romances, and poetry to argue that Launcelot's status as Guinevere's lover was in fact well known in the fourteenth century, well before Malory and the author of the stanzaic <italic>Morte Arthur</italic> translated the French stories of their love.</p>
<p>L.O. Aranye Fradenburg, ‘Simply Marvellous’ (<italic>SAC</italic> 26[2004] 1–27), suggests that the marvellous pleasures of romance have been systematically undervalued in favour of utility and realism. Suggesting that much of economic activity and innovation is driven by desire for pleasure rather than usefulness, she suggests that romance, too, fulfils a psychological need for marvels. In Classen, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><italic>Violence in Medieval Courtly Literature: A Casebook</italic></xref>, Corinne Saunders, ‘Violent Magic in Middle English Romance’ (pp. 225–40), looks at the violent magic that is the flip side of wonder in romance, arguing that magic is presented as a dangerous part of the unknown world, but not as intrinsically evil nor as capable of overcoming free will. Jean Jost, ‘Why Is Middle English Romance So Violent?’ (pp. 241–67), deplores the violence of medieval romance, suggesting that even in tales that seek to constrain the savagery the joy in combat often escapes moral bounds; she focuses on <italic>Gamelyn, Athelston, Sir Launfal</italic>, and Malory's <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>.</p>
<p>Andrew Lynch analyses the way Arthurian writers present images of peace and war in ‘ “Peace is good after war”: The Narrative Seasons of English Arthurian Tradition’ (in Saunders, Le Saux, and Thomas, eds., pp. 127–46).</p>
<p>Nancy Bradbury, ‘The Erosion of Oath-Based Relationships: A Cultural Context for <italic>Athelston</italic>’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73:ii[2004] 189–204), suggests that <italic>Athelston</italic> registers angry dismay at the gradual replacement of personal, oath-based relationships with a central, professional bureaucracy. Siobhain Bly Calkin, ‘Violence, Saracens, and English Identity in <italic>Of Arthur and of Merlin</italic>’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:ii[2004] 16–36), reads the gruesome battle in which Saracens (including some who intermarry with the English) disrupt the English civil wars of Arthur's succession in <italic>Of Arthur and of Merlin</italic> as a way of defining English national identity and promoting unity. Lisa Lampert, ‘Race, Periodicity, and the (Neo-) Middle Ages’ (<italic>MLQ</italic> 65:iii[2004] 391–421), looks at medieval views of race, including those in <italic>The King of Tars</italic> and <italic>Parzival</italic>, to correct modern discussions in which medieval Europe is invoked to suggest notions of homogeneity and in which racial discourses have more recent roots.</p>
<p>Linda Marie Zaerr, ‘Music and Magic in <italic>Le Bel Inconnu</italic> and <italic>Lybeaus Desconus</italic>’ (<italic>MedFor</italic> 4[2004]), suggests that, since music and magic were linked in medieval theory and language, the changes <italic>Lybeaus Desconus</italic> makes in translating <italic>Le Bel Inconnu</italic> may signal different styles of performance reflecting different attitudes toward travelling musicians and storytellers. Helmut Nickel, ‘What Kind of Animal Was the Questing Beast?’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:ii[2004] 66–9), suggests the Questing Beast was modelled on distorted accounts of giraffes, and that this could account for its association with the Saracen Palomedes.</p>
<p>In ‘Translating Courtesy in a Middle English Romance’ (<italic>SN</italic> 76:ii[2004] 140–51), Ivana Djordjević argues that Middle English romances have been unfairly accused of a lack of courtliness by comparison to French models, not the Anglo-French originals which they translated; she compares <italic>Sir Beves of Hampton</italic> to <italic>Boeve de Haumtone</italic> to show the Middle English translation is usually attentive to courteous nuances in the original. Nicole Clifton, ‘Teaching and Studying the Middle English Romance: New Directions, Affiliations, and Pleasures of the Text’ (<italic>Literature Compass</italic> 1[2004] 1–11), also argues that Middle English romances have suffered neglect, especially if one excludes those by Malory, Chaucer, and the <italic>Gawain</italic>-poet, and shows possible directions for teaching and research on these romances.</p>
<p>Myra Seaman, ‘The Waning of Middle English Chivalric Romance in “The Squyr of Lowe Degre” ’ (<italic>FCS</italic> 29[2004] 174–99), suggests that ‘The Squyr of Lowe Degre,’ in which characters know but fall short of romance conventions and the focus is on courtly politics rather than action, marks the fifteenth-century concern that the supposedly timeless ideals of the aristocracy expressed through romance do not match their society.</p>
<p>Stephan Kohl argues that Ipomadon is heading into psychological territory in ‘Individuality in Middle English Romances: The Case of <italic>Ipomadon</italic>’ (in Böker, ed., pp. 109–22). [JL]</p>
<p>Yu-Chiao Wang, ‘Caxton's Romances and their Early Tudor Readers’ (<italic>HLQ</italic> 67:ii[2004] 173–88), provides evidence through inscriptions and other records that Caxton's chivalric romances were owned not by the aristocracy but by rich merchants, prosperous gentry, and court servants. Richard Barber gives a popular introduction to the rise and spread of literature about the Grail in ‘Looking for the Holy Grail’ (<italic>HT</italic> 54:iii[2004] 13–19).</p>
<p>Jürgen Klein's ‘Architectures of the Mind: Horace Walpole's Distortions of Medieval Romance’ (in Böker, ed., pp. 149–71) studies Walpole's novel <italic>The Castle of Otranto</italic>, play <italic>The Mysterious Mother</italic>, and mansion Strawberry Hill for the psychological structures they reveal in his creations. [JL]</p>
<p>Also of interest, but not strictly about Middle English romance, are three other works. A special issue of <italic>Historical Reflections/Réfléxions Historiques</italic> (30:i[2004]) has a series of articles analysing how romance interacted with historical genres to shape how women were presented. Nigel Bryant has created a ‘redaction’ of early Grail texts—Chrétien's <italic>Perceval</italic> and its continuations, Robert de Boron's <italic>Joseph of Arimathea</italic>, the <italic>Queste del saint Graal</italic>, and the <italic>Perlesvaus</italic>—to tell, almost exclusively in translation, although with a few alterations and connections to link the translated texts, the story of the Grail from Joseph of Arimathea through Perceval and Galahad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><italic>The Legend of the Grail</italic></xref>). Carolyn Whitson, ‘Why Does the Lance Bleed? Whom Does the Grail Serve? Unasked Questions from a Working-Class Education’ (<italic>MinnR</italic> 61–2[2004] 115–28), uses Perceval—ignorant, lacking courtly manners, and in trouble for not asking questions—to explore issues in her own past as a working-class student moving into academe.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC7"><title>7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve</title>
<sec id="SEC7.1"><title>(a) Gower</title>
<p>Russell A. Peck's TEAMS Middle English Texts’ edition of Gower's <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic>, with Latin translations by Andrew Galloway, is finally finished: the third volume appeared this year, the largest of the three, containing Books V, VI, and VII, comprising ‘Avarice’, ‘Gluttony’, and the ‘Education of the King’ (not of <italic>a</italic> king), as the table of contents, in detailed outline form, puts it (for the prior volumes, see <italic>YWES</italic> 81[2002] 204 and 84[2005] 203). The introduction is a sensitive survey of the major themes and tales, though it may take liberties with the text; for example, Gower does not describe Medea as ‘old, desiccated, and exhausted’ after she rejuvenates Eson (p. 19). As before, the page design includes a column for line numbers and speaker changes, one for the text, and one for glosses of hard words in the lines, and Gower's Latin in the text column is shown with translations at the foot of the page, while his marginal Latin notes are hurried off to the explanatory notes at the end, indicated by mere pointing hands in the line-numbering column. The explanatory notes also discuss potentially difficult readings or explain background, including sources with more specific detail than in the introduction. These are followed by very brief textual notes showing some variants in a select number of manuscripts, this being a student edition; a ‘Reference Index’ to this volume, comprising references to classical, medieval, and modern persons and titles referred to in the introduction, explanatory notes, and bibliography; a subject index to all three volumes, mainly persons and titles in the <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic>, with some other subjects added; a bibliography; and a four-page glossary, limited because of the frequent glosses in the text.</p>
<p>Many contributors have supplied extensive information for <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><italic>A Companion to Gower</italic></xref>, edited by Siân Echard. After her introduction on the poet's reputation across the ages—tracing his morality, politics, use of English, and learnedness, as well as ‘Chaucer's Gower’ (pp. 1–22)—the very first article has three authors: John Hines, Nathalie Cohen, and Simon Roffey survey ‘<italic>Iohannes Gower, Armiger, Poeta</italic>: Records and Memorials of his Life and Death’ (pp. 23–41), including Southwark, St Mary Overie, and Gower's tomb, with several maps and a photograph of the tomb. Robert Epstein continues the socio-geographical review with ‘London, Southwark, Westminster: Gower's Urban Contexts’, looking again at the possible circle of readers and hints of political stances (pp. 43–60). The last geographically located work is actually on language: Jeremy J. Smith's ‘John Gower and London English’ (pp. 61–72) places Gower's Kentish (Brabourne) and Suffolk (probably Kentwell Manor) elements in London's hodge-podge of voices, commenting on the peculiarity of Scribe D's south-west Midlands adoption of Gowerian forms as one signpost in fifteenth-century searches for a standard among several acceptable varieties of English. Taking up where Jeremy Griffiths left off is Derek Pearsall's ‘The Manuscripts and Illustrations of Gower's Work’ (pp. 73–97); a summary list by work (with fragments, extracts, and translations) is followed by an overview of their physical features, illustrations and decorations, apparatus and text of the <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic>, and provenance and readership.</p>
<p>Readership continues as a theme in the next two articles. First, Helen Cooper's ‘ “This worthy olde writer”: <italic>Pericles</italic> and other [<italic>sic</italic>] Gowers, 1592–1640’ (pp. 99–113) surveys Gower's appearance or use in a number of works, including Robert Greene's <italic>Vision, The Cobler of Caunterburie</italic>, Shakespeare, and <italic>A Certain Relation of the Hog-faced Gentlewoman, called Tannakin Skinker</italic>. Second, Siân Echard strolls through ‘Gower in Print’ (pp. 115–35) from Caxton and Berthelet across a long silence to Todd's 1810 <italic>Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer</italic> and other nineteenth-century prints, then Macaulay's <italic>Complete Works</italic> and a very few printed texts since then, with very brief references to Russell Peck's and J.A.W. Bennet's 1968 editions, and only an allusion to Peck's TEAMS edition. Thereafter follow studies of non-English Gower: Robert F. Yeager presents a thorough and capable introduction to ‘John Gower's French’ works (pp. 137–51); then, in ‘The Latin Works: Politics, Lament and Praise’ (pp. 153–64), A.G. Rigg and Edward Moore reminded us of Gower's trilingual situation and place the opening book of <italic>Vox Clamantis</italic> and the <italic>Cronica Tripertita</italic> in the context of contemporary public political commentary and particularly Ricardian literature, with self-involvement within reality and dream visions.</p>
<p>With that, the volume turns more specifically towards the <italic>Confessio</italic>. In ‘<italic>Confessio Amantis</italic> and the French Tradition’ (pp. 165–80), Ardis Butterfield takes both words of Gower's title to situate the work amid the <italic>Roman de la Rose</italic>, Machaut, and Froissart. Looking towards the Latin tradition in ‘Classical and Boethian Tradition in the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><italic>Confessio Amantis</italic></xref>’ (pp. 181–96), Winthrop Wetherbee moves from Gower's first two lines and their opening words <italic>Naturatus amor</italic> into a learned and expansive commentary embracing not just Boethius but also the <italic>Roman de la Rose</italic>, Alain de Lille's <italic>De planctu naturae</italic>, Bernardus Silvestris’ <italic>Cosmographia</italic>, and, of course, Ovid. Diane Watt approaches ‘Gender and Sexuality in <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic>’ (pp. 197–213) through stories focusing on women—Canace, Iphis, and Calistona—with a brief excursus on Tiresias. With illuminating detail, Russell Peck summarizes and illustrates ‘The Politics and Psychology of Governance in Gower: Ideas of Kingship and Real Kings’ (pp. 215–38). J.A. Burrow's ‘Gower's Poetic Styles’ (pp. 239–50) includes versification in his examination of ‘correctness’, ‘purity of diction’, and ‘plain style’. The volume closes with the bibliographical appendix, ‘A Chronology of Gower Criticism’, by Siân Echard and Julie Lanz, followed by an index to the appendix, one to the manuscripts, and a general index.</p>
<p>Elsewhere, among more manuscript and textual studies, Linne R. Mooney identified ‘A New Scribe of Chaucer and Gower’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 131–40) in British Library Harley 1758 and London Society of Antiquaries 134, which include the <italic>Canterbury Tales, Confessio Amantis</italic>, Lydgate's <italic>Life of Our Lady</italic>, Hoccleve's <italic>Regiment of Princes</italic>, and Walton's translation of Boethius’ <italic>Consolation of Philosophy</italic>. Both were written in the middle of the fifteenth century and the scribe was apparently from the west Midlands, near Ludlow. David R. Carlson, ‘Gower's Early Latin Poetry: Text-Genetic Hypotheses of an <italic>Epistola ad regem</italic> (<italic>c</italic>.1377–1380) from the Evidence of John Bale’ (<italic>MS</italic> 65[2003] 293–317), notes how the <italic>Vox clamantis</italic> seems an assembly of several parts but 6.581–1200 is unified and of a length matching a single-booklet presentation. Working from difficult references in Bale, he suggests that this lost letter and a eulogy of the Black Prince were remade into the <italic>Vox clamantis</italic>. In ‘Gower's <italic>Cronica tripertita</italic> and the Latin Glosses to Hardyng's Chronicle’ (<italic>JEBS</italic> 7[2004] 153–8), Richard Moll shows that three ‘rubrics’ in Hardyng directly refer to Gower, two of them quoting him.</p>
<p>Critical examinations may begin with J. Allan Mitchell's ‘Gower for Example: Gower's <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic> and the Ethics of Exemplarity’ (<italic>Exemplaria</italic> 16[2004] 203–34), which notes that the work's ‘plenitude’ and ‘indeterminacy’ are at odds with the author's purpose. But if Gower is working with a ‘moral casuistry’ and ‘no tale is identical to its own moral application’ (pp. 206–7), then his purpose is that Amans must learn how to live by working his way through each exemplum and that the reader must as well, though the reader can also see how Amans responds to the cases, accepting their lessons, rejecting them, and even finding different ones through them. R.F. Yeager, in ‘Gower's Lancastrian Affinity: The Iberian Connection’ (<italic>Viator</italic> 35[2004] 483–515), wonders why the <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic> was translated into Portuguese and later Castilian Spanish, and explores politics and provenance to come to an understanding, with due consideration of how a ‘Ricardian’ or ‘Henrician’ version might have made its way south, and he notes a contemporary receptiveness to translations from other languages that helped find Gower an audience there.</p>
<p>Siân Echard's ‘Last Words: Latin at the End of the <italic>Confessio Amantis</italic>’ (in Green and Mooney, eds., pp. 99–121) refers to the <italic>Explicit iste liber</italic> and <italic>Quam cinxere</italic> verses, the prose <italic>Quia vnusqiusque</italic>, and even the opening <italic>Epistola super huius opusculi</italic> (‘these final Latin words’, according to p. 107) rather than the epitaph on his tomb, the indulgence on a plaque next to it, or other possibilities; all these are discussed in terms of politics and mostly manuscript production.</p>
<p>Ellen Shaw Bakalian presents a focused approach to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><italic>Aspects of Love in John Gower</italic>'<italic>s ‘Confessio Amantis’</italic></xref> (a revised thesis) with clear organization, using Gower's other works and his sources analogues. The opening chapter reviews Gower's ideal of a ‘middel weie’ balancing nature with reason, using the tales of Rosamund and Thisbe, which demonstrate how people are responsible for their actions and thus must control their emotional wishes through reason, here shown through both sides of the couples. The happy union of reason ruling over emotion is demonstrated through four successful marriages, being the tales of Penelope, Alceone, Alcestis, and Lucrece. Another opposite is the case of forsaken women (Deianira, Medea, Dido, Phyllis, and Ariadne), who submitted to their hearts’ desires without ensuring marriage first. Lovesickness is then placed in its medical tradition, with Gower's varied discussions and his prime example—Amans—foregrounded, and some comparisons with Chaucer.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC7.2"><title>(b) Lydgate</title>
<p>This year brings a welcome facsimile, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><italic>The Life of St Edmund, King and Martyr</italic></xref>, with an introduction by A.S.G. Edwards. At astoundingly low cost, the British Library has managed to issue a full-colour facsimile of MS Harley 2278 with its 120 images (just over one per folio) in clear detail, including the text-only pages in colour (not shades of grey). The translation and manuscript were created for Henry VI, who resided at Bury St Edmunds in 1434 for an extended period, as Edwards's introduction notes, amid coverage of the visit, Lydgate, the poem and its sources and analogues (nobody knows why Fremund was added), the illustrations, and the manuscript. Omitted from that introduction are details about the facsimile, which seems cropped prior to the foliation shown; though some information is presented about other copies of the <italic>Lives of SS Edmund and Fremund</italic>, the textual relationships are not explored, no doubt because the introduction is to the facsimile of an important manuscript aimed at a broad market, not to a text for scholars. The quality of reproduction is admirable: the gold is shiny, the red is bold, blues and pinks are vivid, and shades of ink seem discernible. It is a beautiful production, and one looks forward to more volumes like this. The only editions of Lydgate were his <italic>Complaynte of a Lovers Lyfe</italic> in Dana M. Symons's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><italic>Chaucerian Dream Visions and Complaints</italic></xref> and his <italic>St Austin at Compton</italic> in E. Gordon Whatley, Anne B. Thompson, and Robert K. Upchurch's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><italic>Saints’ Lives in Middle English Collections</italic></xref>, treated briefly above in <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">Section 1</xref>.</p>
<p>Critical examinations are few. Colin Fewer's point in ‘John Lydgate's <italic>Troy Book</italic> and the Ideology of Prudence’ (<italic>ChauR</italic> 38[2004] 229–45) is fairly simple: to Lydgate, history is not determined by Fate but by the actions of men as they choose prudently or not, and surpasses self-control. Their choices, then, in small things as well as great, reveal prudence as a personal virtue, not just a social one. Taking a cue from the triple definitions of <italic>chantepleure</italic> (which Lydgate elsewhere calls ‘antiphrasim’) in the work, Maura Nolan pursues ‘ “Now wo, now gladnesse”: Ovidianism in the <italic>Fall of Princes</italic>’ (<italic>ELH</italic> 71[2004] 531–58]; this pairing of opposites offers an aesthetic and even social critique apparent in a variety of intertexts within and without the <italic>Fall</italic>, which Nolan exemplifies through the story of Medea. David R. Carlson works to establish ‘The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References’ (<italic>ChauR</italic> 38[2004] 246–54) by observing first that indisputable references to the <italic>Canterbury Tales</italic> begin in datable works only after the <italic>Siege of Thebes</italic> in 1421–2, and thereafter increase in specificity. Earlier datable works either are very general or refer to Chaucer's early works, including some lost or revised into other works. On these grounds, then, undated works can be presumed to come before <italic>c</italic>.1420—such as the <italic>Flower of Courtesy</italic> and the <italic>Complaint of the Black Knight</italic>—or after it, for example the <italic>Temple of Glass</italic>. And Julia Boffey briefly displays what little is known about ‘John Mychell and the Printing of Lydgate in the 1530s’ (<italic>HLQ</italic> 67[2004] 251–60), with observations on Mychell's use of the <italic>Churle and the Byrde</italic> to print also Robert Saltwood's <italic>Comparyson bytwene .iiij. Byrdes</italic>, a retrospective work indebted to Chaucer and Lydgate.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC7.3"><title>(c) Hoccleve</title>
<p>Politics seem the key to Hoccleve publications this year. First, Andrew Lynch observes that only Hoccleve seems to have called himself a coward, and then investigates how this was an intentional revelation in his agenda of political advice, in ‘ “Manly cowardyse”: Thomas Hoccleve's Peace Strategy’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73[2004] 306–23), extending over the ‘Male regle’, the <italic>Regiment</italic>, and the <italic>Series</italic>. Reckless brawling is an affront to ‘manly resoun’ and restraint, both of which Hoccleve exemplifies in his self-castigation; his pacifist advice is posed carefully, because it is not the dominant attitude even as it is his preference. Second, in ‘Death Is a Lady: <italic>The Regement of Princes</italic> as a Gendered Political Commentary’ (<italic>SAC</italic> 26[2004] 147–93), observing that the Death that took ‘maistir’ Chaucer is untraditionally referred to with feminine pronouns, R.F. Yeager reviews Hoccleve's dangerous treatment of Henry IV and Arundel in the political environment of 1411–12 and relates this to Hoccleve's effeminization of Oldcastle and the Lollards in the ‘Remonstrance’: the implication is that emasculated, misgoverning Lancastrians were responsible for the death of manly, virtuous Chaucer, as posed in the recent <italic>Who Killed Chaucer?</italic>, with political and literary parallels depicted through Hoccleve's treatment of Alexander.</p></sec></sec>
<sec id="SEC8"><title>8. Malory and Caxton</title>
<p>Peter Field, the editor of the third edition of Eugene Vinaver's <italic>Works of Sir Thomas Malory</italic>, is honoured with a Festschrift, Wheeler, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><italic>Arthurian Studies in Honour of P.J.C. Field</italic></xref>. Unsurprisingly, many of the essays focus on Malory. Philippa Hardman, ‘Malory and Middle English Verse Romance: The Case of <italic>Sir Tristrem</italic>’ (pp. 217–22), argues that Malory might have used the Middle English <italic>Sir Tristrem</italic> as well as a French <italic>Tristan</italic>. Edward Donald Kennedy, ‘Sir Thomas Malory's (French) Romance and (English) Chronicle’ (pp. 223–34), argues that Malory invoked the authority of his French books, mingled with some stylistic features of English chronicles, to create an account to supplant the English chronicle accounts of Arthur drawn ultimately from Geoffrey of Monmouth. David Mills, in ‘Romantic Self-Fashioning: Three Case Studies’ (pp. 35–46), examines Gawain in <italic>Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</italic> and Gareth and the Maid of Ascolat in Malory to argue that the characters in romance often consciously try to follow the conventions of romance, with moments of crisis in which their careers do not match the generic expectations. Yuji Nakao, ‘Are Further Emendations Necessary? A Note on the Definite and Indefinite Articles in the Winchester Malory’ (pp. 247–51), examines indirect and direct articles in the Winchester manuscript and Caxton's text to suggest places where the Winchester reading might be fruitfully amended. Building on Field's idea that both the Winchester scribes and Caxton reduced Malory's Roman war section, Ralph Norris, ‘Lucius's Exhortation in Winchester and the Caxton’ (pp. 253–59), argues that the Emperor's speech to the Roman army was longer in Malory's original. Two articles analyse Malory's descriptions of combat. Kevin Whetter, ‘The Historicity of Combat in <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ (pp. 261–70), argues that, while the role of knights in warfare is greatly exaggerated in <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>, Malory adds small realistic details and the moral concerns of fifteenth-century war. D.S. Brewer, ‘Personal Weapons in Malory's <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ (pp. 271–84), analyses the weapons favoured and disfavoured in the text. Raluca Radulescu, ‘ “[N]ow I take uppon me the adventures to seke of holy thynges”: Launcelot and the Crisis of Arthurian Knighthood’ (pp. 285–95), argues that Launcelot pursues his repentance in the Grail quest with a concern for his individual worship close to pride, but in ‘The Healing of Sir Urry,’ he (and many others) come together not for individual testing and worship but to affirm the worth of the group as a whole. Helen Cooper, ‘Malory's Language of Love’ (pp. 297–306), argues that Malory occasionally uses a reciprocal language of love (that tilts towards emphasizing the woman's desires) rooted in Anglo-Norman romance in contrast to the language more familiar in French Arthurian romance, which emphasized male desire. This reciprocal language echoes the language of reciprocal combat, and its absence from the scenes between the great adulterous lovers marks the limits and isolation of adultery. Shunichi Noguchi analyses Field's emendations in ‘P.J.C. Field's Worshipful Revision of Malory: Making a Virtue of Necessity’ (pp. 307–10). Finally, Janet Cowen, ‘ “Old Sir Thomas Malory's Enchanting Book”: A Connecticut Yankee Reads <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ (pp. 311–24), analyses the complex uses of archaic language (Malory's, most prominently) in Mark Twain's <italic>A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur</italic>'<italic>s Court</italic>, arguing that Twain uses language to show how foreign the past really is and to mock later efforts to romanticize the past for modern sensibilities.</p>
<p>In <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><italic>The Openess</italic> [<italic>sic</italic>] <italic>of Myth: The Arthurian Tradition in the Middle Ages and Today</italic></xref>, Nicole Dentzien tackles the question of why Arthurian myth has been more popular in some times than in others. Her answer is that four kinds of openness are needed for myths to thrive. ‘Cultural openness’ consists of cultural needs or desires for the myth—to assert common identity, to celebrate certain languages or peoples, to respond to national traumas, and so on. ‘Historical openness’ consists of the opportunities and inquisitiveness when certain historical details cannot be determined, leaving later narratives latitude to shape their stories and audiences willing to respond to efforts to imagine the past. ‘Text-inherent openness’ refers to gaps, omissions, and suggestions in major texts that invite development by later writers. ‘Inter-textual openness’ is the existence of numerous alternative versions of the myth, allowing readers and writers to choose which sources to work with. To explore the interplay of these factors, she focuses first on Malory's selection and use of his sources and the appeal of his work in late fifteenth-century culture. Then she turns to two modern writers, Rosemary Sutcliff and Thomas Berger, to analyse how they exploit Malory's openness in the recent post-Romantic interest in Arthurian myth.</p>
<p>Laurie Finke and Martin Shichtman have a chapter on Malory in their book <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><italic>King Arthur and the Myth of History</italic></xref> (pp. 159–85). In it, they analyse how Caxton revised and introduced Malory to advance a sense of English nationalism through shared history, language, and chivalric interests. Two of the essays in Böker, ed., ‘<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><italic>Of Remembraunce the Keye</italic></xref>’, deal with Malory and Caxton. Christoph Houswitschka's look at the <italic>Quest of the Holy Grail</italic> in ‘From Vision to Vainglory: Malory as a Critic of Idealism in the <italic>Morte Darthur</italic>’ (pp. 123–38) contrasts political, personal, and spiritual ideals in conflict, with interesting observations on Lancelot. Theo Stemmler examines Malory's Book V in ‘Caxton's <italic>Morte Darthur</italic>: A Confirmation of Norbert Elias’ <italic>Prozess der Zivilisation</italic>?’ (pp. 139–47) to see what happened between the alliterative <italic>Morte Arthur</italic> and the Winchester manuscript and Caxton, tracing Malory's lack of extensive revision to Caxton's more thorough editing to suit the slightly later time and its readership. [JL]</p>
<p>Kevin Whetter has a chapter entitled ‘Warfare and Combat in <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ in Saunders, Le Saux, and Thomas, eds. (pp. 169–86), in which he argues that Malory presented war ambivalently, aware of both its opportunities for personal glory and its capacity for general destruction.</p>
<p>Marilyn Corrie argues, in ‘Self-Determination in the Post-Vulgate <italic>Suite du Merlin</italic> and Malory's <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ (<italic>MÆ</italic> 73:ii[2004] 273–89), that Malory increases the emphasis on free will in sections translated from the French: while the French ‘fate’ is not autonomous but an ineluctable response to human sin, in Malory, deeds’ consequences can be modified by choices made after the initial sin.</p>
<p>Several articles address questions about genre. Helen Cooper uses <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic> to discuss trends in late medieval prose romance in ‘Malory and the Early Prose Romances’ (in Saunders, ed., 104–20). In ‘Unity, Genre, and Subverting the Absolute Past: The Case of Malory's “Tournament at Surluse” ’, Sandra Hordis argues that comic moments in <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic> have been neglected, and uses Bakhtin's distinction between the epic's absolute past, heroic but disconnected from the present, and the past in comic contact with the present that exists in lighter works, to analyse the tournament of Surluse.</p>
<p>Arthurian comedy was the subject of a special issue of <italic>Arthuriana</italic>. William Fitzhenry, in ‘Comedies of Contingency: Language and Gender in the <italic>Book of Sir Tristram</italic>’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:iv[2004] 5–16), argues that women's use of language undercuts the masculine vision of a stable, transcendent chivalry. Janet Jesmok, ‘Comic Preludes to Lancelot's “Unhappy” Life in Malory's <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic>’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:iv[2004] 26–44), argues that early comic scenes in Launcelot's career foreshadow later, more tragic ones; for instance, the mistake in Belleus's bed anticipates his seduction by Elaine, leading to his fight with Guinevere and madness. In ‘A Fool of a Knight, a Knight of a Fool: Malory's Comic Knights’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:iv[2004] 59–74), Gergely Nagy argues that the roles of three comic knights (Kay, Dinadan, and Dagonet) do not subvert ideals of knighthood but confirm them. Robert Kelly argues, in ‘Royal Policy and Malory's Round Table’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:i[2004] 43–71), that critics have overstated the role of the pentecostal oath in establishing a code of chivalry. He suggests that it emphasizes the bond of knights to king, not the lateral bonds of late medieval chivalric orders, and that its basic requirements are more about restoring public order than launching an idealized form of knighthood.</p>
<p>On textual matters, Meg Roland, ‘ “Alas! Who may truste thys world?”: The Malory Documents and a Parallel-text Edition’ (in Echard and Partridge, eds., pp. 37–57), argues that a parallel-text edition of Malory's Roman war would usefully shift the focus from the author's unknowable intentions to the cultural work of each exemplar, thus sidestepping—or highlighting—some of the ideological issues that have underlain scholars’ preferences for one text or another. D. Thomas Hanks Jr. suggests, in ‘Isode's “sownyng vppon the c—sse of <italic>Sir Trystram</italic>” in Malory's <italic>Morte Darthur</italic>’ (<italic>ELN</italic> 42:i[2004] 1–3), that a blotted word in the Winchester manuscript is <italic>corsse</italic>, not <italic>crosse</italic>, and so Isode died on the corpse of her lover, not on a cross over his tomb. P.J.C. Field's ‘Malory and his Scribes’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:i[2004] 31–42) makes the case that the scribes at points consciously revised their text as they wrote the Winchester manuscript</p>
<p>Cory Rushton notes, in ‘Absent Fathers, Unexpected Sons: Paternity in Malory's <italic>Morte Darthur</italic>’ (<italic>SP</italic> 101:ii[2004] 54–63), that Malory shows little interest in the formula of sons revenging themselves on fathers, showing instead an interest in good relations between fathers and sons, going so far as to minimize Gyngalyn's role in the text so as not to create a bond between Gawain and Gyngalyn that might rival the relationship between Launcelot and Galahad. In ‘En-graving Chivalry: Tombs, Burial, and the Ideology of Knighthood in Malory's <italic>Tale of King Arthur</italic>’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:ii[2004] 37–53), Kenneth Tiller argues that memorials and engraved prophecies create a landscape that narrates the values and events of Arthurian chivalry, helping characters create meaning out of events.</p>
<p>Roberta Davidson approaches <italic>Le Morte Darthur</italic> as a prison text in ‘Prison and Knightly Identity in Sir Thomas Malory's <italic>Morte Darthur</italic>’ (<italic>Arth</italic> 14:ii[2004] 54–63), suggesting that, particularly in his scenes of imprisoned knights, Malory redefines prowess as internal fortitude so that even incarcerated knights can be worshipful although they cannot actually go forth to combat; this, in turn, may have encouraged non-knightly readers to feel that chivalry did apply to their lives. Richard Barber, ‘Sir Thomas Malory and the Holy Blood of the Hailes’ (in Matsuda, Linenthal, and Scahill, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><italic>The Medieval Book and the Modern Collector: Essays in Honour of Toshiyuki Takamiya</italic></xref>, pp. 279–84), suggests that Malory's vision of the Grail as a container for Christ's blood may relate to the presence of the Holy Blood at Hailes. P.J.C. Field's ‘De Worde and Malory’ (pp. 285–94) argues that de Worde's corrections of Caxton show the presence of a manuscript exemplar of Malory between the common source of Winchester and Caxton and Caxton's edition, confirming Vinaver's stemma.</p>
<p>Joseph A. Dane's ‘ “Wanting the First Blank”: Frontispiece to the Huntington Copy of Caxton's <italic>Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye</italic>’ (<italic>HLQ</italic> 67[2004] 315–25) reviews the matter of the copper engraving of Caxton presenting two books to Margaret of York. Dane finds no support prior to the late nineteenth century for the plate having been in this or any copy. Those working on Caxton should also read ‘Caxton's Indulgence for Rhodes, 1480–81’ by R.N. Swanson (<italic>Library</italic> 5[2004] 195–201), which describes a complete copy of the singular version, the blanks filled out for one John Hawardyne, on the last day of March 1481. [JL]</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC9"><title>9. Middle Scots Poetry</title>
<p>Something was definitely going on in Medieval Scottish Studies in 2004. More books and articles dealing with the Middle Scots poets and their milieu came out in 2004 than in 2002 and 2003 combined. If this trend continues, Middle Scots will soon hold a more prominent position in medieval studies than it has in the past. While the majority of the articles and books written in 2004 deal with the most usual suspects—Henryson, Dunbar and Barbour—scholars of Middle Scots will be delighted to see new work on James I, while Blind Hary and others enter the conversation.</p>
<p>A new encyclopedia, helpful to scholars in all areas of medieval studies, was published this year. The two-volume Wilson and Margolis, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"><italic>Women in the Middle Ages</italic></xref> covers everything from Aasta of Norway to Zoe Karbounopsina. It also provides a useful guide to topics which orders the entries into different categories such as ‘Artists, Craftswomen, and Scribes’ or ‘Fairies, Magicians, and Witches’. There are a few entries that will be useful to students of Middle Scots literature, including ‘Cressida’ and ‘Margaret of Scotland’ (James I's daughter). Each entry is substantial and includes a full bibliography.</p>
<p>Women were also the chosen focus of a new collection: Dunnigan, Harver, and Newman, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><italic>Women and the Feminine in Medieval and Early Modern Scottish Writing</italic></xref>. Dunnigan writes in her introduction that the volume ‘redresses the prevailing critical neglect of early Scottish women writers, and presents a range of new theoretical feminist approaches to texts and writers both established within the early Scottish canon and newly discovered’. She points out that medieval Scottish writing about and by women has been doubly marginalized by virtue of gender and nation, and that a collection like this one is long overdue. This book covers a wealth of topics, divided into ‘Written Woman’, ‘Writing Women’, and ‘Archival Women’. The latter sections are mainly concerned with early modern texts, but the first section is most relevant for scholars of Middle Scots poetry as it includes essays on <italic>The Wallace</italic>, Sir David Lindsay, and Robert Henryson, but the whole collection is compelling and useful for all medievalists interested in gender. Inge B. Mitfull's article ‘War and Truce: Women in <italic>The Wallace</italic>’ provides a thorough analysis of all the important female characters in Blind Hary's fifteenth-century poem, exploring the question: ‘What is the role of the feminine—reaffirming or critiquing—in relation to the work's overtly masculine agenda?’ Mitfull's discussion of the women who aid Wallace (and by extension, Scotland), such as his mother, nurse, and wife, is particularly interesting. In addition to examining gender, she also provides a thorough analysis of how social class and marital status affect the depiction of the women in Hary's epic.</p>
<p>In Janet Hadley Williams's essay, ‘Women Fictional and Historic in Sir David Lindsay's Poetry’, much of Lindsay's poetry is closely analysed, focusing particularly on <italic>The Dreme</italic> with its female guide and the <italic>Testament of the Papyngo</italic> with the female ‘parrot-courtier’. Williams argues that critics have been somewhat misguided in characterizing Lindsay as a misogynist, overlooking the several examples he has of women who are ‘moral and ethical advisers of authority’. Sir David Lindsay is further examined in ‘Chastity in the Stocks: Women, Sex, and Marriage in <italic>Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estatis</italic>’, by Garret P.J. Epp, which looks at both women's roles in the satire and the implications of having those roles played by cross-dressed male actors. Epp argues that sexuality and sensuality are both at the heart of Lindsay's play. Robert Henryson's <italic>Orpheus and Eurydice</italic> is the focus of Kevin J. McGinley's ‘ “The ‘Fenyeit” and the Feminine: Robert Henryson's <italic>Orpheus and Eurydice</italic> and the Gendering of Poetry’. McGinley reads Henryson's poem as a moralized and feminised rendering of the Orpheus myth. McGinley suggests that Henryson privileges feminine perspective throughout the poem, while still maintaining a patriarchal structure and view of women themselves.</p>
<p>Two anonymous fifteenth-century poems are the subject of C. Marie Harker's ‘<italic>Chrystis Kirk on the Grene</italic> and <italic>Peblis to the Ploy</italic>: The Economy of Gender’. Harker suggests that any examination of gender in these poems must also include an analysis of class, as the poems reflect societal anxiety surrounding the ‘burghal woman’ in late medieval Scottish society. ‘Woman’ is a subverting force in the poems, and as such is subjected to acute misogyny, but this treatment is inextricable from her social status and all it implies. One of the great values of this collection is that it introduces the reader to many less-studied works of Scottish literature by and about women, although most of these are early modern works. However, Elizabeth Ewan's essay, ‘The Dangers of Manly Women: Late Medieval Perceptions of Female Heroism in Scotland's Second War of Independence’, deals directly with the medieval, looking closely at historical documents, often apocryphal, that examine heroic women characters who are often ignored for the more famous tales of Robert Bruce and William Wallace. Finally, for those scholars dealing with the end of the Middle Ages, Suzanne Trill's archival list of women's writing will be an invaluable resource. Although ‘Early Modern Women's Writing in the Edinburgh Archives, <italic>c</italic>.1550–1740: A Preliminary Checklist’ contains a majority of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century works, the few early sixteenth-century ones will certainly be useful to medievalists.</p>
<p>This collection is not Sarah Dunnigan's only contribution this year to Middle Scots studies. She also writes an article in <italic>Studies in Scottish Literature</italic> entitled ‘Feminizing the Text, Feminizing the Reader? The Mirror of Feminite in the <italic>Testament of Cresseid</italic>’ (<italic>SSL</italic> 33–4[2004] 107–23). In this essay, Dunnigan argues that Cresseid is more than a solitary literary figure, but rather serves as a ‘symbolic mirror’ representing ‘the place of women or Woman—as writers, readers, subjects—in medieval Scottish literature: spectral presences’. She suggests that, through the course of the <italic>Testament</italic>, both the subject of the poem and its reader are feminized: the former by divorcing Cresseid's story from Troilus, the latter by the explicit naming of a female audience twice in the course of the poem. This essay is a well-written contribution to gender and Scottish studies, and attempts to fill in the gap of critical studies about women in the field that Dunnigan also addressed in her introduction to <italic>Woman and the Feminine in Medieval and Early Modern Scottish Writing</italic>.</p>
<p>Robert Henryson is usually the focus of the majority of Middle Scots scholarship in any given year. This year, however, he is scarcely represented. The only other 2004 discussion of his <italic>Testament of Cresseid</italic> appears as a chapter in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77"><italic>Allegory and the Work of Melancholy: The Late Medieval and Shakespeare</italic></xref> by Jeffrey Tambling. This chapter, ‘<italic>The Testament of Cresseid:</italic> Reading Henryson with Baldung’, looks at how the <italic>Testament</italic> ‘documents a crisis, medical and sexual, impacting on its unconscious presuppositions and drives, and shows an embodied subject marked by age and sickness’. Tambling examines the conceit and role of age, leprosy, syphilis, the abject, and the corpse, among other topics, in the poem. After a thorough theoretical discussion of the <italic>Testament</italic> that also draws on several other medieval texts, he turns to Hans Baldung, an early sixteenth-century artist trained in Dürer's studio. Tambling concludes with a look at Baldung's work and Cresseid's Complaint as two comparable embodiments of death.</p>
<p>In contrast to the dearth of scholarship concerning Henryson, it has been a banner year for William Dunbar scholars and scholarship. Most notable is the TEAMS edition, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><italic>William Dunbar: The Complete Works</italic></xref>, edited by John Conlee. The works are divided into four sections: ‘Poems Devotional and Moral’, ‘Poems Public and Private’, ‘Poems in the Courtly Tradition’, and ‘Poems Comic, Satiric, and Parodic’. The student-friendly volume includes a helpful bibliography of primary and secondary materials. Its explanatory notes throughout the poems and at the end, as well as the glossary, will render the often intimidating Middle Scots language comprehensible to novices. Conlee's introduction discusses the division of the poems as well as their manuscript history, and addresses the controversies surrounding authorship of some of the poems. Like all editions in the series, this one is comprehensive, well glossed, and accessible, and will be a terrific teaching tool for all teachers of Middle Scots literature.</p>
<p>A.E. Christa Canitz focuses on Dunbar's petitionary works in ‘A Benefice for the Prophet: William Dunbar's Petitionary Poems’ (<italic>SSL</italic> 33–4[2004] 42–61). Using Dunbar's poems and biographical evidence Canitz looks at both the reality and the fiction inherent in Dunbar's complaints about money, patronage, and acknowledgement. She argues that Dunbar not only addresses personal issues such as the amount of his pension, but that he ‘often presents himself as the voice of conscience, of justice, and of fairness, and as the loyal servant raising his voice of warning to alert and sometimes even scold the King in order to protect him from those who would take advantage of his generosity and trusting nature’. Canitz divides Dunbar's petitionary poems into three major categories, addressing unrewarded service, the undeserving who receive awards, and the distribution of rewards. This article is well substantiated, and does a good job of looking at these poems as a particular genre unto themselves. Canitz closes by pointing out that Dunbar's self-righteous moral stance did not, in fact, get him anywhere with his patrons or with the court, and ultimately Dunbar's petitions went unanswered.</p>
<p>‘Flyting’ is the genre taken up by Iain Macleod Higgins in ‘Tit for Tat: <italic>The Canterbury Tales</italic> and “The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy” ’ (<italic>Exemplaria</italic> 16[2004] 165–202). In this excellent essay, Higgins looks at the <italic>Canterbury Tales</italic> through the lens of the Scottish flyting genre, and through Dunbar's ‘Flyting’ in particular. Higgins argues that this later, formalized genre of duelling insults can shed light on the competition of tale-telling in Chaucer's earlier work. Beginning with the Miller's ‘quitting’ the Knight's tale, and moving on to other pilgrims’ interactions, this article demonstrates the many versions of ‘flyting,’ as opposed to debate, that are layered throughout the <italic>Tales</italic>. Conversely, Higgins also examines moments that may seem to be ‘flyting’ but are essentially not so. Ultimately, he concludes that Chaucer's pilgrims occupy an in-between place between formal debate and the ‘hurling insults’ of the flyting genre. Dunbar is often read through a Chaucerian viewpoint, so it is interesting and fruitful to see this paradigm reversed.</p>
<p>Dunbar makes another, albeit brief, appearance in <italic>Notes and Queries</italic>, in Thomas Hill's ‘ “Quhen Sabot all jugis”: Dunbar's “The Tretis of the Tua Mariit Wemen and the Wedo”, Lines 501–502’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 19–20). In his analysis of these lines, Hill looks at the biblical allusions and ‘onomastic play’ employed by Dunbar in the Wedo's closing words. Much of his argument hinges on the understanding of the word ‘Sabot’ as a name for God, a debate that has long surrounded the glossing of the poem. While modern editors have decided this reading is correct, they have not discussed why this is so. Hill points out contemporary usage of the word—a variation on ‘Saboath’, and demonstrates that it would not have been unknown to a medieval audience. Hill closes by expounding on the allusive meanings of the word and how this may ultimately affect the reading of the Wedo's character.</p>
<p><italic>Notes and Queries</italic> additionally has a piece on John Barbour this year. Andrew Breeze explores ‘A Gaelic Origin for <italic>Skunnyrrit</italic> “Scattered” in Barbour's <italic>Bruce</italic>’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 237). Breeze dismisses earlier glossing of the word <italic>skunnyrit</italic> which appears in <italic>Bruce</italic>, as derived from either the Old English <italic>scunian</italic> or Middle English <italic>schunt</italic>, and argues instead that the word may be derived from the Gaelic <italic>scainder</italic> or <italic>scainnear</italic>, meaning to ‘fight; defeat, rout’. Breeze goes through contemporary examples, as well as discussing the related modern Scots word, <italic>scunner</italic>.</p>
<p>John Bowers contributes a major article on James I this year. ‘Three Readings of <italic>The Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic>: Sir John Clanvowe, Geoffrey Chaucer, and James I of Scotland’ (<italic>JMEMS</italic> 34:ii[2004] 279–307) is a fascinating look at how three different medieval authors approach <italic>The Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic>. Bowers examines three incarnations of the tale by looking at the courtly climate of its various inceptions and how the political meanings shift with each telling. He first explores John Clanvowe's reading of an early version of Chaucer's tale. Clanvowe, Richard II's chamber knight, has an early take on the poem in his own <italic>Boke of Cupide, God of Loue</italic>, and this indicates he knew Chaucer's <italic>Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> not as part of the <italic>Canterbury Tales</italic>, but as the poem <italic>The Love of Palamon and Arcite</italic>, celebrating the close male–male relationships inherent in knighthood. Bowers examines the homosocial Ricardian court that was home to both Clanvowe and Chaucer through Clanvowe's references to the tale in his own <italic>Boke</italic>; he looks particularly at the relationship between Richard II and Robert de Vere. Next, Bower looks at Chaucer's rereading of his own earlier poem as it is reshaped into <italic>The Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> as the first of the pilgrims’ accounts in <italic>The Canterbury Tales</italic>. What changes, Bower argues, is the homosocial context of the tale because it is now told by a knight accompanied by his son, the squire; this new background to the tale highlights the questions of royal succession surrounding the late fourteenth-century court. Most interesting to scholars of Middle Scots poetry, Bowers closes with a substantial section on James I of Scotland's own rereading/rewriting of <italic>The Knight</italic>'<italic>s Tale</italic> in his <italic>The Kingis Quair</italic>. In this section of the article Bowers suggests that James I does not simply parrot his poetic predecessor, but rather posits ‘a sort of textual counterassault’. In reimagining himself as a prisoner like Palamon, James I omits an Arcite and a Theseus; he is ‘a young man without a brother-in-arms, a lover without a rival … a prisoner without a jailer’. Bowers argues that he delegitimizes his Lancastrian captors by making them absent presences in his refashioning of the Chaucerian tale. Bowers posits that James I had intended to fashion himself both as ‘the father of the Scottish nation <italic>and</italic> the father of Scottish poetry’, but ultimately falls short of both.</p>
<p>Stefan Thomas Hill explores Scottish identity in the often overlooked <italic>Wallace</italic>, which gained a boost last year with the publication of the TEAMS edition of Blind Hary's epic, in ‘ “Quham dowis thow Scot?” Scottish Identity in Blind Hary's <italic>Wallace</italic>’ (<italic>SSL</italic> 33–4[2004] 177–94). Hill begins by arguing that both a specific time for Wallace's exploits and Wallace's class are intentionally obscured by Hary, so that his readers would see the hero and his struggle against English oppression as both timeless and classless—in essence, only Scottish. Hill posits that Hary does this by co-opting various literary tropes and techniques such as the outlaw tale, folklore, and dream vision to create a sense of Scottish identity and destiny throughout <italic>The Wallace</italic>. Blind Hary, Hill claims, is just as concerned with shaping Scottish nationalism and pride as he is with an anti-English stance, more often the focus of literary criticism concerning Hary's epic.</p>
<p>Four Courts Press published two books in 2004 that will prove helpful to students of Scottish history. The first, Kelly and Young, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><italic>Ulster and Scotland: 1600–2000: History, Language and Identity</italic></xref>, has several useful articles on language and literature, including David Horsburgh's ‘The Political Identity of the Scots-Speaking Community in Scotland and Ulster, 1545–1760’, probably the most useful for medievalists as the other essays deal more exclusively with the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The second book is <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><italic>Ulster and the Isles in the Fifteenth Century: The Lordship of the Clann Domhnaill of Antrim</italic></xref> by Simon Kingston. This book focuses on the Clann Eoin Mhóir and its leaders in the fifteenth century, and on different aspects of the shared heritage of Ireland and western Scotland.</p>
<p>J. Derrick McClure offers a look at the linguistics of Middle Scots in ‘Middle Scots Prosody: Theory or Pragmatism?’ (<italic>ScotL</italic> 22[2003] 46–58). McClure examines prosodic patterns in Middle Scots writing, particularly the use of iambic pentameter, and compares this to other contemporary medieval poetry. Some of his study focuses on James VI, who wrote about poetic technique and demonstrated a thorough understanding of how it worked (a quality potentially lacking, McClure argues, in other medieval poets, such as Chaucer and Henryson). Given that the use of iambic pentameter is often discussed in scholarship surrounding Middle Scots poetry—as McClure states, ‘it had been part of Dunbar's stock in trade, the principal metre of Gavin Douglas, and one of the many verse forms which Lyndsay in his maturity was able to exploit for dramatic effect’—this essay is an interesting look at the mechanisms of the poems that many take for granted.</p>
<p>Finally, those who wish there was more in Scots to read may want to pick up Findlay, ed., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><italic>Frae Ither Tongues: Essays on Modern Translations into Scots</italic></xref>, a collection that ‘represent[s] the first extensive analysis of writers’ use of Scots as a translation medium in the modern (or any) era’. Throughout the essays Middle Scots poets are mentioned and cited as both sources and inspirations.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC10"><title>10. Drama</title>
<p>Although this has not been a bumper year for essay collections focused exclusively on early drama, a fair number of the essays in Kermode, Scott-Warren, and van Elk, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><italic>Tudor Drama Before Shakespeare, 1485–1590: New Directions for Research, Criticism and Pedagogy</italic></xref>, do concentrate on the first half of the sixteenth century. Peter Happé's ‘ “Erazed in the Booke”: The Mystery Cycles and Reform’ (pp. 15–34) describes attitudes towards the doctrinal content of religious plays during the Reformation years and the plays’ apparent attempts to adapt to and compromise with doctrinal change and ecclesiastical and political authority in the same period. Karen Sawyer Marsalek's essay, ‘ “Doctrine Evangelicall” and Erasmus's <italic>Paraphrases</italic> in <italic>The Resurrection of Our Lord</italic>’ (pp. 35–66) argues for the Dutch scholar's influence upon this mid-Tudor reformist play, and suggests in passing Nicholas Udall as a candidate for its authorship. Meanwhile, in ‘Holy Robin Hood! Carnival, Parish Guilds, and the Outlaw Tradition’ (pp. 67–89), Paul Whitfield White makes a cogent case for the provincial Robin Hood plays to be read, not as occasions of subversive, carnivalesque misrule but as socially and doctrinally conservative forms embedded in and supportive of parish guild strictures and the conventional pieties those guilds promoted. On the other side of the confessional divide from the Catholic guilds stands John Bale, whose significance for the development of dramatic form is the subject of ‘Baleus Prolocutor and the Establishment of the Prologue in Sixteenth-Century Drama’ (pp. 93–110) by Michelle M. Butler. Her essay explores the pervasive tradition of onstage ‘prologues’ and expositors in earlier drama, and Bale's idiosyncratic exploitation of the device. The use of stage mechanics of a more literal kind is the subject of Janette Dillon's revisionist essay, ‘Chariots and Cloud Machines: Gods and Goddesses on Early English Stages’ (pp. 111–29), which considers the machinery employed for the descent and ascent of divine figures in a range of dramatic and quasi-dramatic settings. Dillon argues convincingly that the technology employed in the professional playhouses drew upon a long and healthy tradition of spectacular three-dimensional devices and effects rather than emerging fully formed from the architecture of the commercial theatres. The status of early acting companies is the subject of Alan Somerset's brief but equally revisionist essay ‘Some New Thoughts on an Old Question: “Professional” Touring Theatre Outside London before 1590’ (pp. 131–40), while Ursula Potter's ‘Performing Arts in the Tudor Classroom’ (pp. 143–65) explores the influence of the often surprisingly histrionic and physical exercises employed in humanist schoolrooms on later stage practice, especially that of the London boys’ companies. Finally, Pamela King adds a brief ‘Postscript’ to the collection (pp. 249–56), drawing out the potential implications of the preceding essays for our understanding of the complex and shifting confessional contexts of the history of drama in this period.</p>
<p>A number of the essays in Holland and Orgel, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><italic>From Script to Stage in Early-Modern England</italic></xref>, a splendid new collection also cover the earlier period. Richard Beadle's ‘Masks, Mimes and Miracles: Medieval English Theatricality and its Illusions’ (pp. 32–42) surveys the current state of scholarship on likely performance practices in medieval religious drama, while Peter Holland's ‘Theatre without Drama: Reading REED’ (pp. 43–67) examines with a critical eye the evidence for touring patterns and patronage provided by the Records of Early English Drama volumes. Claire Sponsler also takes the REED project as the starting point for her essay, ‘Drama in the Archives: Recognising Medieval Plays’ (pp. 111–30), pointing out the striking fact that all the archival research undertaken by the various REED editors has yet to uncover a single new play-text from the late medieval period, before offering a detailed case for accepting John Shirley's manuscript texts of Lydgate's ‘Mummings’ and other ‘occasional’ pieces as dramatic texts <italic>manqués</italic>.</p>
<p>While it is predominantly concerned with more modern theatrical history and with movements in the modern academic study of drama and performance, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><italic>Drama/Theatre/Performance</italic></xref>, Simon Shepherd and Mick Wallis's book in the Routledge New Critical Idiom series, nonetheless raises interesting questions about what it is we do when we study early drama and performance. Judicious and provocative by turns, the authors trace the development of drama as an academic subject and the notion of ‘performance’ as a category of activity and investigation.</p>
<p>The earliest roots of European urban drama are explored in a number of books published by Oxford University Press this year, each of which has much to commend it to scholars of the medieval civic theatre. Daniel Mendelsohn's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><italic>Gender and the City in Euripides’ Political Plays</italic></xref> is a paperback reprint of a study first published in hardback in 2002. Dealing with <italic>The Children of Herakles</italic> and <italic>Supplicant Women</italic>, the book discusses issues such as the representation of extreme emotion (especially by female characters) and the fashioning of civic identity through performance, that have an obvious and direct relationship with current work on the York, Chester, and N-Town plays in particular. Ian C. Story's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><italic>Eupolis: Poet of Old Comedy</italic></xref> deals with the much more problematic subject of analysing the impact of a dramatist whose oeuvre consists of only a number of textual fragments (again a problem not unfamiliar to scholars of the medieval stage). While his major task is the painstaking re-evaluation of the date and significance of the fragmentary surviving texts, the chronology of Eupolis’ career, and the definition of his milieu, Storey also offers a good deal of insightful general reflection on the nature and purpose of the Old Comedy that will be of interest to medievalists generally and scholars of medieval comedy in particular. Also focused on comedy is Matthew Leigh's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><italic>Comedy and the Rise of Rome</italic></xref>, which offers a broadly historicist account of the Roman comedy of Plautus and Terence aimed at uncovering the interrelations between its motifs and preoccupations and contemporary political and social history. Leigh's study sets the comic theatre squarely in the context of Rome's rapid—indeed dramatic—expansion into a Mediterranean superpower in ways that illuminate both the power structures and hierarchies deployed in the plays (such as those between father and son, master and slave, city and hinterland) and the mechanics of the plays themselves.</p>
<p>Another author interested in a less well known exponent of Greek drama is J.H. Hordern, whose book, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><italic>Sophron</italic>'<italic>s Mimes: Text, Translation, and Commentary</italic></xref>, is the first full-length study in English focused solely on the early Sicilian writer and his milieu. Again the agenda of Hordern's study is set by the stark fact of the fragmentary nature of the surviving texts, but the exploration of questions of performance technique and audience response that he undertakes has much to commend it to scholars and students of the drama of later periods. On a similar theme, readers interested in the classical and later sources of humour in the drama of the early Renaissance will learn much from the Variorum collection of the essays of Barbara C. Bowen, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><italic>Humour and Humanism in the Renaissance</italic></xref>. As well as comprehensive listings of the Renaissance collections of <italic>facetiae</italic> produced between 1344 and 1528, there are also productive chapters on Roman jokes, Ciceronian wit, Renaissance rhetoric, and the humour of emblems in addition to an extended discussion of the works of Rabelais.</p>
<p>Bridging the great divide between the classical age and the reflorescence of drama in the medieval period is Donnalee Dox's excellent study <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><italic>The Idea of the Theater in Latin Christian Thought: Augustine to the Fourteenth Century</italic></xref>. Dox takes as her subject the diverse discussions of the classical theatre and its practices in the writings of a range of late classical and medieval theologians and commentators. Her approach is to treat these, not as many previous studies have tended to do, as traces of actual theatrical practice in the classical world or as possible blueprints for medieval dramatic performance, but as part of an ongoing intellectual tradition in their own right. Hence she draws out the nuances of Augustine's treatment (in <italic>The Confessions, The City of God</italic>, and elsewhere) of the theatres that he visited and enjoyed so much as a youth in Carthage, showing how they offered both an easy and obvious target for his anti-pagan polemic (‘actors were visible presences in Roman cities; and their affective power on the stages appealed to Christians as well as pagans. Theater was thus one of the most visible demonstrations of pagan culture against which a zealous Christian might launch a critique’; p. 13) and an all-too-ready symbol of his former life, rejected with his conversion to Christianity. Dox identifies the distinct agenda which other writers brought to the topic, from Isodore of Seville's often idiosyncratic descriptions of classical theatres in his <italic>Etymologiae</italic> through the debates of Rabanus Maurus and Amalraius of Metz and his critics, to John of Salisbury and the various medieval translators and redactors of Aristotle's <italic>Poetics</italic>, revealing valuably how discussion of the classical theatre as an institution and of dramatic genres as literary categories was a regular feature of medieval scholarship without that discussion generating a conscious theory of drama as performance or overtly influencing contemporary secular dramatic practice.</p>
<p>As usual, <italic>Early Theatre</italic>, the journal associated with the REED project, contains a smattering of articles dealing with the late medieval stage. In ‘Numerology in the York Creation Sequence’ (<italic>ET</italic> 7:i[2004] 97–102) Natalie Crohn Schmitt briefly examines the York <italic>Adam and Eve in Eden</italic> and other Creation plays, arguing for ‘occult’ numerological significances in their line numbering and stanzaic patterns. David Carnegie's ‘Galley-Foists, the Lord Mayor's Show, and Early Modern English Drama’ (<italic>ET</italic> 7:ii[2004] 49–74), while concentrating on the drama of the later sixteenth century and beyond, discusses the use of foists (which he convincingly demonstrates were highly decorated and armed escort vessels which accompanied the mayoral barge on the day of the show, discharging fireworks, ordnance, and musketry) in the civic spectacles of the first half of the century. The influences (in both directions) between the City of London, its festive cultures, and the stage are also helpfully sketched out by Angela Stock in her chapter entitled ‘Stow's <italic>Survey</italic> and the London Playwrights’ (in Gadd and Gillespie, eds., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><italic>John Stow (1525–1605) and the Making of the English Past</italic></xref>, pp. 89–98). While London is the focus of a good deal of attention, however, there seems to have been a dearth of material on early Scottish drama published this year. But readers interested in what George Buchanan did while wearing his political theorist's hat will welcome the publication of the scholarly edition and translation of his <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><italic>A Dialogue on the Law of Kingship Among the Scots</italic></xref>, edited by Roger A. Mason and Martin S. Smith.</p>
<p>Finally, two book-length studies provide useful overviews of the religious drama. Katie Normington's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><italic>Gender and Medieval Drama</italic></xref> discusses women's involvement in and with the cycle plays, whether as spectators, characters, or what might be referred to loosely as ‘support staff’, covering issues such as actors’ cross-dressing, corporality, and the attempt to represent specifically female forms of both piety and misrule. Peter Happé's <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><italic>Cyclical Form and the English Mystery Plays: A Comparative Study of the English Biblical Plays and their Continental and Iconographic Counterparts</italic></xref>, as its title suggests, looks at the formal and performative features of the English cycle plays in the light of analogous European texts (primarily from France and Germany, but with reference too to Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands) and Continental iconographic traditions. In addition to outlining the correspondences and differences in scope and focus between the English and Continental plays, the book also considers problems of definition (what do we mean by ‘cycle’ and when?) and reception (how did the plays deploy—and how might audiences have responded to—iconographic gesture and display, typology or narrative devices in the light of their experience of the liturgy, books of hours, or religious art?). Also concerned with the cycle plays is Denise Ryan's article ‘Playing the Midwife's Part in the English Nativity Plays’ (<italic>RES</italic> 54[2003] 435–48), which arrived too late to be covered in last year's chapter. Ryan fruitfully illuminates both the representation and symbolic functions of the apocryphal midwives placed at the Nativity as witnesses to Mary's virginity in the Chester and N-Town plays and attitudes towards midwives in late medieval provincial culture.</p></sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list><title>Books Reviewed</title>
<ref id="B1"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Aers</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name></person-group><source>Sanctifying Signs: Making Christian Tradition in Late Medieval England</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>UNDP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xiiii + 282. hb $55 ISBN 0 2680 2021 3, pb $25 ISBN 0 2680 2022 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B2"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Arnold</surname><given-names>John H</given-names></name><name><surname>Lewis</surname><given-names>Katherine J</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Companion to the Book of Margery Kempe</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Brewer</publisher-name><comment>pp. 270. hb £50 ($90) ISBN 1 8438 4030 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B3"><nlm-citation citation-type="confproc"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Babcock</surname><given-names>Robert G</given-names></name><name><surname>Fagin Davis</surname><given-names>Lisa</given-names></name><name><surname>Rusche</surname><given-names>Philip G</given-names></name></person-group><source>Catalogue of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, vol. 4: MSS 481–485</source><year>2004</year><conf-name>Arizona Studies in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance 11</conf-name><publisher-name>ACMRS and Brepols</publisher-name><series>MRTS 176</series><comment>pp. xxviii + 616. $50 ISBN 0 8669 8218 3, €65 ISBN 2 5035 1440 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B4"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bakalian</surname><given-names>Ellen Shaw</given-names></name></person-group><source>Aspects of Love in John Gower's ‘Confessio Amantis’</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><series>Studies in Medieval History and Culture 25</series><comment>pp. xx + 203. £50 ($79.95) ISBN 0 4159 6976 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B5"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barefield</surname><given-names>Laura D</given-names></name></person-group><source>Gender and History in Medieval English Romance and Chronicle</source><year>2003</year><publisher-name>Lang.</publisher-name><comment>pp. vii + 135. $53.95 (£35.92) ISBN 0 8204 6184 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B6"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barnum</surname><given-names>Priscilla Heath</given-names></name></person-group><source>Dives and Pauper</source><year>2004</year><volume>vol. 2</volume><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><series>EETS Os 323</series><comment>pp. lxxxiv + 452. £65 ISBN 0 1972 2326 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B7"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barron</surname><given-names>Caroline</given-names></name></person-group><source>Pilgrim Souls: Margery Kempe and Other Women Pilgrims</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CSJ</publisher-name><comment>pp. 22. pb £5 ISBN 1 8705 8575 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B8"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bennett</surname><given-names>Philip E</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Cycle of Guillaume d'Orange or Garin de Monglane: A Critical Bibliography</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Tamesis</publisher-name><series>Research Bibliographies and Checklists Ns 6</series><comment>pp. xx + 175. pb $60 ISBN 1 8556 6105 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B9"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Benson</surname><given-names>C David</given-names></name></person-group><source>Public Piers Plowman: Modern Scholarship and Late Medieval English Culture</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>PSUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xix + 283. hb $45 ISBN 0 2710 2315 5, pb $25 ISBN 0 2710 2475 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B10"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Biggs</surname><given-names>Douglas</given-names></name><name><surname>Michalove</surname><given-names>Sharon D</given-names></name><name><surname>Compton Reeves</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><source>Reputation and Representation in Fifteenth-Century Europe</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Brill</publisher-name><comment>pp. vi + 392. $160 ISBN 9 0041 3613 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B11"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Böker</surname><given-names>Uwe</given-names></name></person-group><source>‘Of Remembraunce the Keye’: Medieval Literature and its Impact through the Ages. Festschrift for Karl Heinz Göller on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Lang.</publisher-name><series>Britannia Texts in English: Literature, Culture, History from Early Modern Times to the Present 11</series><comment>pp. 384. pb £43 (€60.70, $72.95, SwFr95) ISBN 3 6315 1552 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B12"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bowen</surname><given-names>Barbara C</given-names></name></person-group><source>Humour and Humanism in the Renaissance</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Ashgate/Variorum</publisher-name><comment>pp. 314. £57.50 ISBN 0 8607 8954 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B13"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bryant</surname><given-names>Nigel</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Legend of the Grail</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Brewer</publisher-name><comment>pp. 258. £25 ($49.95) ISBN 1 8438 4006 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B14"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Burgwinkle</surname><given-names>William</given-names></name></person-group><source>Sodomy, Masculinity, and Law in Medieval Literature: France and England, 1050–1230</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><series>CSML</series><comment>pp. xii + 300. £45 ($75) ISBN 0 5218 3968 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B15"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Castor</surname><given-names>Helen</given-names></name></person-group><source>Blood and Roses: The Paston Family in the Fifteenth Century</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Faber</publisher-name><comment>pp. xvii + 347. hb £20 ISBN 0 5712 1670 6, pb £8.99 ISBN 0 5712 1671 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B16"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Classen</surname><given-names>Albrecht</given-names></name></person-group><source>Violence in Medieval Courtly Literature: A Casebook</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><comment>pp. vi + 332. £65 ($95) ISBN 0 4159 7101 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B17"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Conlee</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name></person-group><source>William Dunbar: The Complete Works</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>MIP</publisher-name><series>TEAMS Middle English Texts</series><comment>pp. x + 474. pb $25 ISBN 1 5804 4086 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B18"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cooper</surname><given-names>Helen</given-names></name></person-group><source>The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey of Monmouth to the Death of Shakespeare</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xv + 542. £68 ($165) ISBN 0 1992 4886 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B19"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Crick</surname><given-names>Julia</given-names></name><name><surname>Walsham</surname><given-names>Alexandra</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Uses of Script and Print, 1300–1700</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xiv + 298. £45 ($70, $A150) ISBN 0 5218 1063 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B20"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>D'Arcens</surname><given-names>Louise</given-names></name><name><surname>Ruys</surname><given-names>Juanita Feros</given-names></name></person-group><source>Maistresse of My Wit: Medieval Women, Modern Scholars</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Brepols</publisher-name><comment>pp. x + 384. €75 ISBN 2 5035 1165 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B21"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dentzien</surname><given-names>Nicole</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Openess of Myth: The Arthurian Tradition in the Middle Ages and Today</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>K&N</publisher-name><comment>pp. 253. £29.40 (€39) ISBN 3 8260 2811 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B22"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Derolez</surname><given-names>Albert</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books: From the Twelfth to the Early Sixteenth Century</source><year>2003</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xxii + 204 + 160 plates. £70 ($120) ISBN 0 5218 0315 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B33"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gadd</surname><given-names>Ian</given-names></name><name><surname>Gillespie</surname><given-names>Alexandra</given-names></name></person-group><source>John Stow (1525–1605) and the Making of the English Past</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>BL</publisher-name><comment>pp. xiv + 192. £30 ISBN 0 7123 4864 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B34"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Green</surname><given-names>Richard Firth</given-names></name><name><surname>Mooney</surname><given-names>Linne R</given-names></name></person-group><source>Interstices: Studies in Middle English and Anglo-Latin Texts in Honour of A.G. Rigg</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>UTorP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xxii + 220. £32 ($53) ISBN 0 8020 8743 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B35"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grigsby</surname><given-names>Bryon Lee</given-names></name></person-group><source>Pestilence in Medieval and Early Modern English Literature</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><series>Medieval History and Culture 23</series><comment>pp. xiv + 206. £55 ($80) ISBN 0 4159 6822 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B36"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Happé</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Cyclical Form and the English Mystery Plays: A Comparative Study of the English Biblical Plays and their Continental and Iconographic Counterparts</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><comment>pp. 349. €80 ISBN 9 0420 1652 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B40"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Jones</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Medieval Mystical Tradition in England: Exeter Symposium VII</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Brewer</publisher-name><comment>pp. xiv + 212. £45 ($90) ISBN 1 8438 4007 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B42"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Kelly</surname><given-names>William</given-names></name><name><surname>Young</surname><given-names>John R</given-names></name></person-group><source>Ulster and Scotland, 1600–2000: History, Language and Identity</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>FCP</publisher-name><comment>pp. 189. £45 ($55) ISBN 1 8518 2808 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B43"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Kerby-Fulton</surname><given-names>Kathryn</given-names></name><name><surname>Hilmo</surname><given-names>Maidie</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Medieval Reader: Reception and Cultural History in the Late Medieval Manuscript</source><year>2001</year><publisher-name>AMS</publisher-name><comment>pp. xviii + 256. $82.50 ISBN 0 4046 4551 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B44"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Kermode</surname><given-names>Lloyd</given-names></name><name><surname>Scott-Warren</surname><given-names>Jason</given-names></name><name><surname>van Elk</surname><given-names>Martine</given-names></name></person-group><source>Tudor Drama Before Shakespeare, 1485–1590: New Directions for Research, Criticism and Pedagogy</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><comment>pp. 271. £40 ISBN 1 4039 6526 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B61"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Page</surname><given-names>Sophie</given-names></name></person-group><source>Magic in Medieval Manuscripts</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>BL/UTorP</publisher-name><comment>pp. 64. £7.95 ($19.95) ISBN 0 7123 4813 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B66"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Saunders</surname><given-names>Corinne</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Companion to Romance: From Classical to Contemporary</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><comment>pp. xii + 565. £85 ($131.95) ISBN 0 6312 3271 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B68"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Scott</surname><given-names>Anne M</given-names></name></person-group><source>Piers Plowman and the Poor</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>FCP</publisher-name><comment>pp. 263. $65 ISBN 1 8518 2725 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B73"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Story</surname><given-names>Ian C</given-names></name></person-group><source>Eupolis: Poet of Old Comedy</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xii + 441. £79 ISBN 0 1992 5992 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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</back>
</article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo><title>IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" contentType="CDATA"><title>IIIMiddle English: Excluding Chaucer</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Dorsey</namePart><namePart type="family">Armstrong</namePart><affiliation>Purdue University</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Jennifer</namePart><namePart type="family">Brown</namePart><affiliation>University of Hartford</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Nicole</namePart><namePart type="family">Clifton</namePart><affiliation>Northern Illinois University</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Kenneth</namePart><namePart type="family">Hodges</namePart><affiliation>University of Oklahoma</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Juris</namePart><namePart type="family">Lidaka</namePart><affiliation>West Virginia State University</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Marion</namePart><namePart type="family">Turner</namePart><affiliation>King's College London</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Greg</namePart><namePart type="family">Walker</namePart><affiliation>University of Leicester</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>Oxford University Press</publisher><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2006</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2006</copyrightDate></originInfo><abstract>This chapter has ten sections: 1.General and Miscellaneous; 2. Women's Writing; 3. Alliterative Verse and Lyrics; 4. The Gawain-Poet; 5. Piers Plowman; 6. Romance; 7. Gower, Lydgate, and Hoccleve; 8. Malory and Caxton; 9. Middle Scots Poetry; 10. Drama. Sections 1 and 7 are by Juris Lidaka; section 2 is by Marion Turner; sections 3 and 5 are by Nicole Clifton; section 4 is by Dorsey Armstrong, with a contribution by Juris Lidaka; sections 6 and 8 are by Kenneth Hodges, with contributions by Juris Lidaka; section 9 is by Jennifer Brown; section 10 is by Greg Walker.</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>The Year's Work in English Studies</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><subject><topic>Articles</topic></subject><identifier type="ISSN">0084-4144</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">ywes</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">ywes</identifier><part><date>2006</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>85</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>162</start><end>235</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1093/ywes/mal003</identifier><accessCondition type="use and reproduction" contentType="copyright">© The English Association; all rights reserved</accessCondition><recordInfo><recordContentSource authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-GTWS0RDP-M">oup</recordContentSource><recordOrigin>© The English Association; all rights reserved</recordOrigin></recordInfo></mods><json:item><extension>json</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/json</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/metadata/json</uri></json:item></metadata><covers><json:item><extension>tiff</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>image/tiff</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/C6EA15A64F1B0F6C5A04AC9536596B9DA7F2019B/covers/tiff</uri></json:item></covers><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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