IEnglish Language
Identifieur interne : 001992 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001991; suivant : 001993IEnglish Language
Auteurs : Verena Haser ; Anita Auer ; Jeroen Van De Weijer ; Marion Elenbaas ; Wim Van Der Wurff ; Beáta Gyuris ; Julie Coleman ; Edward Callary ; Lieselotte Anderwald ; Andrea Sand ; Camilla Vasquez ; Dan McintyreSource :
- Year's Work in English Studies [ 0084-4144 ] ; 2009.
Url:
DOI: 10.1093/ywes/map018
Links to Exploration step
ISTEX:9C2530BEB3CFCFFEFC1F7BC82AD4674EC392C783Le document en format XML
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Elenbaas</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Leiden</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Van Der Wurff, Wim" sort="Van Der Wurff, Wim" uniqKey="Van Der Wurff W" first="Wim" last="Van Der Wurff">Wim Van Der Wurff</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Newcastle University</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Gyuris, Beata" sort="Gyuris, Beata" uniqKey="Gyuris B" first="Beáta" last="Gyuris">Beáta Gyuris</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Hungarian Academy of Sciences</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Coleman, Julie" sort="Coleman, Julie" uniqKey="Coleman J" first="Julie" last="Coleman">Julie Coleman</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Leicester</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Callary, Edward" sort="Callary, Edward" uniqKey="Callary E" first="Edward" last="Callary">Edward 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uniqKey="Auer A" first="Anita" last="Auer">Anita Auer</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Utrecht</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Van De Weijer, Jeroen" sort="Van De Weijer, Jeroen" uniqKey="Van De Weijer J" first="Jeroen" last="Van De Weijer">Jeroen Van De Weijer</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Leiden</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Elenbaas, Marion" sort="Elenbaas, Marion" uniqKey="Elenbaas M" first="Marion" last="Elenbaas">Marion Elenbaas</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Leiden</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Van Der Wurff, Wim" sort="Van Der Wurff, Wim" uniqKey="Van Der Wurff W" first="Wim" last="Van Der Wurff">Wim Van Der Wurff</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Newcastle University</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Gyuris, Beata" sort="Gyuris, 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Smith</json:string><json:string>Charles Reiss</json:string><json:string>Rachel Giora</json:string><json:string>Frank Richter</json:string><json:string>Kaunisto</json:string><json:string>Christine Johansson</json:string><json:string>Tania Kuteva</json:string><json:string>Heinrich Ramisch</json:string><json:string>Christina Higgins</json:string><json:string>James Milroy</json:string><json:string>Ursula Lutzky</json:string><json:string>Dirk Wiemann</json:string><json:string>Arthur Stepanov</json:string><json:string>Ernie</json:string><json:string>Henry James</json:string><json:string>Ingrid Tieken</json:string><json:string>Andrea Gerbig</json:string><json:string>Pamela Faber</json:string><json:string>Kyle Rawlins</json:string><json:string>Peter Gilliver</json:string><json:string>Michael Leeser</json:string><json:string>Dirk Speelman</json:string><json:string>Susan Mandala</json:string><json:string>Anne Kari</json:string><json:string>Morton</json:string><json:string>Sonia Cristofaro</json:string><json:string>Gunther</json:string><json:string>Richard S. Kayne</json:string><json:string>Claire Timmins</json:string><json:string>Fleur Adcock</json:string><json:string>Sandra A. Thompson</json:string><json:string>Arnold Wright</json:string><json:string>R.L. Language</json:string><json:string>Jan</json:string><json:string>Metalinguistic Discourse</json:string><json:string>Reiko Ikeo</json:string><json:string>Lindquist</json:string><json:string>Joybrato Mukherjee</json:string><json:string>LaCharite</json:string><json:string>Emiel</json:string><json:string>Charles Sanders</json:string><json:string>John McWhorter</json:string><json:string>Elena Semino</json:string><json:string>Time Comparison</json:string><json:string>Michael Connelly</json:string><json:string>Patricia Cornwell</json:string><json:string>John Algeo</json:string><json:string>Ryan Christensen</json:string><json:string>Janet Dean</json:string><json:string>Lesley Milroy</json:string><json:string>Gerard</json:string><json:string>Nigerian</json:string><json:string>Sabine Lappe</json:string><json:string>Hans-Georg Wolf</json:string><json:string>Angus B. Grieve-Smith</json:string><json:string>Irina Nikolaeva</json:string><json:string>Alison Henry</json:string><json:string>Joanna Gavins</json:string><json:string>Joseph Greenberg</json:string><json:string>Ray Jackendoff</json:string><json:string>Jesuit</json:string><json:string>Stanley Fish</json:string><json:string>Terry Lynn</json:string><json:string>Nicholas Evans</json:string><json:string>Harris</json:string><json:string>Charles Goodwin</json:string><json:string>David Clarke</json:string><json:string>Gregory Stump</json:string><json:string>Jeroen Groenendijk</json:string><json:string>Nicole Dehe</json:string><json:string>Lei Sun</json:string><json:string>Stephen Brown</json:string><json:string>Roger van Gompel</json:string><json:string>Andrea</json:string><json:string>Richard Coates</json:string><json:string>Richard Howlet</json:string><json:string>Benjamin Russell</json:string><json:string>Anette Rosenbach</json:string><json:string>Andrew Hamer</json:string><json:string>Donna Lillian</json:string><json:string>Herbert Clark</json:string><json:string>Bert Peeters</json:string><json:string>K. 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Isermann</json:string><json:string>Christian J. Kay</json:string><json:string>Day Forms</json:string><json:string>Don Chapman</json:string><json:string>Mick</json:string><json:string>Monica Gonzalez-Marquez</json:string><json:string>Michael Toolan</json:string><json:string>Patricia Lamarre</json:string><json:string>Richard Ingham</json:string><json:string>James Jones</json:string><json:string>Desmond Hurley</json:string><json:string>Eugene J. Dawydiak</json:string><json:string>Jayeeta</json:string><json:string>James Essegbey</json:string><json:string>Radoslaw</json:string><json:string>Benedikt</json:string><json:string>John Flowerdew</json:string><json:string>Michael Moortgat</json:string><json:string>Alastair Butler</json:string><json:string>James</json:string><json:string>Adamson</json:string><json:string>Oliver Twist</json:string><json:string>Jim Miller</json:string><json:string>Encarnacion Hidalgo</json:string><json:string>Edgar W. Schneider</json:string><json:string>Isaac Schneebaum</json:string><json:string>Andrew Goatley</json:string><json:string>Jordi Cicres</json:string><json:string>Richard B. Baldauf</json:string><json:string>Therese Lalor</json:string><json:string>Marco Baroni</json:string><json:string>Michael Swan</json:string><json:string>McCafferty</json:string><json:string>Jennifer Hay</json:string><json:string>Andrew Hippisley</json:string><json:string>Van Peer</json:string><json:string>Colette Moore</json:string><json:string>Martin Stokhof</json:string><json:string>Mark Turner</json:string><json:string>Theo van Leeuwen</json:string><json:string>Amber D. Franklin</json:string><json:string>Carolin</json:string><json:string>Rolf Kreyer</json:string><json:string>Harvey Sacks</json:string><json:string>Richard A. Wright</json:string><json:string>Antonella Sorace</json:string><json:string>Biewer</json:string><json:string>Mark Kaunisto</json:string><json:string>Mick Randall</json:string><json:string>John A. Lucy</json:string><json:string>Eric Haeberli</json:string><json:string>D. Gary</json:string><json:string>Laura Rupp</json:string><json:string>N.E. Osselton</json:string><json:string>Williams</json:string><json:string>Christopher Potts</json:string><json:string>Martin Haspelmath</json:string><json:string>Martin Howard</json:string><json:string>Danutah Reah</json:string><json:string>Jemeljan Hakemulder</json:string><json:string>Alastair Pennycook</json:string><json:string>Maria Braun</json:string><json:string>Peter Ohl</json:string><json:string>Lynn Irons</json:string><json:string>John Local</json:string><json:string>Wallace Chafe</json:string><json:string>Charlotte Smith</json:string><json:string>Marianna Kennedy</json:string><json:string>Francis Cornish</json:string><json:string>E. Wilcox</json:string><json:string>G. Subba</json:string><json:string>Johnson</json:string><json:string>R.R. White</json:string><json:string>Miyoshi</json:string><json:string>David Gil</json:string><json:string>Anke Ludeling</json:string><json:string>Manfred Krifka</json:string><json:string>Tollefson</json:string><json:string>S.A. Aladeyomi</json:string><json:string>Theresa</json:string><json:string>John Ingram</json:string><json:string>B. Shah</json:string><json:string>Paola Tornaghi</json:string><json:string>Peter Szigetvari</json:string><json:string>Maria Bittner</json:string><json:string>Paul A. Johnston</json:string><json:string>Anne H. Fabricius</json:string><json:string>Ulla Connor</json:string><json:string>Robert McColl</json:string><json:string>Guy Cook</json:string><json:string>Alison Sealey</json:string><json:string>Olga Fischer</json:string><json:string>Herbert Colston</json:string><json:string>King Edwin</json:string><json:string>John Heritage</json:string><json:string>Angela Chan</json:string><json:string>William Croft</json:string><json:string>Jane Austen</json:string><json:string>Walter Bisang</json:string><json:string>Peter Sells</json:string><json:string>Krahmer</json:string><json:string>Anne Wichmann</json:string><json:string>Tony Devarson</json:string><json:string>Jan Svartvik</json:string><json:string>Gerda Eva</json:string><json:string>Ida Stockman</json:string><json:string>Mercedes Durham</json:string><json:string>Betty Birner</json:string><json:string>Arnold Zwicky</json:string><json:string>Katherina Delong</json:string><json:string>Laurel Brinton</json:string><json:string>Barbara Dancygier</json:string><json:string>Liliane Haegeman</json:string><json:string>James Higginbotham</json:string><json:string>Giovanni Iamartino</json:string><json:string>Paul Thompson</json:string><json:string>Vyvyan Evans</json:string><json:string>Marie Braun</json:string><json:string>Nigel Love</json:string><json:string>Florian Haas</json:string><json:string>Carolyn Baker</json:string><json:string>Gary B. Palmer</json:string><json:string>J.L. Austin</json:string><json:string>Kong English</json:string><json:string>Fludernik</json:string><json:string>Doug Arnold</json:string></persName><placeName><json:string>Pakistan</json:string><json:string>Aberdeen</json:string><json:string>Geneva</json:string><json:string>Lancashire</json:string><json:string>Harare</json:string><json:string>Cambodia</json:string><json:string>Uppsala</json:string><json:string>Birmingham</json:string><json:string>Malaysia</json:string><json:string>Potsdam</json:string><json:string>Middlesbrough</json:string><json:string>Cheshire</json:string><json:string>Bangalore</json:string><json:string>Miami</json:string><json:string>Singapore</json:string><json:string>Germany</json:string><json:string>United States</json:string><json:string>Blackburn</json:string><json:string>Sri Lanka</json:string><json:string>Finland</json:string><json:string>Australia</json:string><json:string>Nepal</json:string><json:string>Opacity</json:string><json:string>Bangladesh</json:string><json:string>Bonin</json:string><json:string>Korea</json:string><json:string>St Lucia</json:string><json:string>UK</json:string><json:string>US</json:string><json:string>Lerwick</json:string><json:string>Montreal</json:string><json:string>Hong Kong</json:string><json:string>Georgia</json:string><json:string>Nomi</json:string><json:string>Scotland</json:string><json:string>Yokohama</json:string><json:string>Rhoticity</json:string><json:string>Edinburgh</json:string><json:string>Canada</json:string><json:string>Niger</json:string><json:string>Specificity</json:string><json:string>Houston</json:string><json:string>London</json:string><json:string>American</json:string><json:string>New France</json:string><json:string>Lincolnshire</json:string><json:string>India</json:string><json:string>West Indies</json:string><json:string>China</json:string><json:string>Norfolk</json:string><json:string>Belfast</json:string><json:string>Toronto</json:string><json:string>Europe</json:string><json:string>Atlanta</json:string><json:string>Japan</json:string><json:string>America</json:string><json:string>Wales</json:string><json:string>Nigeria</json:string><json:string>Baltimore</json:string><json:string>Leeds</json:string><json:string>South Africa</json:string><json:string>Liverpool</json:string><json:string>Barcelona</json:string><json:string>Philippines</json:string><json:string>Shrewsbury</json:string><json:string>Dublin</json:string><json:string>Amsterdam</json:string><json:string>Glasgow</json:string><json:string>New Zealand</json:string><json:string>Chicago</json:string><json:string>Britain</json:string><json:string>Yorkshire</json:string><json:string>New Englishes</json:string><json:string>Zimbabwe</json:string><json:string>Lancaster</json:string><json:string>York</json:string><json:string>Cameroon</json:string><json:string>St Vincent</json:string><json:string>Northumbria</json:string><json:string>Bamberg</json:string><json:string>Ireland</json:string><json:string>Tanzania</json:string><json:string>Croatia</json:string><json:string>Quebec</json:string><json:string>Stanley</json:string><json:string>Cambridge</json:string><json:string>Italy</json:string><json:string>Sweden</json:string><json:string>Vinci</json:string><json:string>England</json:string><json:string>Delhi</json:string><json:string>Bahamas</json:string><json:string>Goldberg</json:string><json:string>Automaticity</json:string><json:string>Johannesburg</json:string></placeName><ref_url><json:string>http://view.byu.edu</json:string></ref_url><ref_bibl><json:string>[1997]</json:string><json:string>[1907]</json:string><json:string>[2003]</json:string><json:string>[1968]</json:string><json:string>[1996]</json:string><json:string>[2002]</json:string><json:string>[1989]</json:string><json:string>Adam Jaworski et al.</json:string><json:string>[1984]</json:string><json:string>[1990]</json:string><json:string>Jeffries et al.</json:string><json:string>[1999]</json:string><json:string>[1994]</json:string><json:string>[1976]</json:string><json:string>Poplack et al.</json:string><json:string>[1982]</json:string></ref_bibl><bibl></bibl></unitex></namedEntities><ark><json:string>ark:/67375/HXZ-GXCZSWHG-4</json:string></ark><categories><wos></wos><scienceMetrix></scienceMetrix><scopus><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Literature and Literary Theory</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>3 - Linguistics and Language</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Language and Linguistics</json:string></scopus></categories><publicationDate>2009</publicationDate><copyrightDate>2009</copyrightDate><doi><json:string>10.1093/ywes/map018</json:string></doi><id>9C2530BEB3CFCFFEFC1F7BC82AD4674EC392C783</id><score>1</score><fulltext><json:item><extension>pdf</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>application/pdf</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/9C2530BEB3CFCFFEFC1F7BC82AD4674EC392C783/fulltext/pdf</uri></json:item><json:item><extension>zip</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/zip</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/9C2530BEB3CFCFFEFC1F7BC82AD4674EC392C783/fulltext/zip</uri></json:item><istex:fulltextTEI uri="https://api.istex.fr/document/9C2530BEB3CFCFFEFC1F7BC82AD4674EC392C783/fulltext/tei"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title level="a">IEnglish Language</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><authority>ISTEX</authority><publisher scheme="https://publisher-list.data.istex.fr">Oxford University Press</publisher><availability><licence><p>© The English Association; all rights reserved</p></licence><p scheme="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-GTWS0RDP-M">oup</p></availability><date>2009-04-28</date></publicationStmt><notesStmt><note type="research-article" scheme="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</note><note type="journal" scheme="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</note></notesStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a">IEnglish Language</title><author xml:id="author-0000"><persName><forename type="first">Verena</forename><surname>Haser</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Freiburg</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0001"><persName><forename type="first">Anita</forename><surname>Auer</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Utrecht</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0002"><persName><forename type="first">Jeroen</forename><surname>van de Weijer</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Leiden</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0003"><persName><forename type="first">Marion</forename><surname>Elenbaas</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Leiden</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0004"><persName><forename type="first">Wim</forename><surname>van der Wurff</surname></persName><affiliation>Newcastle University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0005"><persName><forename type="first">Beáta</forename><surname>Gyuris</surname></persName><affiliation>Hungarian Academy of Sciences</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0006"><persName><forename type="first">Julie</forename><surname>Coleman</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Leicester</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0007"><persName><forename type="first">Edward</forename><surname>Callary</surname></persName><affiliation>Northern Illinois 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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-title>Year's Work in English Studies</journal-title>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0084-4144</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1471-6801</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ywes/map018</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">map018</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group>
<subject>Articles</subject>
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</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>I<break></break>English Language</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Haser</surname><given-names>Verena</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Freiburg</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Auer</surname><given-names>Anita</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Utrecht</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>van de Weijer</surname><given-names>Jeroen</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Leiden</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Elenbaas</surname><given-names>Marion</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Leiden</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>van der Wurff</surname><given-names>Wim</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Newcastle University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Gyuris</surname><given-names>Beáta</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Hungarian Academy of Sciences</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Coleman</surname><given-names>Julie</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Leicester</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Callary</surname><given-names>Edward</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Northern Illinois University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Anderwald</surname><given-names>Lieselotte</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Keil University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sand</surname><given-names>Andrea</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Trier</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Vasquez</surname><given-names>Camilla</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of South Florida</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Mcintyre</surname><given-names>Dan</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Huddersfield</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub">
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>28</day>
<month>4</month>
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>88</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>146</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>© The English Association; all rights reserved</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2009</copyright-year>
</permissions>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<p>This chapter has twelve sections: <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">1</xref>. General; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2">2</xref>. History of English Linguistics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">3</xref>. Phonetics and Phonology; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC4">4</xref>. Morphology; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC5">5</xref>. Syntax; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC6">6</xref>. Semantics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">7</xref>. Lexicography, Lexicology and Lexical Semantics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC8">8</xref>. Onomastics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">9</xref>. Dialectology and Sociolinguistics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC10">10</xref>. New Englishes and Creolistics; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC11">11</xref>. Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC12">12</xref>. Stylistics. <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">Section 1</xref> is by Verena Haser; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2">section 2</xref> is by Anita Auer; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">section 3</xref> is by Jeroen van de Weijer; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC4">sections 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC5">5</xref> are by Marion Elenbaas and Wim van der Wurff; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC6">section 6</xref> is by Beáta Gyuris; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">section 7</xref> is by Julie Coleman; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC8">section 8</xref> is by Edward Callary; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">section 9</xref> is by Lieselotte Anderwald; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC10">section 10</xref> is by Andrea Sand; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC11">section 11</xref> is by Camilla Vasquez; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC12">section 12</xref> is by Dan McIntyre.</p>
<sec id="SEC1"><title>1. General</title>
<p>Several books on linguistic evolution have been published in 2007. <italic>The Genesis of Grammar: A Reconstruction</italic> by Bernd Heine and Tania Kuteva is perhaps most fascinating for the authors’ well-argued hypotheses concerning the shape of early hominid grammar. Yet the book offers much more than informed speculations on the organization of early linguistic systems. Heine and Kuteva's work is a lucid and extremely well-structured account of language evolution addressing a very wide range of topics. Though not designed as such, it would also make an excellent textbook. The authors’ overarching goal is to solve some long-standing puzzles concerning linguistic evolution, utilizing insights from grammaticalization theory as their methodological tool. The book is divided into five parts. The introductory chapter gives an overview of previous studies in the field and introduces central research questions. Chapter 2 aims at reconstructing the emergence of functional categories, taking as its foil key findings on common paths of grammaticalization. Chapters 3 and 4 explore animal cognition and pidgins in the context of language evolution, while the following two chapters offer a sketch of the paths which may have led to the emergence of morphosyntax and recursivitiy. Finally, the concluding sections answer a number of questions raised in the first part of the book, often going beyond the confines of the grammaticalization research that has dominated the exposition in earlier chapters. Issues tackled in these sections include the evolutionary sequence in which syntax and lexicon emerged, the function of early language (cognition vs. communication), and the question whether language evolved gradually or in an abrupt switch.</p>
<p>In another book devoted to linguistic evolution, David Armstrong and Sherman Wilcox make a case for <italic>The Gestural Origin of Language</italic>. In recent years, several theorists have been occupied with a possible historical trajectory from gesture to language. What most distinguishes the present authors’ work from that of their predecessors is its firm grounding in cognitive linguistic ideas. Armstrong and Wilcox cite compelling evidence from, <italic>inter alia</italic>, research on sign languages in support of their conjectures. Their model presents language as emerging from visual gestures via processes of ritualization. Given that understanding gestures amounts to understanding iconic signs, it is the ability to use and understand icons—rather than symbols in the generativist sense—which the authors identify as the pivotal feature of human language. As demonstrated by Armstrong and Wilcox, the study of sign languages holds out considerable promise for models of language evolution that attempt to trace language to gestures. The question to what extent the non-conventional sign languages used by some deaf children (‘homesigns’) offer insights into the genesis of language is further explored in a paper by Rudolf Botha, ‘On Homesign Systems as a Potential Window on Language Evolution’ (<italic>L&C</italic> 27:i[2007] 41–53). Like Armstrong and Wilcox's work on <italic>The Gestural Origin of Language</italic>, this paper is likely to provide new impetus for research on the study of sign language in the context of evolutionary linguistics.</p>
<p>Jean-Louis Dessalles's <italic>Why we Talk: The Evolutionary Origins of Language</italic> addresses a wide range of pertinent topics. Of particular interest is the author's account of why language evolved in the first place. His principal hypothesis is that language is the result of an accidental change in the social organization of early hominids. In order to survive, our ancestors were forced to find a comparatively large group of allies. Language emerged as a means of ‘showing off’ one's value to the group by demonstrating one's ability to notice relevant phenomena in the environment. This line of argument has some intriguing implications which are bound to arouse controversy: if it weren't for a rather fortuitous development in hominid societies, language might not have developed at all, or it might have developed in a completely different way. Dessalles's hypotheses concerning the ‘political’ origins of language form the concluding chapter of a book which is full of illuminating, even if sometimes debatable, observations on the nature of language. The first part of the book (‘The Place of Language in Human Evolutionary History’) features an insightful comparison of human and animal language and elaborates on the familiar conception of language as a ‘code’. As will be seen below, this idea has been challenged by some proponents of the embodied cognition hypothesis. The second part covers issues relating to ‘The Functional Anatomy of Speech’, including the question that takes centre stage in Armstrong and Wilcox's book: did language evolve from manual gestures? Dessalles's answer, incidentally, is negative. The third part (‘The Ethology of Language’) reflects on two modes of communication, the informative and the argumentative. The author relates the informative mode to the ‘language’ used by our hominid forebears, and the argumentative mode to the type of languages used today, sketching likely reasons for the emergence of these two modes. The final section draws together several strands of argument encountered in the preceding pages, reconstructing the genesis of language as a three-stage process.</p>
<p>The above-mentioned books on linguistic evolution, notably Armstrong and Wilcox's <italic>Gestural Origin of Language</italic>, sound a recurrent theme in several publications that have appeared in 2007: the rejection of the idea of language as a symbol-manipulating system along the lines of classical cognitive science. Indeed, advances in connectionist modelling and the concurrent decline of symbol-processing artificial intelligence have heralded a sea-change in the way many scientists now view human thought. Cognition is situated (embodied), or so the proponents of the ‘new’ paradigm argue; the notorious brains in vats are incapable of thinking, disconnected as they are from an environment. Brain processes do not operate on physical symbols in the way suggested by the mind-as-computer metaphor. Following the ‘distributed cognition’ view, cognition and language should be construed in terms of reciprocal relations between brain, bodies, and reality—rather than in terms of localized phenomena (i.e. information-processing performed by individual cognitive systems). As outlined by Stephen Cowley in his editorial introduction (<italic>LangS</italic> 29:v[2007] 575–83), the contributions to a special issue of <italic>Language Sciences</italic> put flesh on these ideas and map out their implications for the nature of language and thought. Thus, in ‘Good Prospects: Ecological and Social Perspectives on Conforming, Creating, and Caring in Conversation’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 584–604), Bert Hodges observes that the essence of language acquisition cannot be captured either in terms of ‘rule-governed creativity’ or of ‘social conformity’. The author associates these two positions with the work of scholars such as Noam Chomsky and Michael Tomasello respectively, urging us to adopt an alternative view according to which language is a ‘values-realizing activity’. His article draws on ecological accounts of mind and language as well as influential studies investigating the impact of majority opinions on human decision-making. Per Linell in ‘Dialogicality in Languages, Minds and Brains: Is There a Convergence between Dialogism and Neuro-Biology?’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 605–20) espouses an approach to cognition that casts doubt on the notion of mind as essentially a means of representing the outer world. According to Linell, the foremost function of the human mind is to enable individuals to interact with the world and with other individuals. The framework of dialogism investigates this type of physical and social embodiment (situatedness). Linnell's article sketches the ways in which dialogism and modern neuroscience have arrived at similar insights into language and cognition. Richard Menary reflects on ‘Writing as Thinking’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 621–32), exploring the impact of writing on human cognitive capacities. Angelo Cangelosi, ‘Adaptive Agent Modeling of Distributed Language: Investigations on the Effects of Cultural Variation and Internal Action Representations’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 633–49), puts forward a computational model of language which aims at integrating internal and external factors in language development. Alexander Kravchenko's contribution reflects on ‘Essential Properties of Language, or, Why Language Is Not a Code’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 650–71). The author advocates a ‘bio-cognitive’ framework, which he argues is better suited than traditional paradigms to reveal the true nature of language ‘as a biologically based, cognitively motivated, circularly organized semiotic activity in a consensual domain of interactions aimed at adapting to … the environment’ (p. 650). As already indicated in the title, Kravchenko jettisons the idea of language as a code, offering cogent observations on the notions of representation, sign, interpretation and related concepts central to human cognition. Like Kravchenko, Philip Carr reconsiders long-standing views of language as a digital code. His paper on ‘Internalism, Externalism and Coding’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 672–89) attempts to undermine the idea that languages constitute codes in the first place. In a similar vein, the question raised in the title of Nigel Love's contribution, ‘Are Languages Digital Codes?’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 690–709), receives a negative answer from the author, who argues (on different grounds than Kravchenko) that languages should not be conceived of as codes. Finally, Don Ross in ‘<italic>H. Sapiens</italic> as Ecologically Special: What Does Language Contribute?’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 710–31) identifies the high degree of sociality—behavioural co-ordination—as the distinguishing feature of human beings. The author hypothesizes that it is language which crucially facilitates co-ordination of behaviour among members of the human species.</p>
<p>Proceeding from a broadly ‘bio-cognitive’ approach to language and thought, many contributions to this special issue of <italic>Language Sciences</italic> challenge tenets that form the bedrock of the Chomskyan programme. Generative linguists in turn have launched a new journal, <italic>Biolinguistics</italic>, in 2007, which champions a radically different perspective on the biological foundations of language. The first editorial by Cedric Boeckx and Kleanthes Grohmann (<italic>BioL</italic> 1[2007] 1–8) sketches ‘The Biolinguistics Manifesto’. Issues that will take centre stage in the journal include such key concerns of generative linguistics as the nature and acquisition of language, its evolution and especially its biological underpinnings. This first issue contains four articles, including a paper by Noam Chomsky himself, ‘Of Minds and Language’ (<italic>BioL</italic> 1[2007] 9–27), who glances back at the development of the biolinguistic enterprise. Frédéric Mailhot and Charles Reiss are concerned with ‘Computing Long-Distance Dependencies in Vowel Harmony’ (<italic>BioL</italic> 1[2007] 28–48), setting forth a procedural, as opposed to constraint-based, model of vowel harmony. Rosalind Thornton and Graciela Tesan shed light on language acquisition from a generativist perspective, reflecting on ‘Categorical Acquisition: Parameter Setting in Universal Grammar’ (<italic>BioL</italic> 1[2007] 49–98). The authors specifically assess the relative merits of different models of parameter-setting on the basis of their own longitudinal study of linguistic development in four children. Finally, Juan Uriagereka aims at ‘Clarifying the Notion “Parameter” ’ (<italic>BioL</italic> 1[2007] 99–113), introducing a distinction between three different types of variation which are of fundamental importance to the language faculty. The final section of the paper reconsiders the relation between the minimalist programme and optimality theory.</p>
<p>Cognitive linguistics is one of the most popular approaches to have emerged in recent decades. <italic>The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics</italic>, edited by Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, is a treasure trove of information on all aspects of the cognitivist framework. The contributors to the volume include two of the founding fathers of the cognitivist framework (Leonard Talmy, Ronald Langacker), and many other scholars who are closely associated with cognitive linguistics or related approaches, such as the editors themselves, as well as Joan Bybee, William Croft, René Dirven, Gilles Fauconnier, Raymond Gibbs, Joseph Grady, Richard Hudson, Klaus-Uwe Panther, Linda Thornburg, John Taylor, Mark Turner, Chris Sinha, Michael Tomasello and Jordan Zlatev, to name but a few.</p>
<p>The book contains forty-nine papers, including a succinct introduction by the editors that maps out crucial ideas associated with the cognitivist enterprise and sketches future developments in the field. The book is organized into six parts. Part I (‘Basic Concepts’) features sixteen papers which explore key concepts such as, <italic>inter alia</italic>, embodiment, construal, entrenchment, metaphor, image schemata and spatial semantics. The second part (‘Models of Grammar’) contains three contributions from major proponents of cognitive approaches to grammar: Ronald Langacker (cognitive grammar), William Croft (construction grammar), and Richard Hudson (word grammar). Part III aims at ‘Situating Cognitive Linguistics’, containing pertinent articles on the relation between cognitive and functional linguistics (Jan Nuyts), and between cognitive linguistics and autonomous linguistics (John Taylor) respectively. A paper by Brigitte Nerlich and David Clarke situates the cognitivist enterprise within a broader historical perspective.</p>
<p>While parts I to III offer more general accounts of key issues and concepts in cognitive linguistics, the final three parts contain papers that flesh out the theoretical model. Part IV (‘Linguistic Structure and Language Use’) contains thirteen intriguing case studies, too numerous to list in detail, which deal with various aspects of linguistic structure, from phonology to discourse structure. ‘Linguistic Variation and Change’ is the overarching theme of part V, which contains papers on diachronic linguistics (Joan Bybee), lexical change (Stefan Grondelaers, Dirk Speelman and Dirk Geeraerts), linguistic relativity (Eric Pederson), and signed languages (Sherman Wilcox). The contribution by Johan van der Auwera and Jan Nuyts considers the relation between the cognitive approach and typology, while Gary Palmer is concerned with the relation between cognitive linguistics and anthropological linguistics. Part V also contains a paper on language acquisition from a cognitive linguistic perspective (Michael Tomasello). The final part opens up ‘Applied and Interdisciplinary Perspectives’ and consists of seven important contributions on topics such as ‘Cognitive Linguistics and Cultural Studies’ (René Dirven, Hans-Georg Wolf and Frank Polzenhagen), ‘Cognitive Poetics’ (Margaret Freeman) and ‘Cognitive Linguistics, Psychology, and Cognitive Science’ (Chris Sinha).</p>
<p>Vyvyan Evans's relatively slim <italic>Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics</italic> is an excellent companion to the hefty volume edited by Geeraerts and Cuyckens. Evans's much-needed work provides accessible and succinct definitions of key terms used in cognitive semantics and cognitive accounts of grammar. The glossary is complemented by helpful suggestions for further reading. The book is highly recommendable, especially in conjunction with the textbook by Vyvyan Evans and Melanie Green, <italic>Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction</italic> [2006], since the entries selected for the glossary are for the most part terms that feature in the textbook.</p>
<p>Criticism of work in the otherwise rather disparate disciplines of generative grammar and cognitive linguistics is often based on a common complaint—a perceived lack of empirical support for theories which ostensibly rely on ‘mere’ intuition. Two books published this year are among the publications which go some way towards rectifying this problem. The first is <italic>Methods in Cognitive Linguistics</italic>, edited by Monica Gonzalez-Marquez, Irene Mittelberg, Seana Coulson and Michael Spivey, which surveys various empirical methods that can profitably be employed in cognitive linguistic research. The book has four parts. The first part focuses on fundamental methodological questions, including the most basic one raised by Raymond Gibbs: ‘Why Cognitive Linguists Should Care More about Empirical Methods’. The second part discusses and illustrates the use of corpora in cognitive linguistic research, while part III is concerned with ‘Sign Language and Gesture’. The final two chapters review psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic methods respectively. The papers are written by experts in the field such as Dirk Geeraerts, Raymond Gibbs, Rachel Giora and Eve Sweetser.</p>
<p>The second book takes a different approach. Attempts at adjudicating between different generative models of grammar occasionally draw on data from child language acquisition. William Snyder's <italic>Child Language: The Parametric Approach</italic> investigates child language with a view to its relevance for grammatical theory. The framework adopted is emphatically formalist in nature. This is reflected in the absence of any discussion of functionalist approaches to language acquisition along the lines of Michael Tomasello's <italic>Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition</italic> [2003]. Similarly, functionalist accounts of cross-linguistic variation—another prominent topic in the book—do not play a role in Snyder's argument. The term ‘contemporary syntactic theory’ seems to be construed as a synonym for ‘formalist syntactic theory’. Thus the chapter which ‘surveys the ideas on cross-linguistic variation that are prominent in contemporary syntactic theory’ (p. 4) does not contain references to functionalist approaches to syntax, notably William Croft's <italic>Radical Construction Grammar</italic>: <italic>Syntactic Theory in Typological Perspective</italic> [2001]. The latter book would have deserved mention in this context on various grounds. For one thing, Croft's book presents a substantial contribution to syntactic theory from a distinctly cross-linguistic perspective. For another, Croft's approach has been a source of inspiration for (functionalist) models of language acquisition. At least the existence of these functionalist models might have been acknowledged in a work such as Snyder's, the more so since it is targeted at a wider readership. Despite these provisos, Snyder's book is an invaluable companion for scholars concerned with the parametric approach to child language. The term ‘parametric’ in this context covers ‘any kind of abstract grammatical knowledge, regardless of how it is implemented’ (p. 1), including not only parameters in the narrow sense, but also concepts such as constraint rankings. The first two chapters afford brief and, even for relative novices, highly readable entries into ‘contemporary syntactic theory’ (principles-and-parameters framework; minimalist program) and phonological theory (from the perspective of optimality theory and government phonology), with particular emphasis on the acquisitional predictions that can be derived from the respective accounts. The chapters that follow contain a wealth of practical suggestions for scholars intending to conduct research on child language, including sections on diary studies and on how to run computerized searches with the help of the CHILDES corpus. Chapters 5 (‘Statistical Methods for Longitudinal Studies’) and 6 (‘Experimental and Statistical Methods for Cross-Sectional Studies’) deal with statistical and experimental methods. Chapter 7 presents a number of studies which illustrate the methods discussed in the previous parts of the book. A major finding of this line of research is that child language contains surprisingly few syntactic mistakes of commission. As discussed in chapter 8, the insight that child language is grammatically conservative is likely to have considerable impact on formalist views of explanatory adequacy and the language faculty in general.</p>
<p><italic>The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Interfaces</italic>, edited by Gillian Ramchand and Charles Reiss, is a collection of articles designed to address what generativists view as the ‘crucial issue facing generative linguistics—the internal structure of the language faculty’ (p. 2). The volume explores linguistic interfaces in the sense of boundaries and relations between the various hypothesized domains or ‘modules’ of grammar. The book is divided into four parts. Part I (‘Sound’) contains five contributions. The first two chapters by James Scobbie and Charles Reiss offer interestingly divergent accounts of the phonetics–phonology interface. The former throws doubt on the notion of a strict demarcation between phonetics and phonology, while the latter supports a very clear-cut distinction between the two. Mark Hale and Madelyn Kissock's article is also concerned with the phonetics–phonology interface, shedding light on problems faced by most accounts of language acquisition in OT. The final two papers in this section deal with the morphology–phonology and phonology–syntax interfaces. C. Orhan Orgun and Andrew Dolbey's paper expounds the morphology–phonology interface from the perspective of Sign-Based Morphology and OT, solving some knotty issues regarding the phonology–morphology interface in Turkic and Bantu languages. Gorka Elordieta reviews different models of the phonology–syntax interface that have been proposed in the past two decades, and discusses data from Basque which challenge these models.</p>
<p>The second part of the book offers fresh perspectives on the syntactic module and its interfaces: are the syntactic and morphological modules guided by the same rules or should we assume a strict separation of syntax and morphology? Is it necessary to posit the lexicon as a separate module (involving distinct primitives and rules)? As in the previous sections, the chapters complement each other very well, some of them offering relatively subtle differences in perspective (for example Peter Ackema and Ad Neeleman vs. Edwin Williams, where both papers support a distinction between the morphological and syntactic modules), others presenting sharply contrasting views (for example Thomas Stewart and Gregory Stump vs. Marit Julien, the former two authors positing a word-based interface that mediates between morphology and syntax, the latter viewing words as epiphenomena of other processes). Apart from the previously mentioned authors, the second section also contains contributions by Sara Thomas Rosen, Peter Svenonius, David Embick and Rolf Noyer. Rosen's paper reconsiders phenomena which have formerly been assigned to the semantic module. Specifically, she focuses on argument licensing and argument placement, suggesting that these processes are syntactic in nature, and elaborates on cross-linguistic differences with regard to the functional projections employed in argument licensing. Svenonius examines the link between ‘dominant’ (in the sense of Joseph Greenberg) word-order patterns and basic morphological patterns. According to Svenonius, the word-order patterns observed across languages can be accounted for in terms of movement. Finally, Embick and Noyer elaborate on the Distributed Morphology model of the interface between morphology and syntax, which denies the existence of a separate lexical module.</p>
<p>Part III (‘Meaning’) features four papers, which <italic>inter alia</italic> address the interfaces between syntax and semantics/pragmatics and between semantics and pragmatics. James Higginbotham's contribution is concerned with compositionality. Daniel Büring expounds the interfaces between information structure (which he views as part of syntactic representation) and meaning, as well as between information structure and prosody. Christopher Potts's paper amounts to little short of a ‘resuscitation’ of conventional implicatures, which have long been considered of marginal interest to linguistic pragmatics. His account casts new light on the syntax–semantics and semantics–pragmatics interfaces. The focus of David Beaver and Henk Zeevat's account is on the semantics–pragmatics interface, more specifically on semantic/pragmatic accommodation, the process of recovering missing presuppositions in order to make sense of an utterance.</p>
<p>The final part (‘Architecture’) provides a more global perspective, discussing in general terms various models of grammar in generativist and related research. Cedric Boeckx and Juan Uriagereka survey the development of generativist linguistics from the early days to the present, making a case for the supremacy of the minimalist program over previous models. Mark Steedman sketches a non-derivational model of grammar, viz. Combinatory Categorial Grammar, which he argues compares favourably with the minimalist model. He suggests that integrating a number of features of Categorial Grammar, notably the rejection of traditional surface constituents, will lead to highly desirable modifications of the minimalist architecture. Finally, Jonas Kuhn takes a look at the concept of interfaces (construed in a broad sense) in constraint-based theories of grammar, focusing on Lexical-Functional Grammar and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar.</p>
<p>Modularity in the sense of separation between linguistic and other cognitive processes is also the principal issue addressed in <italic>Automaticity and Control in Language Processing</italic>, edited by Antje Meyer, Linda Wheeldon and Andrea Krott. Three questions take centre stage in many papers. Is the modularity thesis in line with recent findings from psycho- and neurolinguistic studies? Was Jerry Fodor correct in assuming that the central linguistic processes work in separation from other cognitive processes? Are central linguistic processes really for the most part automatic? The book comprises eleven contributions which invariably present cutting-edge research in language processing. All contributors are leading scholars in the fields of psycho- or neurolinguistics, including Simon Garrod and Martin Pickering (‘Automaticity of Language Production in Monologue and Dialogue’), Victor Ferreira (‘How Are Speakers’ Linguistic Choices Affected by Ambiguity?’), and Peter Hagoort (‘The Memory, Unification, and Control (MUC) Model of Language’).</p>
<p>Hard on the heels of Matthew Traxler and Morton Ann Gernsbacher's voluminous <italic>Handbook of Psycholinguistics</italic>, published in its second edition in 2006, comes the first edition of a similar and hardly less comprehensive reference work for psycholinguists: <italic>The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics</italic>, edited by Gareth Gaskell. The two books complement each other very well, inevitable overlaps in issues notwithstanding. Even in the case of syntactic parsing, a topic which in both volumes is presented by the same authors (Roger van Gompel and Martin Pickering), each individual paper is not rendered superfluous by the existence of the other. The new <italic>Oxford Handbook</italic> consists of six sections, all of which present state-of-the art overviews of the respective topics: ‘Word Recognition’ (section I), ‘The Mental Lexicon’ (section II), ‘Comprehension and Discourse’ (section III), ‘Language Production’ (section IV), ‘Language Development’ (section V) and ‘Wider Perspectives’ (section VI). The authors of the forty-nine contributions are leading scholars in the field: James McQueen, William Marslen-Wilson, Roger van Gompel, Martin Pickering and Michael Tanenhaus, to name but a few. Despite their relative brevity, all the papers offer a wealth of information on key areas of debate, which will be most welcome to researchers in the field but possibly at times overpowering to novices.</p>
<p>Readers searching for a more elementary introduction to psycho- and neurolinguistics need look no further than John Ingram's <italic>Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and its Disorders</italic>. This textbook is a stand-alone introduction to research on the relation between language and the brain, focusing on language comprehension and linguistic impairments. The first part outlines fundamental concepts, including Chomskyan and Fodorian modularity, and provides a sketch of the neuro-anatomy of speech. Part II surveys crucial findings on speech perception and impairments of auditory processing. The third part is devoted to semantics and morphology, including the mental lexicon and word structure (chapter 9), semantic networks (chapter 10), and lexical semantic disorders (chapter 11). The final sections deal with sentence comprehension and discourse respectively. Ingram presents the central areas of debate with great clarity. The only niggling point is that very occasionally a more extensive discussion might have been desirable. Cases in point are Ingram's outline of Edward Gibson's theory of syntactic complexity—which the author concedes is somewhat simplified—and the sections on Herbert Paul Grice and Relevance Theory. Overall, however, the book is essential reading for students of neuro- and psycholinguistics.</p>
<p>Advances in neurophysiological techniques have yielded insights into the dynamics of language processing that are beyond the reach of purely behavioural methods. In testing factors such as reaction time, behavioural techniques tend to measure the product of the various processes involved in speaking, listening, or writing, rather than the processes themselves. By contrast, methods for recording electrical activity in the brain while subjects are presented with certain stimuli (event-related potentials or ERPs) afford a window into the very processes at work in language comprehension. Readers who wish to familiarize themselves with this area of cognitive science (and especially with studies implementing ERPs) may turn to the collection of articles in <italic>Brain Research in Language</italic>, edited by Zvia Breznitz. The title is slightly misleading since, according to the introduction, the volume is devoted specifically to cognitive processes involved in reading. Even so, some chapters are of more general interest. For example, a paper by Marta Kutas and Katherina Delong describes various types of research implementing ERPs and illustrates the relevance of this technique to the study of language in general. Specialists on metaphorical language will turn to the contribution by Abraham Goldstein, Yossi Arzouan and Miriam Faust, whose research lends support to the idea that the comprehension of literal and metaphorical language is based on the same mechanisms.</p>
<p>Much of the literature on linguistic philosophy is notoriously elusive. Alexander Miller's <italic>Philosophy of Language</italic> enables readers to get a grip on the agendas of major thinkers in the field. The second edition, published in 2007, features a number of improvements on the original text. Most importantly, the author presents more up-to-date coverage of the controversy inspired by Saul Kripke's take on the later Wittgenstein. Throughout the book Miller's exposition combines accessibility with depth of analysis. Another asset of the book lies in its remarkable breadth of coverage, which extends beyond the founding fathers of modern linguistic philosophy (Frege, Wittgenstein, Bertrand Russell, Willard van Orman Quine) to discussions of more recent work by Simon Blackburn, Crispin Wright, Colin McGinn and others, whose arguments cast new light on the classical texts. The book has nine chapters devoted to the most important topics in linguistic philosophy: sense, reference, and definitive descriptions (chapters 1 and 2), logical positivism (chapter 3), scepticism about sense (chapters 4 and 5), proposals for ‘saving’ the notion of sense (chapter 6), Herbert Paul Grice's and John Searle's account of meaning (chapter 7), and Donald Davidson's approach to meaning and truth-conditions (chapter 8). In the concluding chapter the author takes a broader look at the relation between language and reality, elucidating the controversy between realism and anti-realism (Michael Dummett, Crispin Wright) and Putnam's externalism.</p>
<p>We will conclude our review with a couple of books that are geared specifically to the needs of interested laypersons and newcomers to the field of linguistics. Two general linguistic reference works have been published in a second edition in 2007. The first is Peter Matthews's <italic>Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics</italic>, which has been updated especially with regard to sociolinguistic terminology. For reasons specified in the introduction, the dictionary does not cover all fields that are commonly held to be part of linguistics. For example, no entries are provided for applied and computational linguistics. Despite a number of inevitable omissions, the dictionary features no fewer than 3,000 entries that are generally in line with the book's title in being concise and very well written.</p>
<p>Larry Trask's popular <italic>Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts</italic>, edited by Peter Stockwell, contains far fewer entries (approximately 300) than the <italic>Oxford Dictionary</italic>, offering in compensation more extensive coverage of basic concepts. The entries relate to the core linguistic disciplines (phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics) as well as to sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics. As is pointed out by Stockwell, the second edition has been considerably expanded. Particularly helpful are suggestions for further reading, though in a few cases a greater number of works, or more recent publications, might have been added.</p>
<p>Ingo Plag, Marie Braun, Sabine Lappe and Mareile Schramm offer a comparatively brief <italic>Introduction to English Linguistics</italic>, which familiarizes students with the core areas of research—phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The book also provides very short introductions to work in historical linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics. Full of pertinent examples and lucidly written, the chapters offer stimulating reading for the linguistic novice. Due to limitations of space the authors use Standard BrE and RP as their points of reference. Differences between varieties of English are not covered in detail. A number of exercises (both basic and advanced) allow students to put their newly acquired knowledge to the test. Along with a number of other introductions that have appeared in recent years, such as Bernd Kortmann's <italic>English Linguistics—Essentials</italic> [2005] and Ralph Fasold and Jeffrey Connor-Linton's <italic>An Introduction to Language and Linguistics</italic> [2006], this book can be strongly recommended to all undergraduate students.</p>
<p>Another introduction to crucial linguistic concepts comes in the guise of Keith Denning, Brett Kessler, and William Leben's second edition of <italic>English Vocabulary Elements</italic>, which straddles the areas of applied and theoretical linguistics. The aims of the book are twofold: first and foremost, it is designed to ‘expand vocabulary skills by teaching the basic units of learned, specialized and scientific English vocabulary’ (p. v). In doing so it also provides a succinct introduction to phonetics, morphology, semantic change, the history of English and other Indo-European languages, and to some extent even sociolinguistics.</p>
<p><italic>The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature</italic> by Steven Pinker is a ‘popular science’ publication similar in style to the author's previous works addressed to a wider audience. The common thread that runs through all the chapters is the idea that language—the meaning and use of words and constructions—reveals crucial insights about the workings of the human mind, specifically about the categories constituting a hypothesized language of thought. Pinker broaches a wide range of issues which are at the heart of current linguistic theory: construction grammar (argument structure alternations), the language of thought-debate, radical pragmatics, conceptual metaphor, linguistic determinism, and non-literal language. The author displays an uncanny facility for explaining complex issues in a few paragraphs—the sections dealing with the theory of names as rigid designators are an object lesson in this respect. Nevertheless, some background in (psycho)linguistics or philosophy of language will enhance one's enjoyment of the book, and might at the same time arouse critical objections in cases where one might have expected a more extensive or balanced coverage. For example, in his discussion of spatial semantics, Pinker asserts that ‘when the mind conceptualizes an entity in a location or in motion, it tends to ignore the internal geometry of the object and treat it as a dimensionless point or featureless blob’ (p. 48). Examples from English are designed to illustrate Pinker's point (which can ultimately be traced to the work of Leonard Talmy). However, some languages do focus on the internal geometry of the figure to be localized: see Stephen Levinson's ‘Relativity in Spatial Conception and Description’ (in John Gumperz and Stephen Levinson, eds., <italic>Rethinking Linguistic Relativity</italic> [1996]). As a result, Pinker's extrapolation of facts about the human mind from linguistic data may be somewhat rash in this case. In general, however, the book makes for highly stimulating and occasionally provocative reading.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2"><title>2. History of English Linguistics</title>
<p>The year 2007 saw the publication of the proceedings of the second Late Modern English conference (Pérez-Guerra, González-Álvarez, Bueno-Alonso and Rama-Martínez, eds., <italic>‘Of Varying Language and Opposing Creed’: New Insights into Late Modern English</italic>), which took place at the University of Vigo in 2004. A couple of papers contained in this volume contribute to our understanding of the history of English linguistics. For instance, Joan C. Beal's ‘ “To Explain the Present”: Nineteenth-Century Evidence for “Recent” Changes in English Pronunciation’ sheds light on selected consonantal variants associated with ‘Estuary English’, namely happY-tensing, th-fronting, glottalization, and labiodental /r/, whose diffusion has been argued to have taken place in recent years. Based on a range of sources from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries such as pronouncing dictionaries and usage manuals, as well as literary representations of dialects, the author shows convincingly that, for instance, the variant happY-tensing was recorded in Newcastle as found in Thomas Spence's <italic>Grand Repository of the English Language</italic> [1775] and has therefore already been part of polite Newcastle speech in the eighteenth century. If the diffusion had started out in the south, this particular variant had certainly reached the north of England a lot earlier than has hitherto been assumed. In her conclusion, Beal states that conclusions drawn from apparent-time evidence ‘might become monolithic and model-driven’ and should therefore be anchored ‘in real time that can be provided by historical data’ (p. 44). The contribution by González-Díaz, entitled ‘<italic>Worser</italic> and <italic>Lesser</italic> in Modern English’, focuses on ‘social development of the double suppletive forms <italic>worser</italic> and <italic>lesser</italic>’ (p. 238) during the period 1500–1900 and the role that standardization and prescriptivism might have played in the development of these forms. The investigation is based on a usage corpus, which largely consists of genres that captured oral language of the time, and a precept corpus, which comprises metalinguistic comments that contemporary grammarians made on double forms. In order to put the development of <italic>lesser</italic> and <italic>worser</italic> into context, González-Díaz first describes the development of double periphrastic comparatives in ModE. The data and the comparison of the usage and precept corpora reveal that double periphrastic comparative forms were still accepted in educated environments at the end of the sixteenth century. However, from then onwards ‘a qualitative shift in the social consideration of these double forms’ (p. 249) started taking place, which resulted in a process of stigmatization of the form during the seventeenth century. As regards the development of <italic>worser</italic>, the author shows that the social downgrading of the form started at a later date than that of the remaining double periphrastic forms. <italic>Lesser</italic>, on the other hand, appears to have become established as part of StE during the time of Charles Dickens. Even though <italic>lesser</italic> was largely stigmatized in eighteenth-century grammars, a shift in attitude towards the form can be observed in the second half of the nineteenth century—as also reflected by actual usage of the form. As concerns the influence of grammarians’ comments on the development of double periphrastic comparatives and in particular <italic>lesser</italic> and <italic>worser</italic>, González-Díaz warns ‘against invoking too readily the influence of prescriptive grammars on actual usage’ (p. 273).</p>
<p>The year 2007 saw the publication of some more papers that were concerned with language standardization and prescriptivism. For instance, Sylvia Adamson's ‘Prescribed Reading: Pronouns and Gender in the Eighteenth Century’ (<italic>HLSL</italic> 7[2007] online) aims at measuring to what extent prescriptive rules had an effect on a speech community by focusing on the interpretative habits, i.e. readings and misreading, of members of that community. After commenting on pronouns and gender in PDE as well as pronoun variability in EModE, with a specific focus on interrogatives <italic>who</italic>/<italic>what</italic>, relativizers <italic>who</italic>/<italic>which</italic>, anaphoric pronouns (<italic>he</italic>/<italic>she</italic>/<italic>it</italic>), and the emergence of the neuter possessive <italic>its</italic>, the author takes a close look at the codification of gender in eighteenth-century grammar and interpretations, i.e. eighteenth-century readings. Adamson notes that during the seventeenth century the English pronominal system was acquired ‘by intuition or imitation’ while it was ‘reinforced, or modified, by precept’ during the eighteenth century. It was an eighteenth-century innovation to give the pronoun a substitutive function of a noun, i.e. also to make a ‘link between gender in the language system and sex in the world’. Two grammarians who were influential in propagating the close link between nature and language were James Harris and Robert Lowth. A binary opposition between ‘persons’ and ‘things’ was established which associated things with inanimacy and personhood with animacy, the latter of which included the attribute of rationality. The more categorical the rules on pronoun usage became, which led to the suppression of variable practices, the more did the reading community start to misinterpret earlier readings. For instance, in 1672 Dryden considered Jonson's <italic>heaven … his</italic> instead of <italic>heaven … its</italic> as a grammatical error and did not recognize the former version as obsolete usage. In this article Adamson convincingly shows that misreading can give us an insight into ‘internalised grammars of successive interpretive communities and so provide crucial aids to our understanding of the historical changes through which languages pass’. In ‘Marginalia as Evidence. The Unidentified Hands in Lowth's <italic>Short Introduction to English Grammar</italic> (1762)’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 1–18), Karlijn Navest closely investigates the annotations found in the two Winchester College copies of Lowth's grammar in order to verify whether, as earlier claimed by R.C. Alston, one of these copies was owned by Lowth and the other copy was used as the basis for the second edition [1763] of his grammar. A careful investigation of Lowth's autograph letters and a comparison to the annotations reveals that they were made by a different hand. Moreover, as the annotations found in one of the copies do not concur with the additions made in the 1763 grammar edition, it is unlikely that this copy served as the basis for the latter edition. By investigating the hands of the in-letters received by Robert Lowth, Navest is able to show that the owner of the latter Winchester copy was most likely William Warburton (1698–1779) and thus a contemporary and acquaintance of Robert Lowth. Another study concerned with the grammarian Robert Lowth by Anita Auer and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, ‘Robert Lowth and the Use of the Inflectional Subjunctive in Eighteenth-Century English’, appeared in a Festschrift for Herbert Schendl edited by Ute Smit, Stefan Dollinger, Julia Hüttner, Ursula Lutzky and Gunther Kaltenböck, <italic>Tracing English through Time: Explorations in Language Variation</italic> (pp. 1–18). It takes a close look at Lowth's account of the mood in different editions of his grammar and then compares his precepts to the actual use of the subjunctive in his letters. The grammar analysis of the authors reveals that Lowth did not prescribe the use of the inflectional subjunctive and that he only gave his opinion on the correct use of the past subjunctive. Only around the time when his grammar was published did Lowth use the inflectional past subjunctive form in the ‘correct’ context in his correspondence. After a short period of time his use of the form declined, which suggests that the grammarian did not strictly follow his own suggestions on ‘correct’ language use.</p>
<p>Lowth also features in the article ‘The Syntactic Status of English Punctuation’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 195–216) by Karsten Schou. Most notably, this article focuses on the historical development of English punctuation theory. Nowadays it is largely believed that punctuation is a grammatical marking that is ‘only sporadically related to speech and intonation’ (p. 195) while throughout history punctuation was often considered to be a prosodic phenomenon that related writing to speech. By analysing grammatical accounts of punctuation from the seventeenth century onwards, Schou observed that punctuation theory became increasingly associated with syntax. For instance, during the late eighteenth century, when grammatical descriptions of English became independent of Latin, distinctions between punctuation marks were explained and defined both in terms of rhetoric and syntax. From 1800 onwards the rhetorical aspect of punctuation theory gradually started declining.</p>
<p>The end of the eighteenth century is the main period of investigation in Jane Hodson's monograph <italic>Language and Revolution in Burke, Wollstonecraft, Paine and Godwin</italic>, which closely investigates political language use in Britain at the time of the French Revolution. Hodson analyses texts written by prominent people who did not only contribute to the public debate on the French Revolution but who were also concerned with the style of political language. By discussing reflections on grammar, logic and stylistics in the late eighteenth century as well as examining reviews on the selected texts, the author shows how salient the politico-linguistic debate was at the time. Her analyses of literary devices such as rhetorical questions and figurative language in selected texts throws a critical light on the authors’ self-perceptions as well as contemporary criticism. Hodson is successful in demonstrating that it is too simplistic to view ‘the French Revolution debate as a straightforward conflict between radical and conservative’, which led to a linguistic revolution; instead, she argues that we can observe ‘a series of skirmishes, in which writers on all sides attempt to lend authority to their writings by justifying their stylistic choices in terms of contemporary ideas about language’ (p. 184).</p>
<p>Prescription versus description is the topic of Charlotte Brewer's article ‘Pronouncing the “P”: Prescription or Description in 19th- and 20th-Century English Dictionaries?’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 257–80). This article investigates how the pronunciation of Greek-derived words that begin with a p-, in particular the ps-words, are represented in English dictionaries from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. While more than a dozen dictionaries published during the nineteenth century suggested that the [p] should be dropped, a change in viewpoint can be observed in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Most notably, the chief editor of the <italic>OED</italic>, J.A.H. Murray (1837–1915) disapproved of dropping the [p] and recommended that the reader should change his or her habits. Even though the <italic>OED</italic> claims to describe actual language usage, the prescriptive attitudes of editors could slip into the dictionary by way ‘of supposedly objective definitions or labels or etymologies’ (pp. 266–7). Brewer also investigates whether Murray's p- precept was adopted by actual language users as well as succeeding dictionaries. She successfully demonstrates that during most of the twentieth century the initial [p] was primarily silent. Moreover, the dictionaries reveal great inconsistency of record regarding the pronunciation of [p], which, according to Brewer, suggests that its existence was mainly ‘a dictionary chimera rather than … a true reflection of the way English speakers have pronounced these words’ (p. 274). Michael K.C. MacMahon in his article ‘The Work of Richard John Lloyd (1846–1906) and “The crude system of doctrine which passes at present under the name of phonetics” ’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 281–331) takes a close look at the phonetic works of Richard John Lloyd (1846–1906), who was well known as a Liverpool businessman but also had a strong interest in phonetics, English language and literature, sociology, philosophy, mathematics and physics. The main focus of his work in phonetics was vowel acoustics and sound transitions. MacMahon points out that even though Lloyd has been grouped with the ‘minor phoneticians’ so far and his work might not have had a great influence on others, ‘the quality of his work, the extent of it, and the manner in which he went about it, signal a need to reappraise his position in the community of late 19th-century British phoneticians’ (p. 321). In fact, Lloyd's work is comparable to that of articulatory and experimental phonetics in the twentieth century.</p>
<p>Another worthwhile article published in 2007, written by Julie Coleman, focuses on ‘Howard N. Rose's <italic>Thesaurus of Slang</italic> (1934): Its Purpose, Structure, Contents, Reliability, and Sources’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 351–61). While contemporary reviewers of the thesaurus ‘found it wanting in various respects’ (p. 351), Coleman concludes that this criticism largely had to do with the misleading title of the work, <italic>Thesaurus of Slang</italic>, as it was not a thesaurus and not all of the words listed can be categorized as slang. Interestingly, Maurice Weseen's <italic>Dictionary of American Slang</italic>, which was published in the same year, received far more favourable reviews, which was mainly because of its size rather than its quality. This suggests that Rose's thesaurus was criticized by reviewers most likely for its title and the small size.</p>
<p>In ‘On the History of English Teaching Grammars’ (in Schmitter, ed., <italic>Sprachtheorien der Neuzeit III/2: Sprachbeschreibung und Sprachunterricht</italic>, pp. 500–25). Emma Vorlat provides an overview of available teaching grammars for native speakers published from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. She focuses in particular on the overall structure of the grammars, the grammatical categories of the grammars and the influence of the Latin paradigm and/or universal grammar, and the pedagogy of the grammars. This paper serves as a suitable introduction to beginners in the field of English grammar writing. In the article ‘Innovation and Continuity in English Learners’ Dictionaries: The Single-Clause <italic>When</italic>-Definition’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 393–9) Noel E. Osselton demonstrates that the use of single-clause <italic>when</italic>-definitions for nouns, e.g. ‘Destruction: when something is destroyed’ (p. 393), which has hitherto been considered a recent innovation in English learners’ dictionaries, can already be found in a seventeenth-century English dictionary by Elisha Coles, who ‘proclaims himself to be ‘School-Master and Teacher of the Tongue of Foreigners’ (p. 394). It is noteworthy that Coles did not restrict the single-clause <italic>when</italic>-definitions to nouns but that he also used the pattern for verbs and adjectives. Osselton points out that the evolution of defining techniques has largely been neglected, and that even though they are working in widely different periods, ‘dictionary compilers may quite independently arrive at similar solutions to similar problems’ (p. 398). Another interesting article published in 2007 is ‘The Architecture of Joseph Wright's <italic>English Dialect Dictionary</italic>: Preparing the Computerised Version’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 355–68) by Manfred Markus and Reinhard Heuberger. This paper is concerned with the tasks, problems and difficulties the project faces during the digitization of the <italic>English Dialect Dictionary</italic>, in particular regarding the challenges of the entry structure. An analysis of the dictionary identified eight recurrent fields within the entries, namely (1) headwords (2) parts of speech (3) labels (4) counties, regions, nations (5) phonetic transcription (6) definitions or meaning(s) (7) citations, and (8). A detailed investigation revealed that Wright did not use any of the eight parameters with total consistency. For instance, many variant forms of headwords are not found in the headword list but mentioned in the field of labels of entries. Moreover, compounds and derivations were not given headword status by Wright. The project aims to compensate for these shortcomings in the structure of the dictionary in the digitized version in order to provide a user-friendly electronic version for the international research community (see also <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">section 7</xref> below).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC3"><title>3. Phonetics and Phonology</title>
<p>/H/-dropping in different varieties of English is a phonological phenomenon that inspires interest up to the present day. Both the exact environment in which it is obligatory or optional (cf. <italic>vehicle</italic> without /h/ and <italic>vehicular</italic> with /h/) and the sociolinguistic status of this rule are topics of debate. It is interesting to note, for instance, that /h/-dropping in the weak form of articles (<italic>him</italic>, <italic>her</italic>) is perfectly acceptable, while /h/-dropping in content words (<italic>horse</italic>, <italic>harm</italic>) is frowned upon in most varieties. A situation like this with extensive geographical and social variation suggests that /h/-dropping is an old rule—one which has been present in the language for a long time. In her article ‘Were they ‘Dropping their Aitches’? A Quantitative Study of H-Loss in Middle English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 51–80), Paola Crisma presents extensive quantitative evidence that it is possible to distinguish different Middle English varieties on the basis of the treatment of word-initial /h/. The data presented suggest that /h/ loss was never generalized, i.e. that variation has persisted through many centuries.</p>
<p>Philip Carr and Patrick Honeybone have put together a special double issue on English phonology and linguistic theory (<italic>LangS</italic> 29:ii–iii[2007]). It is wonderful to note that many topics in the field continue to yield new and surprising viewpoints. In their introductory article the guest editors point out the various ways in which English phonology has contributed to phonological theory over the years, for instance with respect to the tense-lax distinction in vowels, the organization of the grammar and the place of the phonological component(s), and the treatment of lenition. Let us briefly discuss some articles in this volume. Lenition is also the main topic in Csaba Csides's study ‘A Strict CV Approach to Consonant Lenition: Bidirectional Government in English Phonology’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 177–202), where the author examines flapping in AmE from a Government-Phonology perspective. Here the interesting viewpoint is defended that a distinction needs to be made between governing relations established in the lexicon and those established post-lexically to account for the environments in which there is no lenition. The same framework is adopted in ‘Branching Onsets and Syncope in English’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 408–25) by Peter Szigetvari, to analyse the status of clusters like <italic>pl</italic>- in <italic>police</italic> where schwa in the initial syllable has been deleted: does this cluster have the same status as <italic>pl</italic>- in <italic>please</italic>?</p>
<p>The phenomenon of intrusive /r/ in BrE has often attracted attention in these pages. One question is whether this is an arbitrary, quirky historical accident or whether /r/ in environments like <italic>Shah</italic> /r/ <italic>of Persia</italic> can be motivated on independent phonetic or phonological grounds. In ‘Intrusive [r] and Optimal Epenthetic Consonants’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 451–76), Christian Uffmann takes the (minority) position that intrusive /r/ is a phonologically natural phenomenon. This bold stand is based on the idea that other ‘default’ consonants like glottal stops and semivowels like /j, w/ are not permitted in the intrusive-r environment. This sounds like grist to the mill of OT, and indeed this framework is adopted for this purpose. However, the same framework is attacked in another contribution to the same volume, that by April McMahon, ‘Who's Afraid of the Vowel Shift Rule?’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 341–59), where, on the basis of the Great Vowel Shift and its contemporary successor rules, she argues that it is perfectly acceptable to adopt OT for some, but not all, phenomena that phonologists wish to describe. OT would be more suited to prosodic phenomena—for the analysis of which it has, of course, traditionally been most often employed—while segmental phenomena are better captured by traditional segmental rules.</p>
<p>A number of articles deal with voicing. Gregory K. Iverson and Sang-Cheol Ahn discuss ‘English Voicing in Dimensional Theory’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 247–69). The authors analyse two apparently disparate phenomena in English phonology as structurally related: the lexically specific voicing of fricatives in plural nouns like <italic>wives</italic> or <italic>thieves</italic> and the prosodically governed ‘flapping’ of medial /t/ (and /d/) in North American varieties (cf. also Csides's article, mentioned above). A non-formalist account is presented in David Eddington, ‘Flaps and Other Variants of/t/in American English: Allophonic Distribution without Constraints, Rules, or Abstractions’ (<italic>CogLing</italic> 18[2007] 23–46). Wouter Jansen presents a more laboratory-phonology oriented article in his ‘Phonological “Voicing”, Phonetic Voicing, and Assimilation in English’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 270–93), which investigates regressive voicing assimilation by means of a quantitative acoustic study of British English obstruent clusters, and finds that these effects are best treated in terms of co-articulation.</p>
<p>Finally, a number of contributions in this special issue deal with English stress, as of course in this area there have been major contributions to phonological theory. Luigi Burzio, ‘Phonology and Phonetics of English Stress and Vowel Reduction’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 154–76), examines the relation between vowel reduction under lack of stress and the identifiability of the place of articulation of consonants following such vowels (which is of course reduced as a result of vowel reduction), paying special attention to the status of coronals. Jean-Michel Fournier, in ‘From a Latin Syllable-Driven Stress System to a Romance versus Germanic Morphology-Driven Dynamics: In Honour of Lionel Guierre’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 218–36), sets out to disprove the idea that the English stress system is, to a great degree, still modelled on classical Latin metrical rules. Sanford Schane, ‘Understanding English Word Accentuation’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 372–84), also argues against the ‘received’ treatment of English stress, and presents a set of metrical rules to derive stress in underived words on a par with morphologically complex words, making use of unary, binary and ternary feet. Finally, Ives Trevian, in ‘Stress-Neutral Endings in Contemporary British English: An Updated Overview’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 426–50), draws attention to variation in words with certain suffixes such as -<italic>ed</italic>, -<italic>ing</italic>, -<italic>ly</italic>, -<italic>atory</italic> or -<italic>able</italic>, on the basis of original database research by Lionel Guierre, to whom this special issue is dedicated, and a comparison with contemporary sources.</p>
<p>On the borderline between phonology and syntax is the article by Colleen M. Fitzgerald, ‘An Optimality Treatment of Syntactic Inversions in English Verse’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 203–17), which looks at syntactic inversions, i.e. disruption to the syntax so as to better satisfy the metrical constraints in verse. Such inversions are best modelled by interleaving syntactic and metrical constraints in OT. A purely phonetic study on vowel reduction is Edward Flemming and Stephanie Johnson's ‘Rosa's Roses: Reduced Vowels in American English’ (<italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 83–96), which investigates whether and how the two reduced vowels in <italic>Rosa</italic> and <italic>roses</italic> are different: it is found that the first vowel is indeed schwa-like, while the second is barred-i-like.</p>
<p>In these pages we have paid attention before to measuring the difference between dialects: is there an objective way to say two dialects A and B are <italic>more different</italic> than two other dialects C and D, or is there an objective way of saying that a dialect C is <italic>more closely related</italic> to A than to B, etc.? Two articles contribute to this debate. The first is by April McMahon, Paul Heggarty, Robert McMahon and Warren Maguire, ‘The Sound Patterns of Englishes: Representing Phonetic Similarity’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 113–42), who illustrate a method for measuring phonetic similarity in a sample of cognate words for a number of (mainly British) varieties of English, and show how these results can be displayed in network diagrams. Robert G. Shackleton, Jr, in ‘Phonetic Variation in the Traditional English Dialects: A Computational Analysis’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 30–102), deals with exactly the same topic. A future topic of discussion might be whether ‘mixed’ dialects can also be represented in terms of ‘mixed’ grammars, for example in terms of OT grammars.</p>
<p>A number of articles deal with the specific characteristics of dialects in Britain and across the globe. For England, clear (‘palatalized’) and dark (‘velarized’) liquids in Leeds and Newcastle take pride of place in Paul Carter and John Local's ‘F2 Variation in Newcastle and Leeds English Liquid Systems’ (<italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 183–99), where the authors describe the effects of laterals on vowels, distinguishing between different positions and the effect on stressed and unstressed vowels. This article may contribute to ongoing debate in the area of r- (and l-) loss and the effect of these changes on the vocalic system, which is also the topic of Wyn Johnson and David Britain's ‘L-Vocalisation as a Natural Phenomenon: Explorations in Sociophonology’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 294–315), which deals specifically with the Fenland area. The authors pay specific attention to the relation between /l/-allophony, i.e. the alternation between clear and dark /l/ according to position, and the degree to which final /l/ is being lost. Relatedly, Derek Britton, ‘A History of Hyper-Rhoticity in English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 525–36), investigates the history of what is usually referred to as ‘hyper-rhoticity’, i.e. the appearance, in rhotic accents, of epenthetic, non-etymological rhyme-/r/, usually taking the form of /r/-colouring in modern accents (for example <italic>clorth</italic> for <italic>cloth</italic>, reported for Bristol English), and finds evidence for this already in EModE stages. This may have repercussions for our understanding for the reverse process, loss of postvocalic /r/.</p>
<p>The phonetics of Liverpool English, which is, as is well known, influenced to some extent by Irish English settlers, forms the subject matter of a short contribution by Kevin Watson (‘Liverpool English’, <italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 351–60). The pronunciation of Scottish English in the Shetland and Orkney islands was discussed last year. A contribution by Peter Sundkvist, ‘The Pronunciation of Scottish Standard English in Lerwick, Shetland’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 1–21), now adds to this.</p>
<p>The study of intonational variation is a topic of increasing attention. Alan Cruttenden, ‘Intonational Diglossia: A Case Study of Glasgow’ (<italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 257–74), describes the intonational patterns in two different styles (conversation and reading) in one Glaswegian speaker. It is shown that these styles are entirely distinct, and it is interesting to observe that the more formal of these styles is more akin to intonation in RP than the more informal one. Of course more investigation in this area is called for.</p>
<p>Perhaps the only dialect of English which is not typically regional is RP. Anne H. Fabricius, ‘Variation and Change in the <sc>trap</sc> and <sc>strut</sc> Vowels of RP: A Real Time Comparison of Five Acoustic Data Sets’ (<italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 293–320), examines evidence for change in real time within the short vowel subsystem of the RP accent of English over the course of the twentieth century. Not only are the individual changes in these vowel realizations uncovered, but the relation between the two changes is also captured, providing a welcome systemic perspective on the study of vowel shift phenomena.</p>
<p>Variation in AmE at large is dealt with in Ewa Jacewicz, Robert A. Fox and Joseph Salmons, ‘Vowel Duration in Three American English Dialects’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 367–85), where the duration of the vowels in words like <italic>hid</italic>, <italic>head</italic>, <italic>had</italic>, <italic>hayed</italic> and <italic>hide</italic> is compared for the Inland North, Midlands, and South of the United States. Reverting to the theme of measuring and modelling dialectal variation mentioned above, it should be observed that the Midlands not only take up a geographically intermediate position but also behave phonetically so. Specific dialect studies deal with Charleston, South Carolina (Maciej Baranowski's ‘Phonological Variation and Change in the Dialect of Charleston, South Carolina’, supplement 92.1 to <italic>AS</italic> 82[2007]), the Bonin Islands (Daniel Long's ‘English on the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands’, supplement 92.2 to <italic>AS</italic> 82[2007]), Atlanta, Georgia (Phil Harrison's ‘The Lost Consonants of Atlanta’ <italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 237–46), Kentucky (Terry Lynn Irons's ‘On the Status of Low Back Vowels in Kentucky English: More Evidence of Merger’, <italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 137–80) and Vermont (Julie Roberts's ‘Vermont Lowering? Raising Some Questions about /ai/ and /au/ South of the Canadian Border’, <italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 181–97).</p>
<p>A follow-up on Labov's classic study on Martha's Vineyard deserves special mention: in ‘Forty Years of Language Change on Martha's Vineyard’ (<italic>Language</italic> 83[2007] 615–27), Jennifer Pope, Miriam Meyerhoff and D. Robert Ladd investigate the present-day linguistic situation on Martha's Vineyard and comment on the usefulness and validity of the apparent-time method in sociolinguistics.</p>
<p>Three articles deal with varieties of English in Africa. ‘Global and Local Durational Properties in Three Varieties of South African English’ by Andries W. Coetzee and Daan P. Wissing (<italic>TLR</italic> 24[2007] 263–89), discusses phrasal lengthening in the light of the distinction between stress-timed and syllable-timed languages. Yves Talla Sando Ouafeu presents ‘Intonational Marking of New and Given Information in Cameroon English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 187–99), showing that speakers of this variety mark new information in the discourse somewhat differently from speakers of other varieties, namely by varying intensity and duration, rather than pitch. Finally, Augustin Simo Bobda (‘Some Segmental Rules of Nigerian English Phonology’, <italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 279–310) outlines differences in rules and rule ordering, compared to common English phonological rules.</p>
<p>Across the waves, NZE continues to be thoroughly investigated by an active group of researchers. Its general phonetics is illustrated in <italic>JIPA</italic> by Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren, Dianne Bardsley, Marianna Kennedy and George Major (‘New Zealand English’, <italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 97–102). In addition, there are specific studies on Niuean English, spoken on the island of Niue, by Donna Starks, Jane Christie and Laura Thompson in ‘Niuean English: Initial Insights into an Emerging Variety’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 133–46), and on the realization of the vowels in the lexical sets <sc>fleece</sc> and <sc>dress</sc> by Margaret Maclagan and Jennifer Hay (‘Getting Fed Up with our Feet: Contrast Maintenance and the New Zealand English “Short” Front Vowel Shift’, <italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 1–25), where the authors find a merger of these vowels in certain subsets of these groups of words, in particular before voiceless codas.</p>
<p>Finally, one article on loanwords from English should be mentioned. This is Michael Kenstowicz's ‘Salience and Similarity in Loanword Adaptation: A Case Study from Fijian’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 316–40), in the special issue of <italic>LangS</italic> mentioned above, where different theories of loanword adaptation are put to the test on the basis of data from Fijian: what exactly is the role of the native language phonology, and what changes are due to general phonetic tendencies? These issues are important but not always easy to tease apart. Also relevant in this respect is the study of interference in general. Two important studies deal with interaction of languages spoken in the Far East. These are Barış Kabak and William J. Idsardi's paper ‘Perceptual Distortions in the Adaptation of English Consonant Clusters: Syllable Structure or Consonantal Contact Constraints?’ (<italic>LSp</italic> 50[2007] 23–52), where the authors present a meticulous account of the role of phonotactic restrictions in Korean in the perception of English consonantal sequences. Finally, Lei Sun and Vincent J. van Heuven, in ‘Perceptual Assimilation of English Vowels by Chinese Listeners: Can Native-Language Interference be Predicted?’ (<italic>LIN</italic> 24[2007] 150–61), investigate to what extent the errors made by Chinese learners of English at different levels can be predicted on the basis of a contrastive analysis of native and target language.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC4"><title>4. Morphology</title>
<p>We have enjoyed reading the <italic>Handbook of English Linguistics</italic>, edited by Bas Aarts and April McMahon. Its thirty-two chapters include a wealth of information, pitched—we feel—at exactly the right level: there is no great amount of technical machinery originating in this or that theoretical framework but there is accessible in-depth analysis of a wide variety of topics. It contains four chapters that deal with morphological issues; other ones will be discussed in the next section. Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero and April McMahon write about ‘English Phonology and Morphology’, (pp. 382–410) aiming—and, we would say, admirably succeeding—to ‘sift through the intricate debate … that surrounds English morphophonology and to identify key concepts and issues that deserve our continued attention, regardless of major shifts in the theoretical landscape’ (p. 383). Illustrating various theoretical approaches to the facts, they discuss several alternations (including vowel shortening and Northern Irish dentalization) and use these to probe deeper into the interaction between phonology and morphology, focusing in particular on phenomena invoking the need for domains, cycles and levels. James Blevins addresses ‘English Inflection and Derivation’ (pp. 507–36), engaging in detailed consideration of the (few) inflections of the language and then at greater speed going over a number of derivational issues, such as category-preserving and changing processes, productivity and analogy. The issue of ‘Productivity’ is addressed at greater length by Ingo Plag (pp. 537–56), who surveys qualitative and quantitative approaches to it, sketches the questions it raises for the mental lexicon and then considers restrictions on productivity.</p>
<p>All of the above matters are also addressed in the textbook by Francis Katamba and John Stonham, <italic>Morphology</italic>, a second edition of the book that Katamba authored alone in 1993 (see <italic>YWES</italic> 74[1996] 20). The overall structure of the first edition has been retained, as has its generative slant, but there has been some updating and thankfully also a weeding out of the many typos that marred the earlier work. After an introduction to word structure, there are chapters on types of morphemes, productivity, lexical morphology, templatic morphology, prosodic morphology, OT in morphology (this is new), inflection, mapping of grammatical functions and the interface between lexicon, morphology and syntax. Data and examples, also in the in-text and end-of-chapter exercises, come from a wide range of languages, and the authors do not hesitate to go into considerable technical detail. All of this means that this is clearly a work for more advanced students—but a very rewarding work.</p>
<p>Heidi Harley's <italic>English Words: A Linguistic Introduction</italic> gives a very accessible introduction to the analysis of lexical items from various perspectives. It has chapters on the phonology of words, lexical semantics, acquisition, the historical forces that have helped shape the English lexicon and—most relevantly here—three chapters concerned with morphological analysis. One is all about the creation of new words, through processes like back formation, clipping, initializing, affixation, compounding and blending. Another chapter considers more closely the processes and results of derivation and a third one elaborates on this by introducing notions such as root irregularity, suffixal restrictions, suppletion, productivity and blocking. Many examples are given of each notion and process, and there are practically oriented study problems at the end of the chapter. As we can attest, this book works well in classes for beginners in the topic.</p>
<p>On specific inflectional matters, comparatives and superlatives have attracted attention in three articles. There is Claudia Claridge's ‘The Superlative in Spoken English’ (in Facchinetti, ed., <italic>Corpus Linguistics 25 Years On</italic>, pp. 121–48), based on a 4 million-word spoken subpart of the BNC. She examines not only that staple of superlative analysis, the alternation between inflected and periphrastic forms, but also considers the spread of adjective types, superlative syntax and semantics, finding that—in speech—superlatives commonly express intensifying and absolute meanings, rather than factual comparison. Britta Mondorf looks at comparatives, noting several ‘Recalcitrant Problems of Comparative Alternation and New Insights Emerging from Internet Data’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., <italic>Corpus Linguistics and the Web</italic>, (pp. 211–32), a timely collection of papers of which we review several more below). Mondorf uses a combination of corpus and web data to investigate the relation between comparative form and concrete vs. abstract meaning of the head noun; the occurrence of forms like <italic>they became friendlier and more friendly</italic> in earlier English; and the choice between comparative compounds like <italic>more broad-based</italic> vs. <italic>broader-based</italic> (shown to depend on the degree of entrenchment of the ADJ + N base). In a more theoretical mode, David Embick's ‘Blocking Effects and Analytic/Synthetic Alternations’ (<italic>NL<</italic> 25[2007] 1–37) argues that the inflected forms are formed post-syntactically by affixation under adjacency, adopting the theory of Distributed Morphology.</p>
<p>We have not seen much on verbal inflection. Lieselotte Anderwald's ‘<italic>He rung the bell</italic> and <italic>She drunk ale</italic>: Non-Standard Past Tense Forms in Traditional British Dialects and on the Internet’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 271–85) shows that forms like <italic>I</italic>/<italic>you</italic>/(<italic>s</italic>)<italic>he</italic>/<italic>we</italic>/<italic>they sung</italic>/<italic>rung</italic>/<italic>begun</italic> are plentiful not only in UK dialectal speech but also within the ‘.uk’ domain of the web. This is brought out well by Google, but the WebCorp results are somewhat disappointing. Adrian Pablé and Radoslaw Dylewski trace the development of ‘Invariant BE in New England Folk Speech: Colonial and Postcolonial Evidence (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 151–84]. Using a range of sources, they argue that the plural use of finite <italic>be</italic> was a feature brought from Britain but singular use developed in New England itself in the late seventeenth century. The various linguistic constraints are investigated, including <italic>be</italic>'s preference for clause-final position, as in ‘ “Men is different,” said Sally Jinks. “Yes, they be.” ’</p>
<p>Derivational matters are put in a historical context in D. Gary Miller's <italic>Latin Suffixal Derivatives in English and their Indo-European Ancestry</italic>. After an introduction explaining relevant concepts and terminology, it contains lists of Latin verbal suffixes that have been borrowed into English, with information being given about their form(s) and meaning(s) in Latin, followed by a set of English words in which they occur, the Latin forms and meaning of these words and their reconstructed proto-Indo-European sources. This book is therefore similar to an etymological dictionary, except that the information is ordered by affix rather than lexical item. The affixes are grouped according to the bases they take and the resulting word class and much fuller information is given about the etymology of the affixes than is normally the case. Correspondingly, there is very little about the intermediate stage that many of the relevant words went through, i.e. (Old) French. But even without this the amount of detail is staggering. Indexes for Indo-European roots, English and Latin words allow the reader to find the desired information easily.</p>
<p>A general introduction to ‘Compounds and Minor Word-Formation Types’ by Laurie Bauer (in Aarts and McMahon, eds., pp. 483–506) first discusses the main types of compounds, their phonology, grammatical structure and semantics, and then goes on to deal with minor word formation types such as clipping, ‘alphabetization’ (initialisms and acronyms) and blends. Bauer also devotes some attention to the process of word manufacturing, i.e. the conscious and planned creation of new words (though this remains an under-studied topic). Anette Rosenbach considers the alternation between genitive constructions (e.g. <italic>driver</italic>'<italic>s licence</italic>) and compounds (<italic>driver licence</italic>) in ‘Exploring Constructions on the Web: A Case Study’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 167–90). She notes the unreliability of Google results (which silently include tokens with a genitive when the compound type is searched for) and then investigates data from WebCorp, which show that animacy of the possessor promotes use of the genitive, especially in US English. Don Chapman and Ryan Christensen, ‘Noun–Adjective Compounds as a Poetic Type in Old English’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 447–64), argue that the characteristics of OE noun–adjective compounds (e.g. <italic>hilde-hwate</italic> ‘battle-brave’) make them more poetic than other compounds.</p>
<p>Adverbs with the suffix -<italic>wise</italic> are the subject of Hans Lindquist's article ‘Viewpoint -<italic>wise</italic>: The Spread and Development of a New Type of Adverb in American and British English’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 132–56). Lindquist shows that viewpoint adverbs in -<italic>wise</italic>, which originated in AmE, are increasing in both AmE and BrE due to functional and social factors, are more frequent in BrE, and are twice as frequent in spoken than in written corpora.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC5"><title>5. Syntax</title>
<sec><title>(a) Modern English</title>
<p>Do your students know the difference between realism and mentalism? Or how the status of binarity differs in morphology, syntax and phonology? Or what the general methods of linguistic data collection are? And can they use slashes, curly brackets, pointed brackets, phis and thetas accurately? Do they know how to pronounce C.S. Pierce? (and whether C.S. is a man or a woman?). Can they make glosses? If not, tell them to consult Laurie Bauer's <italic>The Linguistics Student</italic>'<italic>s Handbook</italic>. This delightful book is aimed at students that need guidance on the host of puzzling things that they are expected to understand, some of them sometimes taught (but not therefore automatically assimilated) and others never explicitly discussed. The books has six parts: ‘Fundamentals’ (these are matters that are essential but not always included in linguistics syllabuses), ‘Notation and Terminology’ (including lists of ambiguous and synonymous terminology), ‘Reading Linguistics’ (covering the IPA, accents and diacritics, names and subjects of journals, statistics and online resources), ‘Writing and Presenting’ (with notes on essay-writing, glossing, spelling), ‘Referencing’ (the great divider of the neophytes and the cognoscenti) and a ‘Language File’ (giving basic information and references for some 280 languages).</p>
<p>There are also some straightforward textbooks this year. Deborah Cameron has written the concise and accessible <italic>The Teacher</italic>'<italic>s Guide to Grammar</italic>. After introducing the topic of grammar (chapter 1), it pays attention to identifying word classes (chapter 2), the structure of words (chapter 3), the structure of sentences (chapter 4), the structure of noun phrases (chapter 5), verb forms and their meanings (chapter 6), organizing information by joining clauses (chapter 7), dialectal variation (chapter 8), register variation (chapter 9) and cross-linguistic and L1/L2 variation (chapter 10). All chapters present practical pointers on how to approach the issues at hand in the classroom and on how to approach and comment on pupils’ writing.</p>
<p>A third edition has appeared of Michael Swan's well-known <italic>Practical English Usage</italic> (the blurb mentions ‘over one and a half million copies sold worldwide’). The book remains an excellent source of information about the practicalities of English grammar, (some) vocabulary and usage-based issues. The alphabetically arranged entries tell intermediate and advanced learners about <italic>it</italic>'<italic>s</italic> vs. <italic>its</italic>, StE vs. dialects, participle clauses, the uses of <italic>rather</italic>, final , tense simplification in subordinate clauses and some 600 other matters. The explanations and advice provided are eminently sensible and illustrated with many example sentences. Alongside these, plenty of negative input is also provided, with the indispensable font effect of ‘strikethrough’ being used to good purpose in visualizing for learners what kinds of forms or constructions they should not (‘<sc>not</sc>’) <strike>to</strike> use.</p>
<p>Another, more specialized, textbook is Mick Randall's <italic>Memory, Psychology and Second Language Learning</italic>, which is intended for those teaching or studying second-language (L2) learning. It draws on insights from cognitive linguistics and psychology concerning the way in which second languages are processed and learned. In addition, it discusses the methods that are used to teach English (and other languages) as a second language. The book is divided into two sections, the first of which provides a survey of contributions from linguistics and psychology to our understanding of language processing and learning. The second section is a workbook section, which contains exercises that complement the chapters in the first section. After the introduction, chapter 1 discusses what the fields of linguistics and psychology can tell us about L2 learning, reviewing various models of processing and considering evidence from brain imaging. Chapter 2 adopts the information-processing approach in explaining how spoken language is comprehended and looks at implications for the L2 learner. Chapter 3 is concerned with processes underlying word recognition, considering the linguistic features that are relevant to word recognition (such as phonological representation and semantics). Chapter 4 examines the way in which stored knowledge of the world is used in the interpretation of language messages. It is shown that language recognition procedures are less automatic for L2 learners than for native speakers of a language, due to an increased cognitive load. Chapter 5 focuses on the way in which lexical items of L1 and L2 are stored and retrieved. Chapter 6 describes ‘the process by which basic learning of language takes place in Working Memory’ (p. 145) and shows that this process is governed by a monitoring supervisory attentional system (SAS). It is this SAS that the L2 learner has to train in order to achieve automatic language processing. Chapter 7 assesses the methodologies of L2 teaching in terms of cognitive processing, focusing on current communicative approaches to L2 learning. The first section is concluded by an endnote in which Randall briefly considers how the working memory model adopted in the book deals with a number of issues in language learning, such as automaticity. The exercises in the workbook section allow the reader to put theory into practice.</p>
<p>Günter Radden and René Dirven have written the textbook <italic>Cognitive English Grammar</italic>. It has four parts: part I introduces the reader to the cognitive framework, part II concentrates on the expression of conceptual entities as nouns and noun phrases, part III deals with the grammatical expression of temporal information (aspect, tense and modality) and part IV looks at the way in which the conceptual structure of situations is represented in terms of sentence structure. The book is well-presented throughout and provides study questions as well as suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter.</p>
<p>A textbook for an introduction to formal syntax is Liliane Haegeman's <italic>Thinking Syntactically: A Guide to Argumentation and Analysis</italic>. Meant for complete beginners, it deals with all the necessary topics in a clear and systematic fashion, bringing the student to a level where they could go on to tackle more advanced textbooks on generative syntax. The book contains chapters on the nature of studying language scientifically, on the basic structure of the clause, on lexical and functional projections, on multiple subject positions and on the pre-IP field and what happens there (i.e. wh-movement and lots of other interesting stuff). Two distinguishing features of the work are the consistent focus on argument rather than outcome and the inclusion of many exercises that ask the student to consider a range of facts and phenomena. Example sentences mainly come from English, but there is a fair sprinkling of other Germanic languages as well.</p>
<p>Many of the chapters in Aarts and McMahon, eds., <italic>Handbook of English Linguistics</italic>, are also eminently suitable for teaching purposes. For syntax, it contains sensible and instructive discussion of the foundational topics of ‘English Word Classes and Phrases’ by Bas Aarts and Liliane Haegeman (pp. 117–45), ‘Verbs and their Satellites’ by D.J. Allerton (pp. 146–79), ‘Clause Types’ by Peter Collins (pp. 180–97) and ‘Coordination and Subordination’ by Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum (pp. 198–219). There is nothing wrong with a syntactic education based on these, we would say. It could be complemented by further study of verb-related categories through ‘Tense in English’ by Laura Michaelis (pp. 220–43), ‘Aspect and Aspectuality’ by Robert Binnick (pp. 244–68) and ‘Mood and Modality in English’ by Ilse Depraetere and Susan Reed (pp. 269–90). Discourse-related factors impinging on syntax are dealt with in Betty Birner and Gregory Ward's ‘Information Structure’ (pp. 291–317) and the boundary between lexis and syntax is explored from a construction grammar perspective in ‘English Construction’ by Adele Goldberg and Devin Casenhiser (pp. 343–55).</p>
<p>The same volume could also be used to increase students’ awareness of issues of data and theory in the study of English linguistics. Kersti Börjars presents an introduction to ‘Description and Theory’ (pp. 9–32), sketching the basics of what it means to describe a language, the complications that arise when theory is brought in and the main features of three theoretical models, minimalism, lexical-functional grammar and OT. A good follow-up is the chapter by Charles F. Meyer and Gerald Nelson on ‘Data Collection’ (pp. 93–113), which discusses and compares the methods of introspection, experiment and corpus-building. Andrew Linn's ‘English Grammar Writing’ (pp. 72–92) presents an engaging historical overview of descriptive English grammars, from William Bullokar in 1586 via the Great Tradition created by Dutch twentieth-century grammarians to the Quirkian approach and other recent work. Also in Aarts and McMahon, eds., there are two chapters focusing on the properties of spoken English. Jim Miller's ‘Spoken and Written English’ (pp. 670–91) uses established findings about written English to explore in what ways speech is different (situational, morphological and especially syntactic), while Paola Quaglio and Douglas Biber analyse ‘The Grammar of Conversation’ (pp. 692–793). Drawing on the <italic>Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English</italic> (<italic>YWES</italic> 80[2001] 20), they provide a list of grammatical features studied in earlier work on speech grammar and then relate these to the situational characteristics of conversation. Straddling the borderline between syntax and discourse is the slippery field of ‘English Usage: Prescription and Description’, explored by Pam Peters (pp. 759–80). She clarifies some of the central questions raised by usage guides, reviews studies of eighteenth- to twentieth-century examples and investigates the actual impact that prescriptive work has had on English usage.</p>
<p>While on this topic, we should also—even if somewhat belatedly—mention Pam Peters's own usage guide: <italic>The Cambridge Guide to English Usage</italic>. This is an A–Z of issues in grammar, spelling, text type conventions and other matters which is linguistically well-informed, corpus-based and inclusive of all the major varieties of English worldwide. The tone is welcoming, the advice is sensible and the coverage is comprehensive, with entries ranging from punctuation through grammatical conundrums to usage in modern electronic media. If students are made to look up specific items in this work, they are bound to read a lot more and in the process learn a great deal about the proper way to think about usage-related questions.</p>
<p>The volume <italic>Language in the British Isles</italic>, edited by David Britain, presents a comprehensive overview of the languages and dialects spoken and signed in the British Isles, and follows up on Peter Trudgill's <italic>Language in the British Isles</italic> [1984]. It contains much that is not syntactic but we mention here James Milroy's chapter on the history of English, which highlights the key phonological, syntactic, morphological and vocabulary (including semantic) changes that have taken place in the history of English, and the chapter by David Britain that ‘reviews the literature on grammatical variation in the non-standard dialects of England since the mid-1980s’ (p. 75). Chapters 5–10 are devoted to several regional varieties of English: chapter 5 (Paul A. Johnston, Jr) looks at Scottish English and Scots, chapter 6 (Kevin McCafferty) deals with Northern Irish English, chapter 7 (Raymond Hickey) examines Southern British English, chapter 8 (Robert Penhallurick) is concerned with English in Wales, chapter 9 (Andrew Hamer) looks at English on the Isle of Man (Manx) and chapter 10 (Heinrich Ramisch) looks at English in the Channel Islands. All of these include some syntactic information as well (for more information, see <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">section 9</xref>).</p>
<p>More on English dialect syntax can be found in the special issue ‘English Dialect Syntax’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11:ii[2007]), edited by David Adger and Graeme Trousdale (see also <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">section 9</xref>). In the introductory article ‘Variation in English Syntax: Theoretical Implications’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 261–78), David Adger and Graeme Trousdale discuss the relationship between research on syntactic variation in the dialects of English and theoretical research into the structure of language. Alison Henry and Siobhan Cottell, ‘A New Approach to Transitive Expletives: Evidence from Belfast English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 279–99), explain the presence of transitive expletives in Belfast English (e.g. <italic>There have lots of people eaten their lunch already</italic>) versus their absence in StE through an analysis in which the expletive is merged in SpecTP (its associate is merged in SpecvP) in Belfast English and in SpecvP in StE. Next, Joan Bresnan, Ashwini Deo and Devyani Sharma, in ‘Typology in Variation: A Probabilistic Approach to <italic>Be</italic> and <italic>N't</italic> in the <italic>Survey of English Dialects</italic>’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 301–46), present a Stochastic Optimality Theory (SOT) analysis of individual and dialectal variation in subject agreement and synthetic negation (<italic>n't</italic>) for the verb <italic>be</italic> and suggest that individual grammars are ‘sensitively tuned to frequencies in the linguistic environment, leading to isolated loci of variability in the grammar’ (p. 301). Emily M. Bender's article, ‘Socially Meaningful Syntactic Variation in Sign-Based Grammar’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 347–81), explores how sociolinguistic variation can be dealt with in models of syntactic competence, proposing an HSPG performance-plausible sign-based grammar, based on a case study of AAVE variable copula absence. Another more theoretical article is Richard A. Hudson's ‘English Dialect Syntax in Word Grammar’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 383–405). Hudson argues that the cognitive-linguistic theory Word Grammar can adequately handle the inherent variability found in English dialects, illustrating this on the basis of the <italic>was</italic>/<italic>were</italic> alternation in Buckie. The last article in the <italic>ELL</italic> special issue, ‘A Construction Grammar Account of Possessive Constructions in Lancashire Dialect: Some Advantages and Challenges’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 407–24), by Willem Hollmann and Anna Siewierska, looks at the Lancashire dialect. It is shown that reduction of 1SG possessives in possessive-noun constructions (e.g. <italic>me brother</italic>) in the Lancashire dialect patterns according to the (in)alienability hierarchy, which has previously been argued not to play a role in English. Widening the scene to the entire globe, a survey of ‘Syntactic Variation in English: A Global Perspective’ is provided by Bernd Kortmann (in Aarts and McMahon, eds., pp. 603–24). It offers an inventory of variation in world Englishes associated with the NP, the VP, negation, agreement and subordination, complemented with reflection on the proper interpretation and implication of the facts.</p>
<p>An introduction to ‘English Corpus Linguistics’ is given by Tony McEnery and Costas Gabrielatos (in Aarts and McMahon, eds., pp. 33–71). They discuss the fundamentals of the enterprise, debates about concrete practices, the implications of corpus findings for our conception of the language, their importance for reference works and for teaching and their use in the study of changes in English. Many actual corpora are mentioned, and there is a useful list of further reading.</p>
<p>There is a lot more on corpus linguistics this year, much of it in volumes in the thriving series Language and Computers from Rodopi. Several papers on general trends and developments appear in Facchinetti, ed., <italic>Corpus Linguistics 25 Years On</italic>. One of the pioneers in the field, Jan Svartvik, surveys ‘Corpus Linguistics 25 + Years On’ (pp. 11–26), offering personal memories of his earliest and later contributions to the field and sketching the various ways in which it has evolved over the twenty-five years since the first ICAME conference. In the same volume, Antoinette Renouf considers ‘Corpus Development 25 Years On: From Super-Corpus to Cyber-Corpus’ (pp. 27–49), singling out for special attention the Birmingham Corpus, the ‘dynamic’ corpus and the ‘Web-as-corpus’ and commenting on various practical and theoretical issues that led to their development. Also in this volume, Stig Johansson advocates ‘Seeing through Multilingual Corpora’ (pp. 51–71). He shows how the use of corpora made up of parallel texts (i.e. in original and translated versions) offers opportunities for contrastive analysis, demonstrating how this can be done for the English nouns <italic>person</italic> and <italic>thing</italic> in English-Swedish and Norwegian corpora. ‘Corpora and Spoken Discourse’ by Anne Wichmann (pp. 73–86) highlights several problems posed by speech (including prosodic) analysis of corpus materials, arguing strongly in favour of keeping accessible the original sound files. Mark Davies reports on a project enabling ‘Semantically-Based Queries with a Joint <italic>BNC/WordNet</italic> Database’ (pp. 149–67), so that researchers can search for, say, the frequency across text types of synonyms or hyponyms of specific words; those interested can try it out on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://view.byu.edu">http://view.byu.edu</ext-link> (a site that we can recommend for the easy searches that it allows of a growing range of corpora of different types). Ron Cowan and Michael Leeser reflect on ‘The Structure of Corpora in SLA Research’ (pp. 289–303), considering how greater use of larger L2 corpora would allow insight into the nature of L2 grammars, the U-shaped development that learners sometimes go through and the influence of the L1 in SLA.</p>
<p>An entire volume on <italic>Corpora in the Foreign Language Classroom</italic> has been edited by Encarnación Hidalgo, Luis Quereda and Juan Santana. It contains twenty papers on a wide variety of topics, ranging from the general benefits of corpora use in the classroom through the implications for teaching of the analysis of tourism texts to the (in)transitivity of mental verbs in English and Spanish. The papers are grouped under three headings: general, theoretical issues in corpus design and exploitation, and practical classroom applications. What comes out clearly in many papers is the role of corpora in raising learner awareness, the positive effects of exposure to ‘raw’ data and the greater accuracy that corpus use brings to the learning and teaching of a host of lexical, grammatical and pragmatic features—features of English, we should add, because this volume is entirely focused on English-language classrooms.</p>
<p>But, as editors Andrew Wilson, Dawn Archer and Paul Rayson say in the first sentence of their preface to <italic>Corpus Linguistics around the World</italic>: ‘The scope of corpus-based research is becoming ever wider.’ Their volume has chapters on corpus work in Basque, Danish, Maltese, French, Slovene, Spanish, German, Polish, Russian, Dutch, Brazilian Portuguese and Chinese. On English, there are Khurshid Ahmad, David Cheng, Tugba Taskaya, Saif Ahmad, Lee Gillam, Pensiri Manomaisupat, Hayssam Traboulsi and Andrew Hippisley, who gauge ‘The Mood of the (Financial) Markets: In a Corpus of Words and Pictures’ (pp. 17–32). They analyse the text and figures in a corpus of financial reporting, with a view to extracting the sentiments expressed. In the somewhat misleadingly titled ‘Analysing a Semantic Corpus Study across English Dialects: Searching for Paradigmatic Parallels’ (pp. 121–40), Sarah Lee and Debra Ziegeler investigate the use of <italic>get</italic>-causatives of the type <italic>we got him to redo it</italic> in SingE, BrE and NZE. No real differences emerge, but it appears to be the case that SingE is sometimes using paradigmatically parallel <italic>ask</italic> in the same function. Judy Noguchi, Thomas Orr and Yukio Tono ‘Us[e] a Dedicated Corpus to Identify Features of Professional English Usage: What Do “We” Do in Science Journal Articles?’ (pp. 155–66), analysing the way the word <italic>we</italic> is used in a corpus of science texts, with respect to the types of verbs it combines with and their tense-aspect properties.</p>
<p>Efforts by linguists to harness the power of the World-Wide Web continue this year. Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., <italic>Corpus Linguistics on the Web</italic>, contains several important contributions on the general issues that arise in this attempt. The first article, ‘Using Web Data for Linguistic Purposes’ by Anke Lüdeling, Stefan Evert and Marco Baroni (pp. 7–24) is a helpful guide through the problems (instability, duplication of pages, the need to rely on commercial search machines, etc.) and possibilities (the availability of huge amounts of data, the creation of corpora drawn from the web, pre- and post-processing of web data, etc.) of this field. Some of these issues are also discussed in William H. Fletcher's ‘Concordancing the Web: Promise and Problems, Tools and Techniques’ (pp. 25–46), but with a somewhat stronger emphasis on practical solutions. One of these is the author's own KWiCFinder, a search engine which produces concordances for key search terms in context. Antoinette Renouf, Andrew Kehoe and Jayeeta Banerjee describe ‘WebCorp: An Integrated System for Web Text Search’ (pp. 47–67) that has been developed at the University of Central England. After explaining what WebCorp can currently do for you (it interfaces with commercial search engines but, like KWiCFinder, it yields concordance lines for search terms), the authors analyse the various problems faced by it and sketch an ambitious programme meant to result in WebCorp doing much more for you. A specific set of data available on the web, transcripts of CNN programmes, is explored by Sebastian Hoffmann in ‘From Web Page to Mega-Corpus: The CNN Transcripts’ (pp. 69–86). He explains how he created a corpus of this material and provides a sample investigation focusing on intensifier <italic>so</italic>. A different type of material on the web is explored in Claudia Claridge's ‘Constructing a Corpus from the Web: Message Boards’ (pp. 87–108). She describes the techniques she used and then carries out a small study of the corpus, focusing on the lexical and grammatical expressions of emotion and attitude in this text type. Also concerned with text types on the web are Douglas Biber and Jerry Kurjian in ‘Towards a Taxonomy of Web Registers and Text Types: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis’ (pp. 109–31). They show that the two domains of Home and Science recognized on Google are not internally homogeneous; instead they propose to classify web texts on the basis of Biberian multi-dimensional analysis, and demonstrate how this would work. A more reflective chapter is Geoffrey Leech's ‘New Resources, or Just Better Old Ones? The Holy Grail of Representativeness’ (pp. 133–50). It contains thoughts on the construction of corpora, old and new, and the precise meaning (or lack thereof) of claims about ‘balance’, ‘comparability’ and ‘representativeness’. Graeme Kennedy also expresses some reservations about the current drive to go online, pointing out that there is ‘An Under-Exploited Resource’ and suggesting ways of ‘Using the BNC for Exploring the Nature of Language Learning’ (pp. 151–66). He considers data from collocations (such as <italic>lose</italic> + direct object and <italic>find</italic> + direct object, which are shown to have very different profiles) and discusses the relevance of frequent expressions for language learning. Of course, we may also expect that in some cases web data and corpus data will simply show the same patterns. This is what was found by Günter Rohdenburg in ‘Determinants of Grammatical Variation in English and the Formation/Confirmation of Linguistic Hypotheses by Means of Internet Data’ (pp. 191–210). Inspecting several constructions known to be undergoing change (e.g. <italic>much fewer</italic> vs. <italic>many fewer</italic>, <italic>have difficulty</italic> (<italic>in</italic>) V-<italic>ing</italic>, <italic>it depends</italic> (<italic>on</italic>) + wh-clause, <italic>advise</italic> + <italic>to</italic>-infinitive vs. <italic>advise</italic> + V-<italic>ing</italic>), he finds that in each case Google data and traditional corpus data point in the same direction and thus allow him to test his explanations for the changes.</p>
<p>Further contributions to (or based on) corpus work are found in Eileen Fitzpatrick, ed., <italic>Corpus Linguistics Beyond the Word: Corpus Research from Phrase to Discourse</italic>. It has chapters on a wide range of topics, including the technicalities of corpus annotation (also for discourse/pragmatic categories), and the use of corpora in the development of machine translation, in semantic analysis, in the register analysis of Spanish, in the study of the Albanian personal pronouns and in various forms of teaching (with one paper even describing the teaching of German grammar through a corpus made up of the Grimm fairy-tales). Of more direct relevance to English syntax is Angus B. Grieve-Smith's contribution, ‘The Envelope of Variation in Multidimensional Register and Genre Analyses’ (pp. 1–20). The author points out that some of the factors in Biber's multidimensional framework can be interpreted as being grammatical in nature, rather than text-typical. The remedy he proposes is to consider the frequency of linguistic features relative to the number of sites where they could have been used, rather than per number of words.</p>
<p>On the more theoretical side of the linguistic spectrum, Richard Hudson contributes <italic>Language Networks: The New Word Grammar</italic>, in which he sets out a comprehensive theory of linguistic analysis. The guiding idea is that language is a local network (of symbols), which is organized along the same lines as other areas of cognition. In the introduction, Hudson describes the fundamental properties and relations of linguistic networks (such as the ‘isa’ relation, default inheritance and spreading activation), and in the subsequent chapters he shows how this model can be applied to the areas of morphology, syntax, semantics and sociolinguistics. Crucially, phenomena in all these areas are shown to be analysable using the same type of network and network relations. Many facts from English are addressed (including—in a separate chapter—the properties of gerunds, which are taken to be both nouns and verbs at the same time) but cross-linguistic data are also analysed. Altogether, this book is a carefully argued plea for a non-generative, non-modular, non-derivational linguistics. There is also some work to report on the generative front. Nirmalangshu Mukherji, Bibudhendra Narayan Patnaik and Rama Kant Agnihotri have edited <italic>Noam Chomsky: The Architecture of Language</italic> [2000, but not seen by us until the paperback edition of 2006]. It gives the text of a lecture delivered by Chomsky in Delhi in 1996, followed by an edited transcript of the following discussion session, complemented by Chomsky's later written reactions to the questions that were handed in in writing. The volume gives an excellent sense of the excitement that the lecture engendered, the overall motivation of the generative enterprise and the state of Chomskyan thinking at that point in time (with minimalism truly being programmatic). The editors provide a helpful introduction and notes.</p>
<p><italic>Movement and Silence</italic> is a collection of twelve of Richard Kayne's papers written (and previously published) in the 2000s. The two major themes of the collection are that comparative work sheds abundant light on syntactic structure and that this light often reveals the presence of antisymmetric effects. Numerous cases of movement (all leftward, and often of the remnant type) and empty categories (nominal and adjectival) are explored from this perspective. The empirical data from English that are addressed include focus <italic>too</italic>-constructions, the words <italic>here</italic> and <italic>there</italic> (analysed as demonstrative elements, associated with an empty PLACE noun, also in combinations like <italic>thereof</italic>), causatives such as <italic>He made Paul do the work</italic> (argued to have a causee introduced by a silent preposition), antecedent–pronoun relations as in <italic>John thinks he</italic>'<italic>s smart</italic> (derived through movement of <italic>John</italic> from the DP [<italic>John he</italic>]), eliminating the need for binding condition C), the quantified expressions like <italic>lots of money</italic> (argued to involve movement of <italic>lots</italic> to the specifier of <italic>of</italic>), other quantifiers (which can come in unpronounced guise too), sentences like <italic>He was seven</italic> and <italic>It is seven</italic> (which have silent YEAR and HOUR), the puzzling ?<italic>the people who John think should be invited</italic> (analysed as having a silent auxiliary in front of <italic>think</italic>) and heavy NP shift (derived, antisymmetrically, through merging the determiner at the VP level).</p>
<p>Two other big names in syntax, Peter Culicover and Ray Jackendoff, have written <italic>Simpler Syntax</italic>, which in many ways is the complete antithesis of Kayne's approach. Their model is constraint-based rather than derivational. It features multiple branching and hence quite flat phrase structures, no projections of functional categories, no movement and only minimal use of Kaynian silences, i.e. non-overt elements. After setting out the details of the model (which has several similarities with Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar and Lexical-Functional Grammar), the authors apply and refine it in analyses of phenomena including non-sentential utterances, sluicing, gapping, VP ellipsis, wh-constructions, aspects of binding theory and control and ‘subordinating’ <italic>and</italic> (as in <italic>One more word and I am leaving</italic>). The history of the generative enterprise is also briefly reviewed (in terms of principles and mechanisms proposed and accepted, with an emphasis on the resulting complexity of the complete edifice). The final chapter provides some reflections on future directions, as well as a syntactic-semantic analysis of the word <italic>interesting</italic>, as found in the alleged minimalist reaction to Simpler Syntactic ideas: ‘If this approach is right, then syntax isn't very interesting’ (p. 540).</p>
<p>The minimalist program itself is explained in two books. Cedric Boeckx does so in the lucid <italic>Linguistic Minimalism: Origins, Concepts, Methods, and Aims</italic>. This is not for devotees of technicalities but for those interested in the place of minimalist thinking within the larger philosophical-scientific enterprise. It sketches the roots of minimalism in early Chomskyan thought, the principles currently guiding its development, the implications of the program and several examples of minimalism in action (engaging with phenomena like control, multiple wh-fronting, successive cyclicity, sluicing and parasitic gaps). Much further technical detail can be found in Željko Boškovic and Howard Lasnik, eds., <italic>Minimalist Syntax: The Essential Readings</italic>. This is meant as a textbook for a graduate syntax class (indeed, the material was so used by the two authors). It contains excerpts, ranging from a single paragraph to more than twenty pages, of works from the 1990s and 2000s that have helped shape the minimalist program. After an introduction by the editors highlighting the main features of minimalism, there are sections on the basic design of language (levels of representation and interfaces), on the push to eliminate the notion of government (with repercussions for the understanding of case, PRO and locality), on minimalist structure-building (using bare phrase structure, merge-over-move and the cycle), verbal morphology, antisymmetry and c-command, copy theory, existentials and the syntax–semantics interface. The authors whose work is excerpted include Noam Chomsky, the two editors, Samuel Epstein, Norbert Hornstein, Chris Collins, Norvin Richards, Cedric Boeckx, Richard Kayne and Danny Fox. None of these, of course, is known to shun complications, and the result of packing them all together like this is indeed a very dense book, understanding of which will only be possible with expert assistance from a teacher.</p>
<p>Gisbert Fanselow, Caroline Féry, Ralf Vogel and Matthias Schlesewsky have edited the volume <italic>Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives</italic>. In their introduction (pp. 1–21) the editors provide a sketch of what gradience involves (basically, the existence of non-discrete effects in language) and then discuss the ways this is visible in the formal properties of linguistic elements, phonology as well as syntax. The following chapters deal in further depth with the nature of gradience, its role in phonology and syntax and the specific case of gradience in wh-constructions. In the syntactic contributions, it is mainly graded judgements that are addressed. Eric Reuland's ‘Gradedness: Interpretive Dependencies and Beyond’ (pp. 45–69) argues, using facts of binding and coreference from English and Dutch, that gradedness in sentence judgements does not mean that any drastic changes to the generative model are needed: some gradedness comes from outside the linguistic system and some may simply follow from the number of violations that a particular sentence incurs in various parts of the derivation. Leonie Cornips considers ‘Intermediate Syntactic Variants in a Dialect: Standard Speech Repertoire and Relative Acceptability’ (pp. 85–105) and describes the way intermediate speakers may show gradience in judging sentences due to uncertainty about their own dialect. Antonella Sorace, in ‘Gradedness and Optionality in Mature and Developing Grammars’ (pp. 106–23), argues that gradedness can come either from optionality or from structures operating at the interface of syntax and discourse, where more complex computation is required than for non-interface structures. John Hawkins, not entirely surprisingly, interprets ‘Gradience as Relative Efficiency in the Processing of Syntax and Semantics’ (pp. 207–26); drawing on facts of word order inside the VP in English and Japanese, he suggests that selection preferences in this area are due to the principle of Minimize Domains, which basically promotes quick processing. Frank Keller does things differently in ‘Linear Optimality Theory as a Model of Gradience in Grammar’ (pp. 270–87), attributing graded acceptability judgements directly to properties of the grammar, specifically to differences in numerical weight among constraints in Optimality Theory. Ralf Vogel's ‘Degraded Acceptability and Markedness in Syntax, and the Stochastic Interpretation of Optimality Theory’ (pp. 246–69) argues that graded judgements are due to grammatical factors (the interaction of various principles and mechanisms, to be precise) but that no numerical information needs to be imported into the grammar. In ‘What's What’ (pp. 317–35), Nomi Erteschik-Shir addresses the difference between <italic>What did John say that he’d seen t</italic> vs. *<italic>What did John lisp that he’d seen t</italic>. She attributes it to a difference in focusing: if the matrix verb is focused (likely in the case of <italic>lisp</italic> but less so for <italic>say</italic>), the subordinate clause is not focused; extraction from a non-focused constituent is impossible. Other gradience effects come from processing difficulty. Finally, in ‘Prosodic Influence on Syntactic Judgements’ (pp. 336–58), Yoshihisha Kitagawa and Janet Dean Fodor present some intriguing findings from a grammaticality judgement experiment comparing written and spoken stimuli. It turned out that grammatical sentences requiring a non-default prosody were more often rejected when read than when heard. The authors propose that in reading too, a prosody is mentally constructed for sentences—failure to construct the appropriate non-default prosody results in erroneous rejection of the sentence.</p>
<p>In her article ‘The Syntax of English Comitative Constructions’ (<italic>FoL</italic> 41[2007] 135–69), Niina Ning Zhang shows that the syntactic structure of English comitative constructions (e.g. <italic>John is friends with Bill</italic>) can best be analysed as a complex DP containing the two DPs (in base-generated position) and is headed by <italic>with</italic> (carrying the features [D, Plural, Case assigning]): [[<sub>DP1</sub> <italic>John</italic>] <italic>with</italic> [<sub>DP2</sub> <italic>Bill</italic>]]. She further shows that two types of comitative constructions, symmetrical and asymmetrical, can be distinguished and proposes a syntactic analysis of these two types.</p>
<p>More theoretical insights about DPs are offered by Arthur Stepanov, ‘Morphological Case and the Inverse Case Filter’ (<italic>LingB</italic> 211[2007] 255–76), who argues in favour of eliminating the Inverse Case Filter (‘Every potential Case licensor must license Case on some DP’, p. 263) from the syntax and considering it as part of the morphological component (‘Every morphological case licensor must license case on some DP, at the level of Morphology (between syntax and PF)’, p. 264).</p>
<p>John Payne, Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, ‘Fusion of Functions: The Syntax of <italic>Once</italic>, <italic>Twice</italic> and <italic>Thrice</italic>’ (<italic>JL</italic> 43[2007] 565–603), propose a new analysis of the English expressions <italic>once</italic>, <italic>twice</italic> and <italic>thrice</italic>, in which they are treated as NPs consisting of ‘a determinative base (numerical <italic>on</italic>·, <italic>twi</italic>·, <italic>thri</italic>·) and a noun base ·<italic>ce</italic> (meaning ‘time’)’ (p. 588), which are fused through ‘fusion of functions’ (FF), as proposed in the Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (CGEL) framework.</p>
<p>Various types of nonsententials come under scrutiny in Catherine Fortin's article ‘Some (Not All) Nonsententials are Only a Phase’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 67–94), in which she proposes a minimalist analysis in which nonsententials are phases. Ana Carrera Hernández ‘Gapping as a Syntactic Dependency’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 2106–33) proposes an analysis of gapping in which it is a syntactic dependency ‘between the projection of a null [+V,-N] head and its antecedent’ (p. 2130). The syntactic operation of rightward movement is the topic of Joseph Sabbagh's article ‘Ordering and Linearizing Rightward Movement’ (<italic>NL<</italic> 25[2007] 349–401). Sabbagh argues that rightward movement in general is a case of unbounded movement and that apparent bounded instances can be explained by assuming that rightward movement is constrained with respect to ordering and linearization.</p>
<p>We now turn to studies dealing with specific syntactic elements, first of all the NP. Possessive NPs remain the topic of much linguistic debate. Lars Hinrichs and Benedikt Szmrecsanyi, ‘Recent Changes in the Function and Frequency of Standard English Genitive Constructions: A Multivariate Analysis of Tagged Corpora’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 437–74), add to this debate by investigating ‘the ongoing shift away from the <italic>of</italic>- and toward the <italic>s</italic>-genitive’ (p. 440) on the basis of a multivariate analysis of data from the Brown, Frown, LOB and FLOB corpora. Also writing on possessive NPs, Anette Rosenbach, ‘Emerging Variation: Determiner Genitives and Noun Modifiers in English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 143–89), argues that a semantic shift in ModE created contexts compatible with both determiner genitives and noun modifiers, explaining why variation between these two arose. Another article focusing on possessive NPs is Peter Willemse's ‘Indefinite Possessive NPs and the Distinction between Determining and Nondetermining Genitives in English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 537–68). This article presents a descriptive account of English indefinite possessive NPs (e.g. <italic>a friend</italic>'<italic>s house</italic>), arguing that determining genitives can be clearly distinguished from nondetermining (classifying) genitives.</p>
<p>Several articles were published that deal with other elements inside the NP. The already highly grammaticalized expressions <italic>kind</italic>/<italic>sort</italic>/<italic>type of</italic> are investigated by Liesbeth De Smedt, Lieselotte Brems and Kristin Davidse in ‘NP-Internal Functions and Extended Use of the “Type” Nouns <italic>Kind</italic>, <italic>Sort</italic> and <italic>Type</italic>: Towards a Comprehensive, Corpus-Based Description’ (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 225–55). After surveying earlier work, they provide a classification of the many uses of these words (ranging from head use, as in <italic>five types of animals</italic>, to semi-suffix use, as in <italic>an iMac sorta phone</italic> and even quotative, as in <italic>these little kids kinda ‘Señorita Flynn?’</italic>) and then present corpus data showing that NP-related uses predominate in newspaper language while adverbial and discourse marker uses are most frequent in teenage speech. Lieselotte Brems, ‘The Grammaticalization of Small Size Nouns: Reconsidering Frequency and Analogy’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 293–324), argues that the grammaticalization of infrequent small size nouns, such as <italic>a jot of</italic>, is brought about not just by analogy with frequent counterparts such as <italic>a bit of</italic>, but rather by analogy with various quantifier expressions, which serve as distant models. More quantifiers are found in Richard S. Kayne's ‘<italic>Several</italic>, <italic>Few</italic> and <italic>Many</italic>’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 832–58), which argues that these words should be analysed as modifiers of the unpronounced counterpart of the noun <italic>number</italic> (NUMBER). Floating quantifiers are the topic of Mana Kobuchi-Philip's article ‘Floating Numerals and Floating Quantifiers’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 814–31). She proposes an analysis in which quantification in the case of floating quantifiers takes place in the verbal domain, whereas quantification in the case of non-floating quantifiers takes place in the nominal domain.</p>
<p>Subject-verb inversion after sentence-initial <italic>thus</italic> is studied by Solveig Granath in ‘Size Matters—or <italic>Thus can meaningful structures be revealed in large corpora</italic>’ (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 169–85). Using a 250 million-word PDE corpus, the author demonstrates that the choice of (non-)inversion depends on the precise semantics of <italic>thus</italic> in the sentence in question. A wider variety of inversion-inducing elements is included in Rolf Kreyer's ‘Inversion in Modern Written English: Syntactic Complexity, Information Status and the Creative Writer’ (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 187–203). He finds—not unexpectedly—that the first element is usually discourse-old and short while the subject is discourse-new and heavy. But he finds further effects: inversion, he argues, is also a device for writers to creatively achieve ‘observer effects’ and iconically mirror the order of natural processes.</p>
<p>Verbs and their forms continue to receive a great deal of attention. Christoph Rühlemann's article, ‘Lexical Grammar: The GET-Passive as a Case in Point’ (<italic>ICAME</italic> 31[2007] 111–28), presents the results of a study on various characteristics of the GET-passive, using the BNC, and proposes that the GET-passive should not be regarded simply as a grammatical structure, but as a construction on the grammar-lexis cline. Another study of passive verbs is Nicholas Smith and Paul Rayson's ‘Recent Change and Variation in the British English Use of the Progressive Passive’ (<italic>ICAME</italic> 31[2007] 129–60), in which they investigate the recent development of the progressive passive (e.g. <italic>the TV is being repaired</italic>), which is shown to continue to expand in BrE. The progressive in general is the topic of Seung-Ah Lee's article ‘<italic>Ing</italic> Forms and the Progressive Puzzle: A Construction-Based Approach to English Progressives’ (<italic>JL</italic> 43[2007] 153–95), in which Lee argues that progressivity is a constructional property rather than a lexical property. Colette Moore, ‘The Spread of Grammaticalized Forms: The Case of <italic>Be + Supposed to</italic>’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 117–31), investigates the diffusion of the grammaticalized semi-modal <italic>be supposed to</italic> on the basis of corpus data, concluding that frequency and genre can create pragmatic conditions that help spread the construction.</p>
<p>The volume <italic>Imperative Clauses in Generative Grammar: Studies in Honour of Frits Beukema</italic>, edited by Wim van der Wurff, contains ten articles, each of which examines aspects of the structure of imperative clauses from a generative perspective. Most articles explore imperative clauses in languages other than English: Dutch, German (Old) Scandinavian, Spanish and South Slavic. Two articles focus specifically on English imperative clauses. Eric Potsdam's ‘Analysing Word Order in the English Imperative’ (pp. 251–72) looks at the structure of inverted English imperatives such as ‘<italic>Don't you leave!</italic>’ (p. 251) and proposes an analysis in which the subject in these inverted imperatives occupies SpecIP and the auxiliary occupies the C position, after head-movement from the I position. Inverted interrogatives are thus treated on a par with polar interrogatives such as <italic>Did Mary leave?</italic>, which is supported by the identical scope facts of the two sentence types. The analysis proposed by Potsdam explicitly argues against an analysis of inverted imperatives in which the subject occupies a position lower than SpecIP and in which the auxiliary stays put in the I position. This type of analysis is defended by Laura Rupp, in her article ‘ “Inverted” Imperatives’ (pp. 297–323). Rupp argues that the subject in English inverted imperatives occupies SpecFP (having moved there from SpecVP), FP being a functional projection between V and I. Rupp shows that Potsdam's CP analysis makes the wrong predictions regarding scope ambiguity, and disagrees with Potsdam that the CP analysis is more advantageous than the SpecFP analysis when it comes to the similarities in scope between inverted imperatives and polar interrogatives. In non-inverted imperatives such as ‘<italic>Everybody DO give it a try!</italic>’ (p. 314), Rupp assumes the subject has moved from SpecFP (originating in SpecVP) to SpecIP, supporting this with the observation that ‘flexibility in the distribution of subjects would appear to be a more general feature of imperatives across Germanic languages’ (p. 314).</p>
<p>On the topic of tense, there is Tim Stowell's ‘The Syntactic Expression of Tense’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 437–63), which appeared in a special issue ‘Approaches to Tense and Tense Construal’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117:iii[2007]). Stowell shows that general principles of syntactic theory can capture many aspects of the syntax and semantics of tense, if the semantic features of tense are syntactically decomposed. Taking a descriptive angle, Ylva Berglund and Christopher Williams report on ‘The Semantic Properties of <italic>Going To</italic>: Distribution Patterns in Four Subcorpora of the British National Corpus’ (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 107–20). They find several patterns in the use of this future marker, with respect to form (<italic>going to</italic>, <italic>gonna</italic>), meaning (intention, prediction), type of following lexical verb, subject person/number and text type. Further description of tense and aspect usage is found in Marianne Hundt and Carolin Biewer's ‘The Dynamics of Inner and Outer Circle Varieties in the South Pacific and East Asia’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 249–69). They compare the use of the past tense and the perfect in BrE, AmE, AusE, NZE, SingE, Fiji and Philippine English online newspapers with the aim of identifying possible shifts in influence of inner on outer circle varieties. The results are not conclusive—the complexity of the conditioning factors makes comparison difficult.</p>
<p>There is a collection of papers on <italic>Finiteness: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations</italic>, edited by Irina Nikolaeva. After an introduction by the editor (pp. 1–19) sketching the problems for the simple idea that finiteness inheres in verbs, the chapters are arranged in four sections. The first is on formal theories, and has David Adger exploring ‘Three Domains of Finiteness: A Minimalist Perspective’ (pp. 23–58), in which the properties of the functional head Fin are investigated; and Peter Sells considering ‘Finiteness in Non-Transformational Syntactic Frameworks’ (pp. 59–88), specifically Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar and Lexical-Functional Grammar, where a distinction is proposed between finiteness as a property of clauses and its morphological expression in a word, with the two normally but not always going together. The second section is on functional and typological theories, with Sonia Cristofaro's ‘Deconstructing Categories: Finiteness in a Functional-Typological Perspective’ (pp. 91–114), which looks at the cross-linguistic correlations between TMA-agreement marked verbs and phenomena such as nominal marking of verbs, the presence of overt complements and the marking of subjects as possessors; Walter Bisang on ‘Categories that Make Finiteness: Discreteness from a Functional Perspective and Some of its Repercussions’ (pp. 115–37), proposing that finiteness resides in categories obligatorily expressed in main clauses but not subordinate clauses; and the editor studying ‘Constructional Economy and Nonfinite Independent Clauses’ (pp. 138–80), focusing on the way certain independent clauses—such as the imperative—show reduced finiteness, in ways explored in detail. The third section is on individual languages (Nakh-Daghestanian, Russian and Turkish), and the fourth section deals with diachrony and acquisition, with Adam Ledgeway looking at ‘Diachrony and Finiteness’ in Italian dialects (pp. 335–65); Nicholas Evans at ‘Insubordination and its Uses’ (pp. 366–431), providing data on the cross-linguistic properties of subordinate clauses used as main clauses; and Petra Gretsch and Clive Perdue focusing on ‘Finiteness in First and Second Language Acquisition’ (pp. 424–84).</p>
<p>Marianne Hundt's <italic>English Mediopassive Constructions: A Cognitive, Corpus-Based Study of their Origin, Spread, and Current Status</italic> is a detailed study of sentences of the type <italic>The two ends anchor securely into the ground</italic>, aka middles. It has chapters on the basic properties of the mediopassive, the earlier literature on them (generative and cognitive), its proper theoretical analysis (with Hundt favouring a prototype perspective, incorporating Randolph Quirk's idea of serial relationship), their usage and frequency in PDE and their historical development. Among the conclusions is the finding that, in spite of claims in the literature, mediopassives occur often without an adverbial, that they are largely restricted to the simple present and past tense and that they are especially common in advertising language. With respect to their history, Hundt is able to show that it is not likely they developed from passivals (as in <italic>Coffee is serving</italic>) or from reflexive constructions. It appears more likely that they developed from ergatives, i.e. clauses like <italic>the door opened/closed</italic>, which became more common in the EModE period. She relates both changes to a typological change that affected English around this time, whereby subjects came to have a wider range of semantic roles than just the agentive one predominant in early English.</p>
<p>Verb complementation can always count on receiving a good deal of attention. Kate Kearns, ‘Epistemic Verbs and Zero Complementizer’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 475–505), argues that a zero complementizer following epistemic verbs such as <italic>think</italic> correlates with a shift in informational prominence, the subordinate clause becoming more prominent than the main clause. In ‘Native and Nonnative Use of Multi-Word vs. One-Word Verbs’ (<italic>IRAL</italic> 45[2007] 119–39), Anna Siyanova and Norbert Schmitt discuss the results of a questionnaire-directed study on the use of multi-word versus one-word verbs by natives and advanced non-natives, which showed that advanced learners of English are less inclined to use multi-word verbs than native speakers of English. Hiromi Onozuka, ‘Remarks on Causative Verbs and Object Deletion in English’ (<italic>LangS</italic> 29[2007] 538–53), argues that object deletion is not a good diagnostic tool for distinguishing causative verbs from non-causative verbs. Alan Clinton Bale, ‘Quantifiers and Verb Phrases: An Exploration of Propositional Complexity’ (<italic>NL<</italic> 25[2007] 447–83), draws conclusions about the semantic interpretation of non-stative, transitive verbs, on the one hand, and intransitive and stative, transitive verbs on the other hand on the basis of facts about syntactic complexity involving the adverb <italic>again</italic>. Focusing on the complements of the verb <italic>try</italic>, Charlotte Hommerberg and Gunnel Tottie, ‘<italic>Try to or Try and</italic>? Verb Complementation in British and American English’ (<italic>ICAME</italic> 31[2007] 45–64), report on differences between <italic>try</italic>-complementation in BrE and AmE, raising questions regarding usage and why it diverged. Looking at complement-taking verbs in general, Kasper Boye and Peter Harder, ‘Complement-Taking Predicates: Usage and Linguistic Structure’ (<italic>SLang</italic> 31[2007] 569–606), explore the structure and usage of complement-taking predicates, showing how these two aspects can be integrated in a functional linguistic approach. Contrastive differences in complementation form the topic of ‘Transitive Verb Plus Reflexive Pronoun/Personal Pronoun Patterns in English and Japanese: Using a Japanese-English Parallel Corpus’ by Makoto Shimizu and Masaki Murata (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 333–46). Their data show up all kinds of differences between the two languages; a general point that emerges is that the choice between, say, <italic>he blamed himself</italic> and <italic>he blamed them</italic> should not be considered as being based on independent selection of each individual word—rather, it is necessary to recognize the existence of phrases as independent units of meaning.</p>
<p>Turning now to adjuncts and that ilk, we begin with Dagmar Haumann's <italic>Adverb Licensing and Clause Structure in English</italic>. This extensive monograph presents an in-depth study of a range of English adverbs focusing on the relation between their distribution and their interpretation in terms of clause structure. Chapter 1 provides the necessary background to studying the syntax and semantics of adverbs. Chapter 2 contributes to the debate of whether syntax determines semantics or vice versa by discussing the (functional) specifier analysis and the opposing adjunction-based semantic scope analysis. Haumann concludes that the empirical arguments against the specifier analysis are not compelling and adopts this analysis throughout the rest of the book. Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the structural position of adverbs within the lexical VP (e.g. manner adverbs such as <italic>carefully</italic>). Haumann assumes a split VP structure, containing several agreement projections as well as a VP and various other functional projections. In this domain, adverbs are merged in the specifier of a functional projection part of the split VP and are licensed in a specifier–head relation with a functional head. Chapter 4 provides a specifier analysis of English adverbs within the inflectional layer (e.g. subject-related adverbs such as <italic>cleverly</italic>). Adverbs occurring within the inflectional domain are assumed to occupy the specifier of a designated functional projection and are licensed in a specifier–head relation with the functional head. Chapter 5 considers adverbs that occur within the complementizer domain (including speaker-oriented adverbs such as <italic>honestly</italic>). In Haumann's analysis, such adverbs are not raised to designated functional projections within the complementizer domain, but are merged as specifiers of these projections. Chapter 6 provides an overall conclusion to the book, summarizing the most important aspects of the analysis, which contains a very elaborate inventory of functional projections.</p>
<p>A study of the adverb <italic>absolutely</italic> can be found in Hongyin Tao's ‘A Corpus-Based Investigation of <italic>Absolutely</italic> and Related Phenomena in Spoken American English’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 5–29). Tao examines the discourse properties of the free-standing adverb <italic>absolutely</italic> (i.e. modifier without a head) in spoken AmE, treating it as an instance of grammar emerging out of discourse (Emergent Grammar). Geoffrey Pullum and Kyle Rawlins, ‘Argument or No Argument?’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 277–87), argue that <italic>X or no X</italic> adjuncts in English (where X is a nominal) do not provide any convincing arguments for the (non-)context-freeness of English.</p>
<p>Michael Stubbs, in ‘An Example of Frequent English Phraseology: Distributions, Structures and Functions’ (in Fachinetti, ed., pp. 89–105), investigates PPs of the type <italic>at the end of the</italic> and <italic>as a result of the</italic>, which are among the most frequent five-word frames in English. Using a BNC-based phraseology database, he explores their semantics and pragmatics and discusses the processes of grammaticalization which, due to their high frequency, they are prone to. Gossé Bouma, Petra Hendriks and Jack Hoeksema, ‘Focus Particles Inside Prepositional Phrases: A Comparison of Dutch, English, and German’ (<italic>JCGL</italic> 10[2007] 1–24), present the results of a corpus investigation into the possibility of focus particles (e.g. <italic>only</italic>, <italic>even</italic>) occurring inside PPs in Dutch, English and German, showing that, although this is most readily allowed in English, it is also an option in Dutch and German. David Minugh has studied ‘The Filling in the Sandwich: Internal Modifications of Idioms (in Facchinetti, ed., pp. 205–24), looking at the frequency and types of idiom modifiers aimed at anchoring the idiom in surrounding discourse, as in ‘They sought to restore some political coals to Newcastle’. Contrary to what earlier commentators had suggested, this usage is found to be fairly rare in actual texts, at around 3 per cent of all idioms examined.</p>
<p>Sentential complements of verbs are the topic of Peter Öhl's article ‘Unselected Embedded Interrogatives in German and English: S-Selection as Dependency Formation’ (<italic>LingB</italic> 212[2007] 403–38). Öhl discusses the selectional properties involved in German and English Unselected Embedded Questions (UEQs) and proposes an analysis in which the licensing of UEQs is explained through the presence of a polarity sensitive head π on factive epistemic predicates. Juhani Rudanko's article ‘Text Type and Current Grammatical Change in British and American English: A Case Study with Evidence from the Bank of English Corpus’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 465–83) explores changes in the sentential complements (notably <italic>to</italic>-infinitive and <italic>to ing</italic>-complements) of the adjective <italic>accustomed</italic> in eighteenth-, nineteenth-, and early twentieth-century BE as well as in current BrE and AmE.</p>
<p>The well-known optionality between an overt and covert relativizer in English relative clauses is analysed by Barbara A. Fox and Sandra A. Thompson in ‘Relative Clauses in English Conversation: Relativizers, Frequency, and the Notion of Construction’ (<italic>SLang</italic> 31[2007] 293–326). They show that the choice between overt relativizer and Ø-relativizer in English relative clauses is regulated by a set of pragmatic-prosodic factors. Focusing on non-restrictive relative clauses, Doug Arnold's article ‘Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses are not Orphans’ (<italic>JL</italic> 43[2007] 271–309) counters the ‘radical orphanage’ approach to non-restrictive relative clauses (in which they are outside the syntactic representation of the clause that contains them) with a ‘syntactically integrated’ approach. In this approach, non-restrictive relative clauses are syntactically like restrictive relative clauses, but differ from these semantically and pragmatically.</p>
<p>Exceptions to the well-known claim that adjuncts are islands for extraction are discussed in Robert Truswell, ‘Extraction from Adjuncts and the Structure of Events’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 1355–77). Truswell provides a semantically based analysis of extraction from adjunct secondary predicates, showing that this is permitted ‘if the event denoted by the secondary predicate is identified with an event position in the matrix predicate’ (p. 1359). Liliane Haegeman, ‘Operator Movement and Topicalisation in Adverbial Clauses’ (<italic>FoL</italic> 41[2007] 279–325), looks at the impossibility of argument fronting in English adverbial clauses. This is explained through the adoption of a generative syntactic analysis in which adverbial clauses are derived by movement of an operator to their left periphery, which results in intervention effects in English, but not in Romance languages, which allow Clitic Left Dislocation patterns.</p>
<p>Robert Fiengo has been <italic>Asking Questions: Using Meaningful Structures to Imply Ignorance</italic>. As he points out, there is a large literature on the syntax of questions and a reasonable amount of work on the questioning speech-act. What Fiengo does in this book is argue that the pragmatics of questions is more varied than has so far been realized (with questions needing to be viewed in relation to assertions) and that the analysis of this pragmatics needs to be carried out in conjunction with (but separately from) analysis of question syntax. Fiengo interprets questions as expressing a lack and discusses in detail the factors that will lead people with a lack to choose a particular question type. He then uses the results to reflect on the nature of speech acts, drawing on Austin's categorization of assertive speech-acts and suggesting that they are all matched by questioning speech-acts.</p></sec>
<sec><title>(b) Early Syntax</title>
<p>We start with an important general work, <italic>Diachronic Syntax</italic> by Ian Roberts. This is a generous textbook, with its 500 pages taking the reader on an extended tour leading from the basics of historical syntax to a wide variety of topics in current research. Many examples from a range of different languages are given, there are plenty of tree structures and other diagrams, detailed guides to further reading and a glossary of technical terms. The theoretical approach taken is ‘an informal version of minimalism’ (p. 7), but good use is also made of tools and concepts of the pre-minimalist era which have so far not received a minimalist reworking. The five chapters cover the topics of historical syntax in the principles-and-parameters model (presenting the well-known parameters associated with null subjects, V-to-I/V-to-T, negative concord, overt vs. covert wh-movement, and head-complement order, and showing how these can change historically), types of syntactic change (such as re-analysis, grammaticalization, changes in argument structure), the relation between acquisition and change (with a strong case made for a role being played in change by factors of markedness), the diffusion of syntactic change (including the topics of optionality, the constant rate effect, grammar competition, drift, cascading parameter changes and syntactic reconstruction) and a final chapter on language contact and the changes this can trigger (as evidenced in the phenomena of borrowing, substrata and creoles). Although the book clearly demands diligence and application from the student and ample guidance from the teacher, phenomena and interpretations are set out with maximum clarity and we think this will be a successful course text at advanced undergraduate or postgraduate level.</p>
<p>After it, students would do well to read another important general work published this year, Olga Fischer's <italic>Morphosyntactic Change: Functional and Formal Perspectives</italic>. This offers ample discussion of the following question: in explaining change, should we focus on formal aspects (as Roberts and others do) or is it best addressed through study of functional factors (as is done in many grammaticalization studies and in functionally inspired historical work)? Adherents of the two perspectives usually take their own approach to be self-evidently superior, but Fischer makes a strong case for the need to combine the two, not only in principle but also in concrete practice. In making this case, she provides an illuminating review of representative work from the two sides, carefully distinguishing what is helpful from what is not, and showing how a combined approach makes greatest sense of the data. Among the changes analysed in detail—mostly from English—are the developments in the English modal auxiliaries, various instances of alleged clause union (shown to be rather doubtful in most cases) and changes leading to subjectification (a type of change different from grammaticalization). Fischer's own model of change accords a crucial place to the concept of analogy, not only as a source of new forms and functions but also as an important mechanism of language acquisition.</p>
<p>There are two textbooks on the history of English to report this year, continuing on from the four that we reviewed last year (see <italic>YWES</italic> 87[2008] 62–4). Laurel J. Brinton and Leslie K. Arnovick's <italic>The English Language: A Linguistic History</italic> provides twelve substantial chapters covering general issues, the sound and writing systems, language change, the IE and Germanic background and then two chapters apiece for OE, ME and EModE, with a concluding chapter on ModE (where the focus is on North America). The text is highly accessible throughout and includes numerous clearly presented and explained tables, examples, in-text exercises (with a Key at the back) and weblinks. A good amount of linguistic detail is covered and, where appropriate, attention is also paid to the social background. A third edition has appeared of Dennis Freeborn's <italic>From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variation across Time</italic>. Like the earlier editions, this work is quite philological in orientation, with detailed attention being paid to matters of spelling and palaeography, contemporary evidence for changes, historical dialect differences and manuscript comparison (the book abounds with facsimiles). This of course means that students require hands-on supervision from a tutor. If this is provided, they will end up with a vast amount of knowledge of the philology of English. The chapters are arranged in chronological order, with a preponderance towards the earlier periods, and there is a companion website which contains recordings of historical texts from the book, a Word Book and Text Commentary Book.</p>
<p>An introduction to OE for students with no prior linguistic knowledge is given in Carole Hough and John Corbett's <italic>Beginning Old English</italic>. The authors have managed to keep a clear distance from the traditional approach, with its focus on decontextualized forms and paradigms. Instead, they discuss the ways in which OE is still alive today (in translations of its literature, in the <italic>Lord of the Rings</italic> and of course in the modern language), give detailed and concrete advice about how to learn OE words, present paradigms (not too many) in the context of discussions about how language is used to express particular meanings, and introduce points of grammar through initial short OE texts, preceded by some explanation of the context, a few comprehension questions and a number of vocabulary items. The book starts with a chapter on the history and literature of the period and has a separate chapter on translations of <italic>Beowulf</italic>. The last hundred pages are taken up by four OE texts (<italic>Cynewulf and Cyneheard</italic>, the <italic>Battle of Maldon</italic>, the <italic>Dream of the Rood</italic> and a passage from <italic>Beowulf</italic>), each divided up into smaller chunks with comprehension questions, vocabulary and comment. As this brief summary makes clear, OE is here presented as a language used for communication, and we think this will be a successful textbook for undergraduate modules.</p>
<p>Adrian Beard has written <italic>Language Change</italic>, published in Routledge's Intertext series. Meant for British A-level students, it presents materials showing change in (mostly) twentieth-century and contemporary English. There are abundant (short) authentic texts, many of them part of exercises. Some technical terminology is introduced and there is a strong emphasis on the role of discourse factors (in the widest sense of the word) in promoting or constraining change—this includes matters relating to visual representation, from pictorial to orthographic.</p>
<p>At a more scholarly level, Christian Mair and Geoffrey Leech investigate ‘Current Changes in English Syntax’ (in Aarts and McMahon, eds., pp. 318–42). After reviewing the few earlier studies of twentieth-century syntactic change, they discuss several cases, including the increasing prominence of the progressive and of non-finite verbal forms, the decline of some of the modals (<italic>may</italic>, <italic>must</italic>, <italic>shall</italic>, <italic>ought to</italic>), the lesser frequency of the <italic>be</italic>-passive and wh-relatives and the growth of premodified NPs. Data come from the Brown/Frown and LOB/FLOB corpora. The next step is of course to go online, and that is what Christian Mair has done in ‘Change and Variation in Present-Day English: Integrating the Analysis of Closed Corpora and Web-Based Monitoring’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 233–47). Looking at quite simple Google data for <italic>different from</italic>/<italic>than</italic>/<italic>to</italic>, the passive progressive and <italic>save</italic> NP (<italic>from</italic>) V-<italic>ing</italic>, he finds that they show the kind of patterning that is expected on the basis of work on traditional corpora and that—interpreted with due caution—they are valid sources of insight and hypotheses.</p>
<p>Various elements inside NPs have received historical attention. Yumi Yokota, ‘Disambiguation of Definite Article <italic>þo</italic> and Demonstrative <italic>þo</italic> in Middle English Texts from the West Riding of Yorkshire’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 236–9), shows that the definite article <italic>þo</italic> ‘the’ and demonstrative <italic>þo</italic> ‘those’ in texts from the West Riding of Yorkshire were functionally disambiguated. Florian Haas, ‘The Development of English <italic>Each Other</italic>: Grammaticalization, Lexicalization, or Both?’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 31–50), shows on the basis of a corpus study that the historical development of the English reciprocal marker <italic>each other</italic> involved both grammaticalization (in the form of syntactic context expansion) and lexicalization (in the form of univerbation and fossilization). Elizabeth Closs Traugott's ‘The Concepts of Constructional Mismatch and Type-Shifting from the Perspective of Grammaticalization’ (<italic>CogLing</italic> 18[2007] 523–57) addresses the possible factors in the diachronic development of partitive constructions into degree modifier constructions from the point of view of grammaticalization.</p>
<p>Nadja Nesselhauf has studied the development of the future time markers <italic>will</italic>, <italic>shall</italic> and’<italic>ll</italic> in nineteenth-century English and reports the results in ‘Diachronic Analysis with the Internet? <italic>Will</italic> and <italic>Shall</italic> in ARCHER and in a Corpus of E-Texts from the Web’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 287–305). The two corpora show rather different frequency patterns, which Nesselhauf attributes to their non-comparability in terms of text types and also to the influence of individual preference and style. The same author's article, ‘The Spread of the Progressive and its “Future” Use’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 191–207), shows that the spread of the progressive with future time reference (e.g. <italic>He</italic>'<italic>s leaving for London tomorrow</italic>) has contributed to the general spread of the progressive construction, although the factors involved in the increase of the ‘future’ progressive do not always coincide with the factors involved in the general increase of the progressive construction. Michiko Ogura, ‘Old English <italic>Agan to</italic> Reconsidered’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 216–18), shows that the modal auxiliary <italic>ought to</italic> became established as a result of semantic expansion (possession to obligation) combined with a syntactic reanalysis (<italic>again</italic> + <italic>to</italic>-infinitive to <italic>agan to</italic> + infinitive) in the OE period.</p>
<p>Prepositional complement constructions are the focus of Günter Rohdenburg's article ‘Functional Constraints in Syntactic Change: The Rise and Fall of Prepositional Constructions in Early and Late Modern English’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 217–33). Rohdenburg explores the implications of the <italic>horror aequi</italic> principle and of the Complexity Principle for syntactic change in these constructions. Meiko Matsumoto, ‘The Verbs <italic>Have</italic> and <italic>Take</italic> in Composite Predicates and Phrasal Verbs’ (<italic>SN</italic> 79[2007] 159–70), looks at the development of the state versus event contrast in composite predicates and phrasal verbs with the verbs <italic>have</italic> and <italic>take</italic>.</p>
<p>Focusing on the position of adverbs is Eric Haeberli and Richard Ingham's ‘The Position of Negation and Adverbs in Early Middle English’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 1–25). Haeberli and Ingham identify similarities and differences in the distribution of the negator <italic>not</italic> and adverbs in early ME, arguing that <italic>not</italic> already occupies SpecNegP in early ME. John R. Rickford, Thomas Wasow, Arnold Zwicky and Isabelle Buchstaller contribute ‘Intensive and Quotative ALL: Something Old, Something New’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 3–31). They trace the history of both uses in detail, comparing them with competing variants and showing that intensifying <italic>all</italic> is old, but has recently gained in strength and scope, while quotative <italic>all</italic> arose in the early 1980s in California teenage speech, then gained in popularity but is now receding fast. Their detailed analysis shows that these two areas of lexico-grammar have been subject to considerable amounts of flux and variation over time (involving both the inventory of items and their constraints); see also <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC9">section 9</xref>.</p>
<p>Next, we turn to studies on clauses (and the elements that connect them) in Early English. Ursula Lenker and Anneli Meurman-Solin have edited <italic>Connectives in the History of English</italic>, which presents a collection of papers on various aspects of some individual clausal connectives in the history of English, based on corpus investigations. The introduction by the editors (pp. 1–10) is followed by María José López-Couso's article on the history of <italic>lest</italic> (pp. 11–29). The author shows that adverbial connectives can belong to more than one category. In her article on infinitival <italic>to</italic> (pp. 31–60), Bettelou Los argues that the <italic>to</italic>-infinitive represents a sententialized <italic>to</italic>-PP already in OE. Matti Rissanen's article (pp. 61–75) provides an account of the history of <italic>oþ</italic> and its replacement by <italic>till</italic>. Laurel Brinton (pp. 77–96) discusses the relatively recent rise of the conjunctive use of {<italic>any</italic>, <italic>each</italic>, <italic>every</italic>} <italic>time</italic>, suggesting that this use is the result of a grammaticalization process. Rafał Molencki (pp. 97–113) examines the evolution of <italic>since</italic> in ME, arguing that it involves grammaticalization. The same is argued for by Elina Sorva in her article on the history of the concessive connective <italic>albeit</italic> (pp. 115–143), in which she also shows that it was syntactically polyfunctional. Ana I. González-Cruz studies the semasiological development of <italic>while</italic>-constructions (pp. 145–166), showing that subjectification as well as positional specialization is involved. Carsten Breul (pp. 167–192) argues that the semantic development of clausal connectives involves an increase in relevance, which comprises (but does not reduce to) informativeness. Ursula Lenker's article (pp. 193–227) explores the historical development of causal connectives in English. Claudia Claridge presents (pp. 229–254) the results of a corpus study on the functions of conditional <italic>if</italic>-clauses in the history of English. Anneli Meurman-Solin (pp. 255–287) presents the findings of a corpus study of original manuscripts, i.e. without editorial modernization of sentence structure, on relatives used as sentential connectives. The final article in the volume is by Thomas Kohnen (pp. 289–308), who suggests a ‘connective profile’ as a tool for analysing clause-level connectives, especially their distribution and frequency across texts and text types.</p>
<p>Hendrik de Smet's ‘<italic>For</italic> … <italic>To</italic>-Infinitives as Verbal Complements in Late Modern and Present-Day English: Between Motivation and Change’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 67–94) shows that the diachronic development of <italic>for … to</italic>-infinitives in Late ModE and PDE involves ‘diffusion’, i.e. ‘spreading to an ever widening set of complement-taking verbs’ (p. 69), and argues that mechanisms of change make use of the motivating principles behind <italic>for … to</italic>-infinitives, extending these principles to other domains. Øystein Heggelund, ‘Old English Subordinate Clauses and the Shift to Verb-Medial Order in English’ (<italic>ES</italic> 88[2007] 351–61), presents the results of a pilot study on word order in OE subordinate clauses, showing that SVX is the most common order in this environment, that the information value of subjects is generally lower in subordinate clauses than in main clauses, and suggesting that verb-medial order might first have been established in subordinate clauses. Tomoyuki Tanaka, ‘The Rise of Lexical Subjects in English Infinitives’ (<italic>JCGL</italic> 10[2007] 25 − 67), presents a minimalist account of the historical changes in the distribution of lexical subjects in English infinitival clauses, paying special attention to the role of the infinitival morpheme and to changes in the infinitival marker <italic>to</italic>.</p>
<p>A different type of clause is the focus of Javier Calle-Martín and Antonio Miranda-Carcía's ‘On the Use of <italic>Ond</italic>-Clauses in the Old English Gospels’ (<italic>SN</italic> 79[2007] 119–32), in which the results of a corpus study on the syntax of <italic>ond</italic>-clauses in the West Saxon gospels are presented, showing that <italic>ond</italic>-clauses mostly have V2 rather than VF order (although there exists variation between the different gospels in this regard) and that <italic>ond</italic>-clauses and subordinate clauses with subjects have the same word order (SVX being the most frequent order). On relative clauses there is Christine Johansson's ‘The Use of Relativizers across Speaker Roles and Gender: Explorations in 19th-Century Trials, Drama and Letters’ (in Fitzpatrick, ed., pp. 257–77). While it might be expected on the basis of EModE and PDE that less formal texts or passages by more vernacular speakers would have a high incidence of <italic>that</italic> in the nineteenth century as well, this is not confirmed by the data, which instead show high levels of WH use throughout, with <italic>that</italic> being prominent only in certain linguistic contexts (such as clefts and following indefinite pronouns) and in women's letters of the beginning of the century.</p>
<p>Writing on inversion in Late ME, Anthony Warner's ‘Parameters of Variation Between Verb–Subject and Subject–Verb Order in Late Middle English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 81–111), shows that, in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century prose, syntactic considerations as well as considerations of weight ‘are likely to play a considerable role in the patterning of inversions and late subjects’ (p. 107), suggesting that inversion involves an interaction between syntax and pragmatics. Finally, Elizabeth Closs Traugott, ‘Old English Left-Dislocations: Their Structure and Information Status’ (<italic>FoL</italic> 41[2007] 405–41), examines the structural and discourse-functional properties of subject and object left-dislocations in OE, showing that OE left-dislocations are ‘considerably less constrained than Present Day English left-dislocations are said to be’ (p. 436).</p></sec></sec>
<sec id="SEC6"><title>6. Semantics</title>
<p>One of the highlights of 2007 is <italic>Questions in Dynamic Semantics</italic>, edited by Maria Aloni, Alastair Butler and Paul Dekker, a fine collection of recent work on the formal study of questions from the perspective of an ‘Amsterdam-style’ approach to semantics/pragmatics that originated in Jeroen Groenendijk and Martin Stokhof's dissertation <italic>Studies on the Semantics of Questions and the Pragmatics of Answers</italic> [1984]. The general features of this approach, the relevant notions and the most influential theories (with particular reference to Groenendijk and Stokhof's work, but also to its contenders), as well as the ‘burning issues’ in contemporary research, are carefully outlined in the editors’ introduction, as are the major claims made in the contributions, and the reasons why they are relevant for each other. Three out of the four main sections of the book start with a classical paper (or a revised version of one) that in the 1990s revolutionized thinking about particular phenomena, followed by two other papers written for this volume that develop the theme raised in the first paper. Part I, ‘Update Semantics’, opens with Jeroen Groenendijk's seminal 1999 paper ‘The Logic of Interrogation’ (pp. 43–62), which explores the possibility of basing logic on co-operative information exchange instead of valid reasoning (given that ‘cooperative information exchange seems a more prevailing linguistic activity’ (p. 43) than reasoning), and thereby creates an integrated theory of semantics and pragmatics. The two other papers here, ‘Axiomatizing Groenendijk's Logic of Interrogation’ (pp. 63–82), by Balder ten Cate and Chung-chieh Shan, and ‘Optimal Inquisitive Discourse’ (pp. 83–101), by Paul Dekker, illustrate the directions one can go in from here, the former providing a sound and complete axiomatization of Groenendijk's logic, and the latter investigating the formal properties of optimal discourses. Part II, on ‘Topic and Focus’, starts with Gerhard Jäger's ‘Only Updates: On the Dynamics of the Focus Particle <italic>Only</italic>’ (pp. 105–22), where a particular context dependency related to <italic>only</italic> was first described, namely the one enabling the interpretation of <italic>Only Socrates is wise</italic> to vary depending on whether the sentence is uttered as an answer to <italic>Who is wise?</italic> or to <italic>Which Athenian is wise?</italic> The paper introduces a dynamic logic that handles the observed context dependencies. ‘The Dynamics of Topic and Focus’ (pp. 123–45), by Maria Aloni, David Beaver, Brady Clark and Robert van Rooij, and ‘Nobody (Anything) Else’ (pp.147–58), by Paul Dekker, present proposals that render the effects of domain restriction in more sophisticated ways, in view of a number of problems that Jäger's original proposal ran into. The third part, on ‘Implicatures and Exhaustiveness’, features Henk Zeevat's paper, ‘Exhaustivity, Questions, and Plurals in Update Semantics’ (pp. 161–92), which provides a semantic analysis for exhaustification effects, by proposing an exhaustification operator in update semantics which is capable of explaining such effects not only with respect to the interpretation of questions and answers, but also with respect to that of focus, quantifiers, or scalar implicatures. In the face of some of the problems presented by Zeevat's semantic approach to exhaustification, Robert van Rooij and Katrin Schulz, in ‘<italic>Only:</italic> Meaning and Implicatures’ (pp.193–223), and Benjamin Spector, in ‘Scalar Implicatures: Exhaustivity and Gricean Reasoning’ (pp. 225–49), propose to handle the same effects in terms of pragmatics. The papers in the last section, ‘Intonation and Syntax’, are concerned with how intonational and syntactic information contributes to the interpretation of questions, and includes ‘Nuclear Accent, Focus, and Bidirectional OT’ (pp. 253–68), by Maria Aloni, Alastair Butler and Darrin Hindsill, ‘Counting (on) Usage Information: WH Questions at the Syntax-Semantics Interface’ (pp. 269–93), by Alastair Butler, and ‘Nuclear Rises in Update Semantics’ (pp. 295–313), by Marie Šafářová.</p>
<p>Another volume on the meaning of questions but written from the perspective of a language philosopher, is <italic>Asking Questions</italic>, by Robert Fiengo. It defends a complex approach to the meaning of sentences that are used to ask questions, which equally takes their form and the uses they are put to into account, and which is concerned with the types of questions that can be asked, and with the factors determining how a speaker decides on a particular occasion which type to use. The author argues that a fundamental distinction exists among questioning speech-acts, which divides them into ‘open questions’ and ‘confirmation questions’, cross-cutting the sentence-type differences between <italic>yes-no</italic>-questions and <italic>wh</italic>-questions. Whereas open questions have so far enjoyed a lot of attention from linguists, confirmation questions, such as <italic>You are talking to who?</italic> or <italic>It</italic>'<italic>s raining?</italic> (the first signalling that I cannot complete what I set out to say, and the second that I do not have enough confidence to assert that it is raining) have mostly been neglected in previous investigations. Fiengo argues that all question types used in questioning speech-acts share the feature of incompleteness; with open questions this happens on the formal side, whereas for confirmation questions incompleteness resides in the requisite beliefs of the speaker, since she presents herself, according to Fiengo, as lacking the beliefs necessary for performing the corresponding assertion. Regarding open <italic>wh</italic>-questions, the author puts forward an explanation for the differences between the interpretation of questions containing expressions of the type ‘which N’ vs. ‘what N’, proposes an account for the differences in the syntactic distribution of <italic>which</italic> versus other <italic>wh</italic>-expressions, particularly <italic>who</italic> and <italic>what</italic>, and presents a typology of questioning speech-acts corresponding to J.L. Austin's [1953] typology of assertive acts, by which he also aims to account for the choice of <italic>wh</italic>-expressions in expressing particular meanings.</p>
<p>The fact that ‘there have been only very few studies devoted to the task of illuminating the relationship between truth and illocutionary force’ (p. 1) was the main motivation for Dirk Greimann and Geo Siegwart to edit <italic>Truth and Speech Acts</italic>, a collection of seventeen solicited foundational papers on the relationship between the descriptive and the interpersonal dimensions of language. Among contributors are the eminent philosophers of language William Alston and John Searle, the former putting forward his commitment-based perspective on illocutionary acts, the latter reflecting among other things on the function of expressions like <italic>true</italic> and <italic>false</italic> ‘to assess success in the word-to-world direction of fit’ (p. 36) arising with assertive acts. Among the papers most closely related to the analysis of natural language semantics, Wolfram Hinzen's contribution, ‘Truth, Assertion, and the Sentence’ (pp. 130–56), stands out in its provocative defence of the primacy of form over function. Elaborating on ideas by Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy [1999], Hinzen speculates on the viability of ‘Nominalized English’, an artificial language lacking the distinction between noun phrases and sentences. Headlinesque expressions like ‘Victory for Bush’ are used as tools for eliminating the reference/truth distinction and for dissociating assertive potential from ‘sentences’, the aim being to argue that the co-incidence of (declarative) sentence, truth, and assertion may have been an evolutionary accident. In their ‘Truth as a Normative Modality of Cognitive Acts’ (pp. 280–306), Gila Sher and Cory Wright take a glance at linguistic theories of modal expressions in trying to assess the relation between alethic terms like <italic>it is true</italic> and epistemic modalities like (subjective) necessity and possibility. They argue against reductionist approaches such as that of Frank Palmer [1990]. The characterization of interpersonal or expressive meaning is also the topic of Christopher Potts's target article in <italic>Theoretical Linguistics</italic>, ‘The Expressive Dimension’ (<italic>TL</italic> 33[2007] 165–98), which proposes a formal theory of expressives like <italic>damn</italic> and <italic>bastard</italic>, viewed as acting on and actively changing the expressive setting of the context of interpretation determined by a class of expressive indices, and which is followed by commentaries by Pranav Anand, Bart Geurts, Timothy Jay and Kristin Janschewitz, Peter Lasersohn, Uli Sauerland, Philippe Schlenker and Malte Zimmermann.</p>
<p>The contributions to the collection <italic>Presupposition and Implicature in Compositional Semantics</italic>, edited by Uli Sauerland and Penka Stateva, are also concerned with the semantics–pragmatics interface. A number of them look at particular phenomena, with the aim of investigating whether they should be analysed with the help of the tools of truth-conditional semantics or in terms of presuppositions or implicatures. These include Orin Percus's study ‘A Pragmatic Constraint on Adverbial Quantification’ (pp. 178–213), concerned with the interpretation of sentences containing individual-level predicates and temporal quantifiers, as in <italic>The student who finished first was always Swedish</italic>, as well as Regine Eckardt's (‘Licensing <italic>or</italic>’, pp. 34–70) and Danny Fox's (‘Free Choice and the Theory of Scalar Implicatures’, pp. 71–120) papers on the so-called free-choice effect with disjunction (illustrated by the equivalence between <italic>Some linguists were having coffee or tea</italic> and <italic>Some linguists were having coffee and some linguists were having tea</italic>). Two contributions study the interaction between implicatures and truth conditions. Manfred Krifka, ‘Negated Antonyms: Creating and Filling the Gap’ (pp. 163–77), offers a pragmatic solution for the non-equivalence of examples like <italic>John is happy</italic> vs. <italic>John is not unhappy</italic>, whereas Benjamin Spector (‘Aspects of the Pragmatics of Plural Morphology: On Higher-Order Implicatures’, pp. 243–81) gives an account of cases where plural NPs do not require plural reference (as in <italic>The homework does not contain difficult problems</italic>, which is identical in meaning to <italic>The homework does not contain any difficult problem</italic>) in terms of higher-order implicatures. The remaining three papers are concerned with the interaction between presuppositions and truth conditions. Sigrid Beck (‘Quantifier Dependent Readings of Anaphoric Presuppositions’, pp. 12–33) proposes a way to account for the presuppositions introduced by the adverb <italic>again</italic> by claiming that it is determined by an anaphoric element present in the syntax that can be free, bound, or internally complex like all natural language variables. Gerhard Jäger (‘Partial Variables and Specificity’, pp. 121–62) puts forward a new semantic analysis for specific indefinites which assumes that they introduce free variables into the logical representation, where the descriptive content of the indefinite is interpreted as a precondition for the corresponding variable to denote, and implements this idea formally in an extension of classical predicate logic with partial variables. Philippe Schlenker (‘Transparency: An Incremental Theory of Presupposition Projection’, pp. 214–42) argues against considering the notion of presuppositions as basic and aims to derive it from general pragmatic principles, including the principle ‘Be Articulate’ proposed by him, which puts a constraint on the use of lexical items that express more than one separate truth-conditional contribution simultaneously.</p>
<p>The volume <italic>The Grammar–Pragmatics Interface</italic>, edited by Nancy Hedberg and Ron Zacharski, is a collection of essays written in honour of Jeanette K. Gundel on the three main topics that have been at the centre of Professor Gundel's attention throughout her work and to which she has made significant contributions. The first part, ‘Pragmatics and Syntax’, contains papers investigating the grammar–pragmatics interface at the sentential level, inspired by Gundel's work on the information-structural properties of various topic- and focus-marking constructions, including <italic>it</italic>-clefts and <italic>wh</italic>-clefts, also from a contrastive perspective. Laura Michaelis and Hartwell Francis, ‘Lexical Subjects and the Conflation Strategy’ (pp. 19–48), investigate the properties of topical subjects in a corpus of spoken English, showing that pronominal subject NPs far outnumber lexical NPs, which they attribute to the satisfaction of Knud Lambrechts's [1994] Principle of Separation of Reference and Role (which, however, can be violated for reasons of speaker economy). Nancy Hedberg and Lorna Fadden, ‘<italic>It</italic>-Clefts, <italic>Wh</italic>-Clefts and Reverse <italic>Wh</italic>-Clefts in English’ (pp. 49–76), investigate the information structure of the three constructions in the title, arguing that they are similar from the point of view of ‘referential givenness’—since the cleft clause is presupposed in all of them and thus must be at least uniquely identifiable (making them analogous to definite descriptions)—but differ with respect to their ‘relational information structure’: whereas the cleft clause in <italic>wh</italic>-clefts always presents the topic of the sentence and the cleft constituent the focus, no similar regularity is to be observed with respect to the other two construction types. Gregory Ward, Jeffrey P. Kaplan and Betty J. Birner, in ‘Sistemic <italic>Would</italic>, Open Propositions, and Truncated Clefts’ (pp. 77–90), compare sentences with epistemic <italic>would</italic>—where the subject NP is anaphoric to the variable in a salient open proposition in the context, as in <italic>That would be me</italic>—to truncated clefts like <italic>That would be me that you are talking about</italic>, addressing the question whether the former could be analysed in terms of the latter. The second part of the book addresses the interface at the level of the NP, inspired by Gundel's work on reference, and by Gundel, Hedberg and Zacharsi's 1993 study on the six cognitive statuses of referring expressions. Kaja Borthen's ‘The Correspondence between Cognitive Status and the Form of Kind-Referring NPs’ (pp. 143–69), applies the results of the latter work to the analysis of generic nominals, while Michael Hegarthy, in ‘Context Dependence and Semantic Types in the Interpretation of Clausal Arguments’ (pp. 171–88), addresses questions related to the accessibility of clausal denotations to reference with different pronominal forms, in addition to discussing under what circumstances clauses can have properties, situations, facts and events as denotations. Francis Cornish, in ‘Implicit Internal Arguments, Event Structure, Predication and Anaphoric Reference’ (pp. 189–216), discusses the conditions under which internal arguments of transitive or ditransitive predicates may remain implicit and the interpretations available for these arguments, while Thorstein Fretheim's ‘Switch-Polarity Anaphora in English and Norwegian’ (pp. 217–43) presents a contrastive study of the uses of English <italic>otherwise</italic>—a discourse connective with an anaphoric function—and the switch-polarity anaphor <italic>else</italic>, compared to Norwegian <italic>ellers</italic>, which is often used as the translation correspondent of the latter two, based on data from a bidirectional translation corpus. The studies in the third part of the book relate the results of the two main directions of Gundel's work to pragmatics in the wider sense, namely, to the study of social variables.</p>
<p>The contributions to the volume <italic>Interfaces and Interface Conditions</italic>, edited by Andreas Späth, are concerned with problems of differentiating between linguistic and extralinguistic (conceptual) knowledge, i.e. with the structure of the interfaces that make it possible to transform the former into the latter (particularly the two systems of performance: the system of articulation and perception, and the conceptual-intentional system), as well as the interfaces between the various levels of the linguistic system.</p>
<p>Several publications have addressed various recent challenges to the principle of semantic compositionality. This was also the topic of a special issue of the journal <italic>Research on Language and Computation</italic>, edited by Frank Richter and Manfred Sailer (<italic>RLandC</italic> 5:iv[2007]). In ‘Against Opacity’ (<italic>RLandC</italic> 5[2007] 435–55) Marcus Egg looks at cases with no direct one-to-one mapping between (surface) syntactic and semantic structure (that is, where the meaning of a complex constituent depends on the inner structures of its parts), and proposes interface rules that derive underspecified representations for them, based on a surface-oriented syntactic analysis. In ‘Compositionality: The Very Idea’ (<italic>RLandC</italic> 5[2007] 287–308), Marcus Kracht claims that many recent and contemporary syntactic and semantic theories confuse syntactic and semantic structures, and that the principle of compositionality can serve, if properly understood, as a tool to gain insight into sentential structure. In a different paper, ‘The Emergence of Syntactic Structure’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 47–95), the same author proposes a definition of meaning devoid of the latter pitfalls that ‘bans all mentioning of syntactic structure’ (p. 47), and relocates many phenomena often thought to belong to syntax (like Θ-roles or linking) within semantics. The collection <italic>Direct Compositionality</italic>, edited by Chris Barker and Pauline Jacobson, takes a new look at the hypothesis of direct compositionality, which can be formulated in its simplest form as saying that ‘The syntax and the semantics work together in tandem’ (p. 1); in other words, that for every syntactic operation there must be a corresponding semantic one. Whereas direct compositionality was associated with the dominant trend in the formal semantics of the 1970s and 1980s, it has now been mostly replaced by the view prevalent in generative grammar, according to which semantic interpretation only takes place after syntax has created complete abstract representations at the level of Logical Form. One group of papers in the collection concentrates on some general issues concerning the concept of direct compositionality, its consequences, and the organization of the grammar it assumes. This includes ‘Compositionality as an Empirical Problem’ (pp. 23–101), by David Dowty; ‘Direct Compositionality on Demand’ (pp. 102–31), by Chris Barker, studying the status of Type-Logical Grammar with respect to compositionality; ‘Linguistic Side Effects’ (pp. 132–63), by Chung-chieh Shan, which devises a metalanguage to handle cases of apparent non-compositionality in natural languages based on the treatment of analogous phenomena in programming languages; and ‘Type-Shifting with Semantic Features: A Unified Perspective’ (pp. 164–87), by Yoad Winter, which argues that type-shifting operations are triggered by two kinds of type-mismatch. A second group of papers concentrates on empirical phenomena that appear to challenge direct compositionality, and have therefore played a great role in previous discussions about this. This section includes ‘Direct Compositionality and Variable-Free Semantics: The Case of “Principle B” Effects’ (pp. 191–236), by Pauline Jacobson, which argues that binding theory, in particular Principle B effects, should not be viewed (contrary to appearances) as stating constraints on non (strictly) local chunks of representations (that are incompatible with the idea of reasonably strong versions of direct compositionality). Next there are ‘The Non-Concealed Nature of Free Relatives: Implications for Connectivity in Specificational Sentences’ (pp. 237–63), by Ivano Caponigro and Daphna Heller, and ‘Connectivity in a Unified Analysis of Specificational Subjects and Concealed Questions’ (pp. 264–305), by Maribel Romero, both of which are concerned with the question whether direct compositionality is compatible with the connectivity effects in specificational copular sentences (illustrated by the fact that in <italic>What John is is proud of himself</italic> the reflexive is licensed in spite of it not being c-commanded by a local binder), but proposing opposite answers. Further papers in this section include ‘Degree Quantifiers, Position of Merger Effects with their Restrictors, and Conservativity’ (pp. 306–35), by Rajesh Bhatt and Roumyana Pancheva, which discusses several empirical challenges to direct compositionality, as well as to other analyses of the relevant data, and ‘Two Reconstruction Effects’ (pp. 336–59), by Yael Sharvit, which analyses the problems that a direct compositional theory versus a (non-directly compositional) reconstruction theory faces in accounting for superlative constructions such as <italic>The longest book John said Tolstoy had written was Anna Karenina</italic> on the reading that the book in question was merely said by John to have been written by Tolstoy (and may have in fact been written by someone else). Two more papers in the collection are concerned with the possibility of working out directly compositional analyses for domains to which such accounts have never been applied before, namely, ‘Online Update: Temporal, Modal and <italic>De Se</italic> Anaphora in Polysynthetic Discourse’ (pp. 363–404), by Maria Bittner, and ‘The Dimensions of Quotation’ (pp. 405–31), by Christopher Potts.</p>
<p>The contributions to the volume <italic>Computing Meaning</italic>, edited by Harry Bunt and Reinhard Muskens, discuss data, methods and problems concerning the computation of meaning in natural language. One group of papers is concerned with new or not satisfactorily analysed data pertaining to various types of ambiguity in natural languages providing suggestions for formalizing them in a manner intelligible for computational applications. Among those focusing on English, the following deserve particular attention. Massimo Poesio, Uwe Reyle and Rosemary Stevenson, in ‘Justified Sloppiness in Anaphoric Reference’ (pp. 11–31), identify two cases on the basis of a corpus study and psychological experiments, where apparently ambiguous anaphoric expressions do not seem to result in communication problems. ‘Interpreting Concession Statements in Light of Information Structure’ (pp. 145–72), by Ivana Kruijff-Korbayová and Bonnie L. Webber, studies the role the information structure of utterances plays in the interpretation of discourse connectives, particularly the connectives signalling concession, distinguishing between two senses of the latter. In ‘Meaning, Intonation and Negation’ (pp. 195–212), Marc Swerts and Emiel Krahmer report on the results of perception and production experiments concerning the different roles intonation can play in the interpretation of negation phrases, resulting in descriptive and metalinguistic readings. They argue for an OT approach to model the observed interactions between semantics and pragmatics. The other papers are concerned, on the one hand, with proposing underspecified semantic representations (which seem to be the most efficient way to model the ambiguity and incompleteness of the meaning of natural-language utterances) or with comparing existing representations or representation strategies for well-known language data, such as the interpretation of anaphors, ellipsis, intonation, tense, the relative scope of quantifiers and the contribution of context to meaning and, on the other hand, with investigating the problems that annotating corpora with semantic information run into. Also concentrating on the consequences of underspecification but from a different perspective are the papers collected in <italic>Aspects of Meaning Construction</italic>, edited by Günther Radden, Klaus-Michael Köpcke, Thomas Berg and Peter Siemund. The individual contributions, using the methodology of cognitive linguistics, examine three of the general principles underlying meaning construction (that is, the process enabling linguistic units having an underspecified meaning to ‘evoke a whole scenario’ (p. 9)), namely, metonymy, metaphor and conceptual blending, by means of data pertaining to the meaning of lexical items, phrases, discourse-connectives and speech-act types. According to the editors’ introduction, underspecification occurs in language when linguistic units verbalize meanings implicitly or indirectly, when the meaning of a linguistic unit is indeterminate (or vague) and when linguistic units are incompatible, which forces the interlocutors to reconcile the meaning conflict between them.</p>
<p>We can also report on two semantics textbooks of very high quality. <italic>An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics</italic>, by Patrick Griffiths, which appeared in 2006, is a concise but well-proportioned textbook, presenting exactly the amount of material that can be covered in the first one-semester course in semantics/pragmatics at BA level. The nine chapters of the book provide a discussion of the most basic concepts in semantics and pragmatics from the perspective of English, making constant reference to the most up-to-date research findings in the field, without showing commitment to any particular theoretical framework. The topics include the subject matter of semantics and pragmatics; definitions of types of meaning and explanations of some key concepts in semantic investigations such as compositionality and entailment; the characteristics of adjective meanings, with the help of which the various meaning relationships of similarity and oppositeness are introduced; basic issues in the semantics of nouns; the meanings of verbs, with particular reference to causative constructions and the Vendlerian system of predicate classes; issues in the interpretation of figurative uses of language; tense and aspect (this is the only case where the restriction to English data, where some aspectual distinctions are grammaticalized but others are not, leads to an incomplete presentation of the relevant phenomena); modality, scope and quantification; classic issues in pragmatics, such as conversational implicatures, presuppositions and speech acts; and, finally, basic concepts of information structuring, such as the interpretation of (in)definite NPs, clefts and passives, and (English-style) phonologically marked focus. The usefulness of the distinctions introduced is illustrated by the discussion of actually occurring examples. Each chapter is complemented by a list of further reading, and a set of exercises, for which solutions are also provided.</p>
<p><italic>Semantics: A Coursebook</italic>, by James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith (which is the second edition of an 1983 work by the first two authors, updated and supplemented by the third author), distinguishes itself from the range of semantics textbooks in its workbook format, with exercises forming an integral part of the presentation of the material, intended both to prepare readers for the information that follows and to check whether they have understood it. The fact that the solutions to these unit-internal exercises are also available, and that each unit closes with a summary of the main points that readers are expected to understand, makes the work an ideal companion for individual study for more advanced students as well. The six parts of the book cover the topics normally dealt with in introductory courses, such as the basic ideas in semantics (its subject matter, the distinction between sentences, utterances and propositions, and between reference and sense), issues in investigating reference (referring expressions, predicates, the universe of discourse, deixis and definiteness, extensions and prototypes), issues in investigating sense (sense properties and stereotypes, identity and similarity vs. oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense, ambiguity), logic (the subject matter of logic, ways of representing simple propositions, and various connectives), word meaning (dictionary definitions, meaning postulates, properties of predicates, derivation and participant roles), and interpersonal and non-literal meaning (speech-acts, perlocutions and illocutions, felicity conditions, direct and indirect illocutions, propositions and illocutions, conversational implicature, and idioms, metaphor and metonymy). Although I find this work one of the best among introductory textbooks not necessarily committed to the formal semantic paradigm, instructors and students with a more formal background might find the employment of an idiosyncratic quasi-logical language instead of the standard logical languages more disturbing than helpful.</p>
<p>Turning now to the study of ‘classical’ topics within semantics, <italic>Recent Advances in the Syntax and Semantics of Tense, Aspect and Modality</italic>, edited by Louis de Saussure, Jacques Moeschler, and Genoveva Puskás, contains a selection of the written versions of the papers presented at the sixth Chronos colloquium in Geneva. From the point of view of the semantics of English, the most noteworthy contributions to the volume include Sheila Glasbey's ‘Aspectual Composition in Idioms’ (pp. 71–87), who claims that the fact that the (Vendlerian) aspectual class membership might differ for literal and idiomatic interpretations of the same phrase or sentence does not mean that the latter cannot be derived compositionally. Arie Molendijk's ‘The Passé Simple/Imparfait of French vs. the Simple Past/Past Progressive of English’ (pp. 109–21) offers a contrastive analysis of the two tense forms in the two languages, concentrating on the temporal relationships that can be established by these tense forms in narrative discourse. Björn Rothstein, in ‘A Modified <italic>Extended Now</italic> for the Present Perfect’ (pp. 89–107) takes a new look at the present perfect puzzle (illustrated by *<italic>Sigurd has come yesterday</italic>) and its kin (involving the (in)compatibility of various temporal adverbials with perfect tenses) in English, German and Swedish, and argues for a combined syntactic-semantic account. Tim Stowell, ‘Sequence of Perfect’ (pp. 123–46), proposes a solution why the infinitival perfect (<sc>have</sc> + -en) may function like the finite preterit <italic>past</italic>, claiming that it is a <sc>past</sc> polarity item, serving as the head of a time-denoting expression, rather than as a true past-shifting tense. Pranav Anand and Valentine Hacquard, in ‘When the Present Is All in the Past’, propose a novel ingenious answer to why a present tense embedded under a past tense need not always refer to the utterance time in English, as in <italic>Caesar declared that he would execute any senator who stirs up rebellious sentiment in the Roman Empire</italic>.</p>
<p>In a special issue of <italic>Lingua</italic> on syntactic and semantic approaches to tense and tense construal, Toshiyuki Ogihara's ‘Tense and Aspect in Truth-Conditional Semantics’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 392–418) provides an informed overview of the basic data and key formal semantic analyses of various tense and aspect constructions in English, which can be highly recommended as a first reading even for those unfamiliar with the results of the field. In the same issue, Carlota S. Smith argues, in ‘Tense and Temporal Interpretation’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 419–36), that the time talked about in a sentence does not only depend on tense or temporal adverbials, but also on context and on the Discourse Mode (Narrative, Report, Description, Information and Argument) of the text where the sentence appears, and analyses the combined contribution of these within a DRT-based framework. In ‘A Cross-Linguistic Discourse Analysis of the Perfect’ (<italic>JPrag</italic> 39[2007] 2273–2307), Henriëtte de Swart establishes that the perfect constructions in English, French, Dutch and German have similar aspectual properties, and are all Reichenbachian perfects, but differ in additional constraints imposed upon the possible relations between the event time E and other times/events in the sentence or the surrounding discourse. Ana Arregui, ‘When Aspect Matters: The Case of <italic>Would</italic>-Conditionals’ (<italic>NLS</italic> 15[2007] 221–64), offers a unified semantics for <italic>would</italic>-conditionals with simple morphology in the antecedent, as in <italic>If your plants died next week, I would be very upset</italic>, vs. those with perfect morphology in the antecedent, as in <italic>If your plants had died next week, I would have been very upset</italic>, which accounts for their interpretational differences, while Nicholas Asher and Eric McCready, ‘<italic>Were</italic>, <italic>Would</italic>, <italic>Might</italic>, and a Compositional Account of Counterfactuals’ (<italic>JSem</italic> 24[2007] 93–129), propose a new dynamic account of epistemic modal operators, and complement it with an analysis of conditionals and irrealis moods to result in a fully compositional semantics of indicative and counterfactual conditionals. Maria Aloni, ‘Free Choice, Modals, and Imperatives’ (<italic>NLS</italic> 15[2007] 65–94), accounts for the differences between imperatives and possibility and necessity statements with respect to the licensing of free choice <italic>any</italic> and <italic>or</italic> (illustrated, on the one hand, by the contrast between <italic>Vincent may be anywhere</italic>, and <italic>To continue push any key</italic> vs. <italic>Vincent must be anywhere</italic>, and, on the other hand, by the fact that whereas the sentence <italic>Vincent may be in Paris or in London</italic> entails <italic>Vincent may be in Paris and Vincent may be in London</italic>, the corresponding entailment does not hold for necessity statements with <italic>must</italic>). Paul Portner, ‘Imperatives and Modals’ (<italic>NLS</italic> 15[2007] 351–83), argues that imperatives, interpretable with many subvarieties of directive force, contribute to a component of the discourse context called the ‘addressee's To-Do List’, which serves as a contextual resource for the interpretation of non-dynamic root modals in their deontic, bouletic and teleological readings. Benjamin Russell's ‘Imperatives in Conditional Conjunction’ (<italic>NLS</italic> 15[2007] 131–66) provides a compositional semantic analysis of the English conditional conjunction with imperative first conjuncts as in <italic>Everyone drink another can of beer and we’ll set a record</italic>, combining semantic theories of imperatives, the future tense, modal subordination and speech-act conjunction. In ‘Quantifiers and Verb Phrases: An Exploration of Propositional Complexity’ (<italic>NLLT</italic> 25[2007] 447–83), Alan Clinton Bale argues that VPs containing intransitive and stative, transitive verbs are propositionally complex (containing more than one proposition), but those containing non-stative, transitive verbs are propositionally simple.</p>
<p>We turn now to the semantics of nominal expressions. In ‘At least et al.: The Semantics of Scalar Modifiers’ (<italic>Language</italic> 83[2007] 533–59), Bart Geurts and Rick Nouwen challenge the accepted view that the meaning of comparative scalar modifiers like <italic>more than</italic> is analogous to superlative ones like <italic>at least</italic>, and propose that the latter have a modal interpretation. In ‘Bare Nominals and Reference to Capacities’ (<italic>NL<</italic> 25[2007] 195–222), Henriëtte de Swart, Yoad Winter and Joost Zwarts look at bare nominals in Germanic and Romance languages, and argue that in the syntactic configurations where they are allowed to occur, bare nominals refer to ‘capacities’, which are analysed as entities of type <italic>e</italic>, sortally distinct from regular individuals as well as kinds. ‘Article Choice in Plural Generics’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 1657–76), by Donka F. Farkas and Henriëtte de Swart, shows that the contrast between two kinds of language that differ in using bare versus definite plurals in the expression on kind reference and in generic generalization, can be captured in terms of two OT syntactic constraints, while ‘Exceptions to Generics: Where Vagueness, Context Dependence and Modality Interact’, by Yael Greenberg (<italic>JSem</italic> 24[2007] 131–67), discusses the exceptions-tolerance property of generic sentences with indefinite singular and bare plural subjects. In ‘The Gifted Mathematician that You Claim to Be: Equational Intensional “Reconstruction” Relatives’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 445–85), Alexander Grosu and Manfred Krifka provide a semantic interpretation for relative constructions like the one in the title that considers surface representation to be the input to semantic representation. In ‘Parasitic Scope’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 407–44), Chris Barker makes a proposal for a compositional semantic account of the meaning of <italic>same</italic>, treating it as a scope-taking adjective, both in terms of quantifier-raising at LF and in a continuation-based Type-Logical Grammar in the style of Michael Moortgat [1997]. In a special issue of <italic>RLandC</italic> (5:i[2007]) on ‘Semantic approaches to binding’, Edward L. Keenan, in ‘On the Denotations of Anaphors’ (<italic>RLandC</italic> 5[2007] 5–17) works out direct interpretations for anaphors such as <italic>himself</italic>, <italic>herself</italic>, <italic>everyone but himself</italic>, <italic>no student but himself</italic>, <italic>both himself and the teacher</italic>, etc., in the framework of generalized quantifier theory, and proposes a syntax-independent definition of ‘anaphor’.</p>
<p>Turning to the interpretation of discourse anaphora, the collection <italic>Anaphors in Text: Cognitive, Formal, and Applied Approaches to Anaphoric Reference</italic>, edited by Monika Schwarz-Friesel, Manfred Consten and Mareile Knees, is devoted to the discussion of the representation and interpretation of definite descriptions used as anaphors in text and discourse from cognitive, text- and discourse-linguistic, syntactic, semantic and computational-linguistic perspectives, and the results of neurolinguistic investigations on the reception of anaphoric reference, in a variety of languages. ‘Accessibility and Definite Noun Phrases’, by Klaus von Heusinger, studies the interaction of definite NPs and the accessibility structure, a network of semantically related sets of ranked discourse items associated with the predicates that have introduced them, and argues that not only does the accessibility structure determine the definiteness status of referring expressions, but definite NPs also change this accessibility due to their descriptive content. Discourse interpretation is the topic of the papers in <italic>Connectivity in Grammar and Discourse</italic>, edited by Jochen Rehbein, Christiane Hohenstein and Lukas Pietsch, which investigates the linguistic devices that interconnect units of text and discourse, ranging from subordinating connectives through ‘serialization’ by means of converbs, to co-ordinative devices that not only link phrases and clauses but also complete utterances, sentences, or parts of text or discourse to each other in a variety of languages, from descriptive and theoretical perspectives, as well as from the perspectives of languages, language change and language acquisition.</p>
<p><italic>Parentheticals</italic>, edited by Nicole Dehé and Yordanka Kavalova, is a remarkable collection of papers devoted to the syntactic, semantic-pragmatic or prosodic properties of particular subtypes of parentheticals in a variety of languages which have traditionally been considered peripheral and therefore neglected in linguistic research. In their very instructive introduction, the editors outline some of the main challenges for the study of parentheticals, which include, first, the controversy between their forming a linear constituent of the sentence and their showing signs of structural independence, ‘interrupt[ing] the prosodic flow of the utterance’ (cf. Dwight Bolinger [1989]), thus not contributing to truth-conditional meaning but typically functioning as modifiers, additions to or comments on the current talk, and, second, the variation among expressions traditionally considered to be parentheticals in length/complexity, category and function, ranging from one-word expressions like <italic>what</italic>, <italic>say</italic>, <italic>like</italic>, sentence adverbials, comment clauses (<italic>I think</italic>, <italic>you know</italic>), reporting verbs, nominal appositions, to non-restrictive relative clauses, question tags and whole clauses (with or without a connector, elliptical or non-elliptical). The introduction also outlines the major views about the syntactic relation between the host structure and the interpolated parenthetical structure, which most of the contributions in the volume are concerned with, as well as issues concerning the semantic/pragmatic relations between parentheticals and their hosts.</p>
<p><italic>The Grammar of Names</italic>, by John M. Anderson, aims to propose a grammar for proper names (that describes their syntax as well as their lexical subclasses) following the tradition of notional grammar dominant in linguistics until the twentieth century, whose basic assumption is that the syntactic categories have a notional basis. This means, according to the author, that the defining distributional properties of a syntactic category are those that characterize prototypical members of the category semantically. This seems to carry a touch of circularity since it presupposes that there should be some independent criteria other than syntactic ones for determining what elements constitute a category (otherwise there would be no way of knowing among what elements to search for central ones). In spite of the reservations of the linguist trained in contemporary linguistic theory about the idea of a notional grammar, the monograph, with its detailed discussion of cross-linguistic empirical data about proper names as well as overviews of the history of their investigation within onomastics, philosophy and linguistics, provides highly recommendable reading for anyone interested in the study of proper names.</p>
<p>The volume <italic>The Categorization of Spatial Entities in Language and Cognition</italic>, edited by Michel Aurnague, Maya Hickmann and Laure Vieu, collects contributions concerned with the categorization of spatial entities from the perspective of descriptive linguistics (studying the distinctions made by various languages among spatial entities, with the aim of specifying underlying concepts and distinctions), psycholinguistic studies (examining the relation between linguistic and cognitive categories) and formal semantics and formal ontology (concerned with the characterization of the categories of spatial entities that play a role in language and cognition in logical formalisms). Among the papers in the last category, Achille C. Varzi's ‘From Language to Ontology: Beware of the Traps’ (pp. 269–84) calls attention to some phenomena that call into question the possibility of basing ontological analysis on the results of linguistic analysis. Philippe Muller, ‘The Temporal Essence of Spatial Objects’ (pp. 285–306), argues for a ‘four-dimensionalist’ or spatio-temporal ontological theory to formally define some differences between categories of concrete objects referred to in natural language, namely those concerned with mass terms and count nouns, singular and plural, and object and event reference. Nicholas Asher, in ‘Objects, Locations and Complex Types’ (pp. 337–61), proposes a rich system of lexical types in which locations and physical objects are distinct types of things, and a logic that accounts for the data where terms can denote both kinds of things at the same time. <italic>Space, Time, and the Use of Language: An Investigation of Relationships</italic>, by Thora Tenbrink, re-examines the popular view that temporal terms are closely related to and conceptually (and historically) based on spatial terms (expressed by Martin Haspelmath [1997], among others), and concludes, on the basis of studying various synchronic(!) corpora for German and English that there is no dependency relationship between the two kinds of expression, and that their shared features are due to the shared features of the underlying conceptual domains of space and time, and to various discourse processes.</p>
<p>Renewed interest in the linguistic applications of game theory, a mathematical framework originally developed for the analysis of economic behaviour, is manifested in <italic>Game Theory and Linguistic Meaning</italic>, edited by Ahti-Veikko Pietarinen. Fifteen papers provide an interesting interdisciplinary perspective on broad issues such as the origins of communication, social conventions and semantics and ontology, as well as on narrowly focused problems in the area of quantifier scope and anaphora resolution. Well represented are the two major schools of game-theoretical approaches to meaning. Evolutionary Game Theory, inspired by the biologist Maynard-Smith's work on population dynamics, privileges the interactional, ‘pragmatic’, dimensions of meaning and applies concepts like co-operation, stability, resource allocation and signalling strategy. Game-Theoretic Semantics, developed by the philosopher and logician Jaakko Hintikka, concentrates on dialogic aspects of providing truth conditions for logical forms of sentences. The editor's introduction ‘An Invitation to Language and Games’ (pp. 1–15), helpfully unravels these different strands and points out related ideas in the philosophical works of Charles Sanders Peirce and Ludwig Wittgenstein. In the chapter ‘Game Dynamics Connects Semantics and Pragmatics’ (pp. 103–17), Gerhard Jäger uses the evolutionary approach in order to provide an analysis of scalar implicatures arising from existential quantifiers like <italic>some</italic> (implicating <italic>not all</italic>). Ahti-Veikko Pietarinen devotes his ‘Semantic Games and Generalised Quantifiers’ (pp. 183–206) to extending Hintikka's classical approach to the full set of quantificational expressions available in natural language. Robin Clark argues for a synthesis of approaches in ‘Games, Quantifiers and Pronouns’ (pp. 207–27). Accordingly, sentence-internal interpretation is done Hintikka-style, while aspects of evolutionary approaches play a role in cross-sentential processes like anaphora resolution. Still on the applications of game theory in natural language semantics, Robin Clark and Prashant Parikh, ‘Game Theory and Discourse Anaphora’ (<italic>JLLI</italic> 16[2007] 265–82), develop a theory of discourse anaphora (the relationship between a pronoun and an antecedent earlier in the discourse) where the strategic inferences involved in finding the referent of the anaphor are modelled by means of games of partial information.</p>
<p>This year we have seen a particularly high number of publications addressing topics of interest for natural language semanticists from the perspective of philosophy.</p>
<p>As is well known, the attractive view that the meaning of proper names reduces to their referent is seriously challenged by pairs of identity statements like <italic>Cicero is Cicero</italic> and <italic>Cicero is Tully</italic>. Although both names refer to the same famous Roman orator, the second statement is perceived to be informative while the former statement is not. Kit Fine, in his monograph <italic>Semantic Relationism</italic>, addresses this challenge by assuming that semantic values can be or can fail to be ‘co-ordinated’. If they can, this preserves the information that they have been ‘represented-as-same’ already on the syntactic level by the use of identical expressions. Lack of co-ordination, for example when two semantic values are the same ‘by co-incidence’, is responsible for informativity effects. Fine goes on to apply this method to the analysis of beliefs regarding identity statements and the treatment of variables in predicate logic. In the course of the discussion, brief but helpful descriptions of rival views, such as those of David Kaplan and Saul Kripke, are provided. In <italic>Simple Sentences, Substitution, and Intuitions</italic>, Jennifer Saul reconsiders the puzzle of why co-referential names fail to be freely substitutable in simple sentences such as <italic>Clark Kent went into the phone booth and Superman came out</italic> vs. <italic>Superman went into the phone booth and Clark Kent came out</italic>, making these construction types analogous to ‘opacity-producing’ constructions where substitution failure is known to occur, as in <italic>Lois believes that Superman flies</italic> vs. <italic>Lois believes that Clark Kent flies</italic>. In the course of reviewing all standard accounts of substitution failure, the author shows that there is no semantic theory that yields truth conditions that could accord with the latter intuitions, no way to explain away the intuitions, and no way to attribute the intuitions to implicated, asserted, implicited or expressed propositions with truth-conditions matching the intuitions, or to the presence of any other such intuition-matching propositions available to conversational participants in all cases. She also explores the possibility that the intuitions are to be explained with reference to the states of mind of those having the intuitions, rather than of the conversational participants. Saul then proposes that the relevant intuitions about substitutability are due to the fact that information associated with one name is stored separately from information associated with the other name, and these two kinds of information are not always integrated reliably and immediately, which is also supported by psychological experiments confirming the tendency to segregate information known to be about a single individual, and by theoretical assumptions about the differences between the mental representations speakers hold when encountering the phone-booth examples described above.</p>
<p>In <italic>Language Turned on Itself: The Semantics and Pragmatics of Metalinguistic Discourse</italic>, Herman Cappelen and Ernie Lepore propose a new, ‘minimal’ theory of quotation, after delineating the problems they find with all main previous semantic approaches to the phenomenon, including theories that treat quotations as names, demonstratives or quantifiers (in particular, as definite descriptions), as well as those pragmatic ones according to which quotations lack a semantic function altogether. The predictions of these previous theories are checked against the twelve basic properties of quotation that have been identified in the literature, which are carefully delineated in the first part of the book, making it an excellent first read for those (students) new to the topic.</p>
<p>In the monograph <italic>Minimal Semantics</italic> (which appeared as a hardback in 2004 and as a paperback in 2006), Emma Borg argues that the only tasks an adequate theory of linguistic meaning is supposed to perform are to reveal, on the one hand, how the meanings of complex expressions are determined given the meaning of their component expressions and the latter's mode of composition, and, on the other hand, what relations hold between those complex expressions (like the inferential relations between sentences); it should not, however, be expected to answer metaphysical or epistemic questions, and it should not be tied too strictly to communicative concerns. The author claims that traditional formal theories of semantics satisfy exactly the latter requirements, and therefore the criticism against such approaches by particular use-oriented semantic theories, referred to as ‘dual pragmatic’ theories by the author (representatives of which would be Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson's relevance theory, Recanati's contextualism and Kamp's dynamic representation theory), which argue that pragmatic processes do not only have a role in the post-semantic domain to determine the implicatures of an utterance but also enter into the calculation of truth-conditional or propositional content, is unwarranted. Borg finds formal semantic theories preferable also because she considers them compatible with Jerry Fodor's important modularity account of human cognitive architecture. In the selected essays constituting the volume <italic>Language in Context</italic>, Jason Stanley takes up a position contrary to Borg's. In Stanley's theory an utterance acquires the truth-conditions it intuitively possesses in the following manner. Each term in a sentence uttered has a content that is determined by its context-independent meaning together with extra-linguistic context, although the function of the context cannot be to expand the content of a term relative to that context. As a last step, these contents are put together into truth-conditions by composition rules determined by the syntactic configuration of the sentence, which are not sensitive to context (although ambiguity between different composition rules is possible).</p>
<p>The aim of <italic>An Essay on Names and Truth</italic>, by Wolfram Hinzen, is to argue for an internalist conception of language use, according to which it is the result of causes due to the internal organization of the organism, and not the result of the organism's encounters with the environment. He argues, in particular, that meaning begins not from relations of reference between word and things, but from the concepts that we as human beings possess. Therefore, truth and reference, which correspond to the meanings of particular kinds of expressions in natural language, and as such, are central to most formal theories of semantics, are specific and contingent forms of intentionality, and have a crucial structural basis in the specific format of language.</p>
<p>The range of topics addressed in various journal publications includes focus interpretation. In ‘Focus Interpretation in Thetic Statements: Alternative Semantics and Optimality Theory Pragmatics’ (<italic>JLLI</italic> 16[2007] 15–33), Kjell Johan Sæbø argues for a theory that explains the choice between one broad focus vs. two narrow foci in English thetic sentences (as in <italic>[Champagne had been offered]<sub>F</sub></italic> vs. <italic>[Champagne]<sub>F</sub> [had been declined]<sub>F</sub></italic>) by combining the results of Alternative Semantics with OT. In ‘On the Meaning of Some Focus-Sensitive Particles’ (<italic>NLS</italic> 15[2007] 1–34), Michaela Ippolito proposes that the meaning differences between the aspectual, marginality and concessive uses of the grading particles <italic>still</italic> and <italic>already</italic> correlate with the type of the object denoted by the phrase in the scope of the particle. ‘When Semantics Meets Phonetics: Acoustical Studies of Second-Occurrence Focus’ (<italic>Language</italic> 83[2007] 245–76), by David Beaver, Brady Zack Clark, Edward Flemming, T. Florian Jaeger and Maria Wolters, is the first study presenting the details of systematic production and perception experiments investigating the prosodic properties of second-occurrence (SO) focus (the semantic focus of a focus-sensitive operator, like <italic>only</italic>, which, however, is a repeat of an earlier focused occurrence), showing that SO foci occurring after a nuclear accent are prosodically marked, generally by longer duration and greater energy, and optionally by pitch rise. A variety of topics in semantics, including focus interpretation are also discussed in the contributions to <italic>Coreference, Modality, and Focus</italic>, edited by Luis Eguren and Olga Fernández Soriano from a generative perspective, on the basis of data from a variety of languages.</p>
<p>Finally, we call attention to some more articles on less frequently discussed topics. ‘On the Role of Semantics in a Theory of Adverb Syntax’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 1008–33), by Thomas Ernst, uses two kinds of evidence to argue that adverbs are adjoined and licensed largely by semantically based principles, instead of syntactic ones, proposed, for example, by Guglielmo Cinque [1999], according to which adverbs are licensed in specifier positions by empty functional heads. Tamina Stephenson, ‘Judge Dependence, Epistemic Modals, and Predicates of Personal Taste’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 487–525) analyses the interpretation of epistemic modals in Peter Lasersohn's [2005] framework of judge dependency, which was proposed to handle the interpretation of predicates of personal taste, and discusses modifications of the latter system that are necessitated by the transfer to the new domain. In ‘Talking about Taste: Disagreement, Implicit Arguments, and Relative Truth’ (<italic>Ling&P</italic> 30[2007] 691–706), however, Isidora Stojanovic argues that a contextualist account like Lasersohn's, modelling the judge parameter as an implicit argument to the taste predicate, and a relativist account modelling it as a parameter of the circumstances of evaluation are semantically equivalent.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC7"><title>7. Lexicography, Lexicology and Lexical Semantics</title>
<p>This section begins with a discussion of publications in the field of lexicology, with general discussions preceding the historical. These are followed by books and articles on lexical semantics and metaphor. Publications on dictionary research are discussed as follows: historical dictionary research, the <italic>OED</italic>, other modern dictionaries for native speakers, and bilingual and learners’ dictionaries.</p>
<p>M.A.K. Halliday and Colin Yallop's <italic>Lexicology: A Short Introduction</italic> was reissued this year. It remains a useful and clearly written introduction to the field for beginners, but it would have been helpful to update the last chapter ‘The Future of Lexicology’, which refers to the availability of the <italic>OED</italic> on CD-ROM and provides only a brief overview of the use of corpora by lexicologists. Lexicological studies concentrating on particular historical periods include Richard Coates's ‘Goldhwite: An Unrecognized Middle English Bird-Name?’ (<italic>TPS</italic> 105[2007] 188–91), which finds place-name evidence to support the possibility that this term was used as a bird name before its first record in Ray's <italic>Collection of English Words</italic> [1674]. Coates also argues, in ‘Fockynggroue in Bristol’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 373–6), that this fourteenth-century place-name pre-dates the first <italic>OED</italic> citation, from 1568, for the verbal noun <italic>fucking</italic>. In ‘Colours of the Landscape: Old English Colour Terms in Place-Names’ (in Biggam and Kay, eds., <italic>Progress in Colour Studies</italic>, vol. 1: <italic>Language and Culture</italic>, pp. 181–98), Carole Hough provides place-name evidence for colour terms in Old English. In ‘Middle English *<italic>Wrestman</italic>’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 22–3), Hough posits an otherwise undocumented word meaning ‘ploughman’, and in ‘Old English <italic>Weargbeorg</italic>’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 364–5) suggests that ‘wolf hill’ is a better analysis than ‘gallows hill’. C.P. Biggam's ‘Political Upheaval and a Disturbance in the Colour Vocabulary of Early English’ (in Biggam and Kay, eds., pp. 159–79) asks why the native colour term <italic>hæwan</italic> was replaced by the French borrowing <italic>blue</italic> when all other basic colour terms remained stable. R. Carter Hailey's ‘To “Finde wordes newe”: Chaucer, Lexical Growth, and <italic>MED</italic> First Citations’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., <italic>Words and Dictionaries from the British Isles in Historical Perspective</italic>, pp. 14–24) argues that Chaucer had ‘a large and demonstrable effect in the expansion of the English lexicon’ (p. 21). William Sayers argues, in ‘Lubber, Landlubber’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 376–9), that <italic>landlubber</italic> originated among non-mariners as a term for rustics unskilled in the ways of city life. In ‘“Lightography” in a Letter by Thomas Hood’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 140–1), Rodney Stenning Edgecombe finds that an apparent nonce word of 1839 has been reinvented in contemporary English. In ‘Idioms in Journalese: A Synchronic and Diachronic Study of Food and Drink Idioms in 200 Years of <italic>The Times</italic>’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 178–91), Laura Pinnavaia finds that idioms reoccur in related articles through their links with particular themes.</p>
<p>Mark Kaunisto's <italic>Variation and Change in the Lexicon. A Corpus-based Analysis of Adjectives in English Ending in -ic and -ical</italic> demonstrates the value of corpora in lexicological research. Kaunisto finds that where competing forms are not differentiated semantically, there is a tendency for one of the two to be ousted. Earlier scholars have differed over whether the -<italic>ic</italic> or -<italic>ical</italic> form has a greater tendency to survive, and some have argued that there are no discernible trends. Kaunisto finds that these studies have tended to rely on intuition and contemporary evidence, and thus cannot offer reliable comment on historical developments. Kaunisto's own study considers the productivity of -<italic>ic</italic> and -<italic>ical</italic> in different periods, and finds that -<italic>ical</italic> forms were overtaken by coinages with -<italic>ic</italic> in the first half of the eighteenth century. A parallel chapter considers obsolescence of one of the forms in each pair, finding that from a total of twenty-eight pairs, the -<italic>ic</italic> form dominates over or completely supplants its longer equivalent in twenty cases. He also examines the use of six surviving semantically differentiated adjective pairs in detail: <italic>classic</italic>/<italic>classical, comic</italic>/<italic>comical, economic</italic>/<italic>economical, electric</italic>/<italic>electrical, historic</italic>/<italic>historical</italic> and <italic>magic</italic>/<italic>magical</italic>, and finds that the differences in use are often rather subtle. Minor pairs (<italic>diabolic</italic>/<italic>diabolical, fantastic</italic>/<italic>fantastical, optic</italic>/<italic>optical</italic>, and <italic>politic</italic>/<italic>political</italic>) are considered in less depth. Kaunisto concludes that -<italic>ic</italic> forms are now preferred for new coinages, but that -<italic>ical</italic> was preferred in the sixteenth century. He argues that adjectives formed from proper nouns are the most likely to use -<italic>ic</italic> forms (e.g. <italic>Byronic</italic>), and that pre-nineteenth-century adjectives relating to the sciences are most likely to use -<italic>ical</italic> forms (e.g. <italic>chemical</italic>), though -<italic>ic</italic> forms predominate from the nineteenth century onwards (e.g. <italic>linguistic</italic>). Kaunisto predicts that the shorter forms will continue to dominate, particularly where semantic differences between paired terms are slight. Although modestly written, this volume provides a model for future lexicological studies.</p>
<p>Publications concentrating on contemporary English include Tony Devarson's consideration of some terms and usages peculiar to NZE in ‘Kiwi Lollies: Sweet As’ (<italic>NZWords</italic> 11[2007] 3–5). Desmond Hurley's ‘Premier Words’ (<italic>NZWords</italic> 11[2007] 7–8) discusses terms derived from the names of New Zealand prime ministers. The volume edited by Mina Gorji, <italic>Rude Britannia</italic>, explores the idea that Britain is now less civilized than in the past. The introduction looks particularly at the history of the censorship of tabooed terms in Britain, and considers the perceived relationship between obscenity and low social status. Most of the contributions are not linguistic in focus—their subjects range from McGill's smutty postcards to <italic>Viz</italic> magazine to page three girls in <italic>The Sun</italic>—but a few chapters on dictionaries are considered below. Two more general chapters include Tom Paulin's ‘Rude Words’, which documents non-standard words and phrases used in Belfast in the middle of the twentieth century, and Tony Crowley's exploration of the rules governing football chants in ‘Boundaries of Football Rudeness’. Crowley finds that although obscenity is commonplace, racist chants are now rare. John Humphrys's <italic>Beyond Words: How Language Reveals the Way We Live Now</italic> is an account of the broadcaster's linguistic likes and dislikes. His particular bugbears are imprecision and, though he denies it, change. Humphrys does provide some interesting observations about current trends in, for example, capitalization in advertising. He offers a useful perspective on the current use of words and phrases like <italic>respect</italic>, <italic>trust</italic>, and <italic>work–life balance</italic>. Susie Dent's <italic>The Language Report. English on the Move 2000–2007</italic> is a similarly popular account, but one that takes a largely celebratory stance on neologisms. Dent also provides a summary of contentious but ephemeral utterances that hit the headlines, which will be especially useful in years to come. Although there are comments on developments in grammar and pronuniciation, Dent concentrates largely on lexis, and considers the influence of catchphrases, business English, the internet and newspaper headlines. She presents a glossary of possible stayers, which include <italic>go-bag</italic> ‘a bag for use in an emergency evacuation’, <italic>meh</italic> ‘whatever’, and <italic>urbeach</italic> ‘an urban beach’. Georgeta Ciobanu looks at the influence of English on other European languages in ‘Dictionary Symbols Used to Mark Changes of Languages in Contact’ (in Sica, ed., <italic>Open Problems in Linguistics and Lexicography</italic>, pp. 163–77), considering particularly the treatment of various types of loans in two major projects: <italic>The English Elements in European Languages</italic>, directed by Rudolf Filipović, and <italic>English in Europe</italic>, directed by Manfred Görlach.</p>
<p>In <italic>Main Trends in Historical Semantics</italic>, Marcin Grygiel and Grzegorz A. Kleparski provide an overview of developments in semantics. Most of the examples are from English, and the volume includes numerous diagrams produced by various theorists, some of which are helpful in understanding the theoretical approaches underlying them. The authors argue that cognitive theories have returned semantics to a central place in grammar, but the volume concentrates largely on pre-cognitive approaches. Following the introductory chapter, they consider causes of semantic change, the types and mechanisms involved, and they end by discussing the search for ‘Rules of Semantic Change’. Although hardly cutting-edge, this volume provides a useful and accessible introduction to the history of semantics.</p>
<p>Zoltán Kövecses's <italic>Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation</italic> was first published in 2005, but came out as a paperback in 2007. It aims to provide a more comprehensive and sophisticated version of the current cognitive linguistic view of metaphor, which does not account for all the data available. Kövecses argues that the theory ought to explain universality and its absence, as well as variation, though he concedes that cognitive linguists cannot offer proof, only hypotheses: proof depends on cognitive psychologists, and he makes good use of the data that they provide. Examination of conceptual metaphors involving the emotions, event structure, time and the inner life provide evidence for universality or near-universality in general terms, but cross-cultural and intra-cultural variations in their application undermine any attempt to generalize. Chapter 5 is an interesting discussion of differences in metaphor use within societies: by men and women, or by different ethnic, regional, or religious groups. Kövecses analyses metaphors into eleven components, including ‘source domain’, ‘target domain’, ‘experiential basis’ and so on. Part III uses this categorization to explore variation between metaphors. L<sc>ife is a journey</sc>, for example, is mapped differently in biblical usage and in contemporary Western culture, where the biblical metaphor is based on a moral journey with a single goal and a single route to it. An analysis of <sc>time is money</sc> in English and Hungarian reveals different emphases in a metaphor that is allegedly cross-cultural. Kövecses usefully emphasizes the importance of creativity, whose application and value varies between cultures. This is an interesting, wide-ranging and thought-provoking account that will undoubtedly provide new direction to its field.</p>
<p>L. David Ritchie's <italic>Context and Connection in Metaphor</italic> builds on the work of previous theorists with an emphasis on the communicative function of metaphors as well as the cognitive processes involved. Ritchie also provides a valuable summary of work in the field to date, considering conceptual metaphor theory, conceptual blending, relevance theory, context-based cognition and context-limited simulation. From this discussion arises ‘Context-Limited Simulators Theory’, which argues that associations and interpretations that are not relevant to the context are suppressed rather than activated and then discounted. Various fields of meaning will be associated with a particular conceptual field and, Ritchie argues, it is more useful to identify these fields of meaning than to look for single root metaphors. For example, <italic>she attacked my argument</italic> could be understood as arising from <sc>argument is war</sc>, but it may also be interpreted with reference to a variety of sporting activities. The underlying conceptual field <italic>CONTENTIOUS ACTIVITIES</italic> accounts for these multiple interpretations. Having posited this theory, Ritchie applies it to the problems posed by earlier theorists, with convincing results. The discussion also incorporates the notion that metaphorical language is often playful. Context-limited simulation accounts for the operation of some types of humour and also offers the possibility of understanding metaphors in their social contexts. Using metaphor to understand cognitive processes can only ever offer theories, however; only cognitive neuroscience can provide definitive results.</p>
<p>This was also a good year for historical dictionary research. Fredric Dolezal's ‘Writing the History of English Lexicography: Is There a History of English Lexicography after Starnes and Noyes?’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 1–13) contends that, although dictionary research has developed and diverged since the publication of that seminal work, scholars still rely on its outdated overview. Gabriele Stein offers a contribution to the work of updating the overview in ‘The Emergence of Lexicology in Renaissance English Dictionaries’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 25–38), in which she asks how the compilers of early English dictionaries conceptualized their task. R.W. McConchie's paper ‘The Real Richard Howlet’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 39–49) provides an account of the evidence available for the life of this little-known lexicographer. Paola Tornaghi considers the importance of a manuscript glossary in the early history of Old English lexicography in ‘ “Certaine things to be considered & corrected in Will”: Dugdales Saxon-Lexicon’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 50–80). Elisabetta Lonati presents an account of an early medical dictionary in ‘Blancardus’ <italic>Lexicon Medicum</italic> in Harris's <italic>Lexicon Technicum</italic>: A Lexicographic and Lexicological Study’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 91–108). In ‘Alphabet Fatigue and Compiling Consistency in Early English Dictionaries’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 81–90), N.E. Osselton discusses how and why early dictionaries are more thorough in their treatment of the first part of the alphabet. In ‘Letters, Sounds and Things. Orthography, Phonetics and Metaphysics in Wilkins's <italic>Essay</italic> (1668)’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 213–56), Michael M. Isermann argues that Wilkins represented contemporary developments with some sophistication at a turning point in Western thought.</p>
<p>Kusujiro Miyoshi's <italic>Johnson</italic>'<italic>s and Webster</italic>'<italic>s Verbal Examples: With Special Reference to Exemplifying Usage in Dictionary Entries</italic> compares Johnson's and Webster's practice with reference to their views of the English language and their own historical contexts. Miyoshi charts changes in the lexicographers’ standpoints as they gained in experience. Johnson began work on his dictionary determined to fix the language but came to recognize that, though desirable, this was not possible. Webster moved from prescriptivism to descriptivism through the course of his dictionary. Miyoshi follows earlier students of Johnson in selecting the letter L for analysis from both dictionaries. There is a particular emphasis on the lexicographers’ use of biblical citations, and the analysis demonstrates, for example, that although both provide numerous biblical citations, Webster preferred to use them to illustrate contemporary usage. Johnson had a tendency to use invented examples for prepositional adverbs and modal auxiliaries, while Webster used them throughout his dictionary. Webster also made substantial use of Johnson's citations, but often interpreted them afresh. Miyoshi also finds that Webster was more skilful in his treatment of compound words and that he provided more information about usage. Tables showing the frequency of use of different sources for citations in various types of entry are fascinating, but it would have been useful to subject these figures to statistical analysis to determine probability.</p>
<p>In ‘ “The Bad Habit”: <italic>Hobson-Jobson</italic>, British Indian Glossaries, and Intimations of Mortality’ (<italic>Henry Sweet Society Bulletin</italic> 46–7[2006] 7–22), Javed Majeed compares Yule and Burnell's dictionary with other nineteenth-century colonial glossaries, and finds that <italic>Hobson-Jobson</italic> is distinctive in its opposition to the use of terms and phrases from Indian languages by speakers of English. Manfred Markus and Reinhard Heuberger discuss ‘The Architecture of Joseph Wright's <italic>English Dialect Dictionary</italic>: Preparing the Computerized Version’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 355–68). They break Wright's entries into eight fields of information, including ‘headwords’, ‘labels’ and ‘definitions or meaning(s)’, but find that these fields are not used consistently with regard to either content or order. Julie Coleman's ‘Expediency and Experience: John S. Farmer and William E. Henley's <italic>Slang and its Analogues</italic>’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 136–65) explores the effects of changing methodology through the course of a multi-volume slang dictionary. In ‘Howard N. Rose's <italic>Thesaurus of Slang</italic> (1934): Its Purpose, Structure, Contents, Reliability, and Sources’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 351–61), Coleman describes an early attempt to provide broad coverage of different varieties of American slang. She finds that it is not a thesaurus and that its contents are by no means all slang. In ‘Poubellication: In the Lexical Dunny with the Furphy King from Down Under’ (in Gorji, ed., pp. 35–55), Valentine Cunningham ambles through Partridge's publications in search of obscenity.</p>
<p>Charlotte Brewer's <italic>Treasure-House of the Language. The Living OED</italic> is a detailed and fascinating account of events following the publication of the last instalment of <italic>OED1</italic> in 1928. The volume takes a people-centred approach to the <italic>OED</italic>, in that it is concerned with questions such as pension arrangements for long-serving lexicographers, the treatment of female staff and relationships between the editors. Many useful insights into these matters are provided by reference to correspondence in the dictionary's archives. However, Brewer also offers a critical account of the contents of <italic>OED1</italic> and its supplements and provides a brief introduction to <italic>OED-online</italic>. Chapters exploring the public reception of the dictionary are particularly interesting, and Brewer successfully demolishes the myth that <italic>OED</italic> lexicography ceased between the first and second supplements. Word-collectors continued to send slips to the <italic>OED</italic>, and James M. Wyllie was tasked with the job of sorting and supplementing these so that modern material was available to the editors of other Oxford dictionaries. As Wyllie's mental health declined, his relationships within the Press became increasingly difficult, and he was dismissed in 1954. By this time it was clear that the <italic>OED</italic> was in need of revision, or at least supplementation, and Raymond C. Goffin had begun work on this project. Robert Burchfield was appointed editor in 1956, and Brewer's narrative of his early days in the office offer an interesting counterpoint to some of his own later accounts. This volume is an invaluable contribution to the continuing scrutiny of the history and methodology of the <italic>OED</italic>.</p>
<p>Brewer also considers the vexed question of ‘Reporting Eighteenth-Century Vocabulary in the <italic>OED</italic>’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 109–35), and suggests that <italic>OED3</italic> could do more to fill the gaps of the first edition. Peter Gilliver's ‘The Great <italic>Un</italic>- Crisis: An Unknown Episode in the History of the <italic>OED</italic>’ (in Considine and Iamartino, eds., pp. 166–77) explores the pressure on Craigie to reduce his treatment of this uniquely productive prefix. In ‘ “Decent Reticence”: Coarseness, Contraception, and the First Edition of the <italic>OED</italic>’ (<italic>Dictionaries</italic> 28[2007] 1–22), Lynda Mugglestone finds that considerations of propriety extended further in <italic>OED1</italic> than the omission of a few high-profile tabooed terms. Not only are sexual and contraceptive senses treated briefly or omitted altogether, but terms relating to female emancipation are also, apparently, unsuitable for inclusion. Mugglestone's ‘ “The Indefinable Something”. Representing Rudeness in the English Dictionary’ (in Gorji, ed., pp. 23–34) examines the <italic>OED</italic> treatment of, for example, <italic>cock</italic>, <italic>twat</italic>, <italic>trousers</italic> and <italic>anus</italic> for signs of prudity. Sarah Ogilvie considers dictionary content and contributors in ‘New Zealand and the <italic>OED</italic>’ (<italic>NZWords</italic> 11[2007] 6–7). In ‘Pronouncing the “P”: Prescription or Description in 19th- and 20th-Century English Dictionaries’ (<italic>HL</italic> 34[2007] 257–80), Charlotte Brewer investigates the representation in dictionaries of Greek-derived words with a silent initial <italic>p</italic>, such as <italic>pneumatic, psalm</italic> and <italic>ptarmigan</italic>. She finds that many dictionaries followed Murray's recommendation in the <italic>OED</italic> that the <italic>p</italic> should be pronounced, but argues that his recommendation was based on personal preference rather than contemporary usage.</p>
<p>Alex Games's <italic>Balderdash and Piffle</italic> is a popular look at the development of English. It arises from the BBC television series, <italic>Balderdash and Piffle</italic>, which asked viewers to help locate ante-datings and origins for terms in (or not yet in) the <italic>OED</italic>. The book consists of thematic chapters dealing with terms for insanity, clothes, criminality and sex; chapters on insults and euphemisms; and chapters on words and phrases, including or apparently including names. Perhaps the oddest chapter looks at compounds and phrases of <italic>dog</italic>. The ‘Endword’ describes the words whose <italic>OED</italic> entries were altered as a result of the <italic>Balderdash and Piffle</italic> Wordhunt: <italic>balti</italic>, <italic>Beeb</italic>, <italic>boffin</italic>, <italic>bog-standard</italic>, <italic>bomber jacket</italic>, <italic>bonk</italic>, <italic>chattering classes</italic>, <italic>cocktail</italic>, <italic>codswallop</italic>, <italic>cool</italic>, <italic>full monty</italic>, <italic>mackem</italic>, <italic>made-up</italic>, <italic>management-speak, (gas) mark</italic>, <italic>minger</italic>, <italic>moony</italic>, <italic>mullered</italic>, <italic>mushy peas</italic>, <italic>ninety-nine</italic>, <italic>nip and tuck</italic>, <italic>nit comb</italic>, <italic>nit nurse</italic>, <italic>nutmeg</italic>, <italic>pass the parcel</italic>, <italic>phwoar</italic>, <italic>ploughman</italic>'<italic>s lunch</italic>, <italic>pop one</italic>'<italic>s clogs</italic>, <italic>on the pull</italic>, <italic>ska</italic>, <italic>smart casual</italic>, <italic>snazzy</italic>, <italic>something for the weekend</italic> and <italic>back to square one</italic>. What is perhaps most interesting for dictionary researchers is the range of sources now accepted by the <italic>OED</italic>: from various special interest magazines and television scripts to school exercise books, diaries and autograph books.</p>
<p>‘Working Knowledge’ (<italic>Dictionaries</italic> 28[2007] 131–62) is a discussion of neologism and its treatment by contemporary dictionaries. Contributors on English neologisms include David K. Barnhart, Orin Hargraves, Ian Brookes, John Simpson, Allan Metcalf and Victoria Neufeldt. They explore particularly the possibilities and problems posed by the availabilty of the huge, democratic, unedited (and often uneducated) corpus that is the internet. The inclusion of topical neologisms undoubtedly helps to sell dictionaries, but they can be a distraction from the task of updating the definitions of more commonly used terms. In ‘Considered and Regarded: Indicators of Belief and Doubt in Dictionary Definitions’ (<italic>Dictionaries</italic> 28[2007] 48–67), Joseph Pickett analyses techniques for expressing faith and uncertainty in a variety of modern dictionaries of AmE, using definitions for terms including <italic>tooth fairy</italic>, <italic>reincarnation</italic>, <italic>Aryan</italic>, <italic>Brownie point</italic> and <italic>bitch</italic> to explore how attitudinal indicators subtly change the meaning of definitions for problematic terms. Pamela Faber, Pilar León Araúz, Juan Antonio Prieto Velasco and Arianne Reimerink consider the interplay between linguistic and graphical descriptions of specialized contexts in ‘Linking Images and Words: The Description of Specialized Concepts’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 39–65). They find that current dictionary illustrations do not always mesh with the content or focus of written definitions. Muffy E.A. Siegel's ‘What Do You Do with a Dictionary? A Study of Undergraduate Dictionary Use’ (<italic>Dictionaries</italic> 28[2007] 23–47) finds that undergraduate first-language users want their dictionaries to be more accessible, particularly by including pictures and listing the most frequent senses first, but also to contain detailed information about etymology and pronunciation.</p>
<p>Heming Yong and Jing Peng's <italic>Bilingual Lexicography from a Communicative Perspective</italic> presents a triangular communicative model of lexicography which encompasses three interdependent standpoints: those of the compiler, user and context. Their evidence is largely drawn from the Chinese–English bilingual tradition, but their conclusions may be more widely applicable. Their discussion of the problem of alphabetizing idioms, for example, offers a useful structural categorization of idioms, and their account of illustrative examples wrestles with the question of whether invented examples are acceptable or not. They also offer a detailed account of dictionary macrostructure, and find that front matter is more predictable than back matter in monolingual and bilingual learners’ dictionaries. They conclude with twelve separate recommendations, often differentiating between what is required in dictionaries for encoding and in those for decoding. These range from ‘lexicographers should have a clear idea of what purpose their work is intended for’ (p. 196) to the recommendation that etymological information should be provided only sparingly ‘with emphasis laid on culturally-loaded and morphologically difficult words’ (p. 214).</p>
<p>Reinhard Hartmann's <italic>Interlingual Lexicography. Selected Essays on Translation Equivalence, Contrastive Linguistics and the Bilingual Dictionary</italic> consists of twenty-four of his own essays, all previously published elsewhere from 1969 to 2005. One essay originally published in German is translated here into English, perhaps in recognition of the compartmentalizing tendency that he notes in lexicographic research: papers considering dictionaries in a particular language or group of languages will often only be read by researchers interested in those languages. Hartmann defines ‘interlingual’, in this context, as referring to dictionaries providing information about more than one language. It can be used to emphasize the contrast with monolingual dictionaries or to group together bilingual and multilingual dictionaries. There is no conclusion to draw together the findings of the various papers, but the introduction does offer an overview of their perspectives and purpose. Hartmann offers six perspectives on interlingual dictionaries: dictionary history, dictionary criticism, dictionary typology, dictionary structure, dictionary use and computational lexicography, and follows these with a list of ten research priorities. In this volume, Hartmann's papers are grouped into sections on translation equivalence, contrastive linguistics, interlingual dictionaries and dictionary research. They are edited to avoid repetition and to achieve uniformity of presentation; a single bibliography is provided, and some cross-references are inserted, but the papers are not otherwise altered or updated. For libraries and scholars interested in this area of dictionary research, the republication of these essays will undoubtedly save time spent in the frustrating task of tracking them down in their original contexts. Hartmann returned to the task of listing priorities for dictionary-making and dictionary research in ‘Desiderata in Lexicography: Looking Back at Some Problems and Forward to Solutions’ (in Sica, ed., pp. 155–61).</p>
<p>Wolfgang Teubert's edited collection, <italic>Text Corpora and Multilingual Lexicography</italic>, represents the results of an EU-funded project called Trans-European Language Resources Infrastructure (TELRI). TELRI took a different approach than earlier machine-translation projects, in that it did not begin from a multilingual conceptual ontology. Instead it took a ‘bottom-up approach’ (p. viii), and started by looking at translation equivalence in parallel corpora comparing, for instance, translations of Plato's <italic>Republic</italic> in various different languages. Many of the papers included deal with the generation of machine-usable lexicons rather than people-friendly dictionaries, but several will be of interest to lexicologists, lexicographers and dictionary researchers.</p>
<p>Primož Jakopin's ‘Distance between Languages as Measured by the Minimal-Entropy Model’ (in Teubert, ed., pp. 39–47) offers a technique for calculating relationships between languages. Mihail Mihailov and Hannu Tommola's paper ‘Compiling Parallel Text Corpora. Towards Automation of Routine Procedures’ (in Teubert, ed., pp. 59–67) describes an automated use of collocation to select translation equivalents. Hana Skoumalová presents the use of ‘Bridge Dictionaries as Bridges Between Languages’ (in Teubert, ed., pp. 83–91), by which partially translated learners’ dictionaries can be used as the basis for new bilingual or multilingual dictionaries. Teubert's own paper, ‘Corpus Linguistics and Lexicography’ (in Teubert, ed., pp. 109–33), explores the place of corpus linguistics as a sub-branch of linguistics.</p>
<p>Herbert C. Purnell introduces and describes a bilingual dictionary of a language used in northern Laos and Thailand in ‘Reference Works in Progress: Excerpts from <italic>An Iu Mien-English Dictionary with Cultural Notes</italic>’ (<italic>Dictionaries</italic> 28[2007] 69–130). After twenty years’ work, the project is nearing completion. Wang Fu Fang and Lu Gu Sun (referred to as Gusun throughout the article) discuss ‘Inheritance Plus Innovation: On the Revision of the <italic>English–Chinese Dictionary</italic>’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 1–38). They consider particularly the task of determining which new words should be included and how the evidence should be collected. Villy Tsakona's ‘Bilingualisation in Practice: Terminological Issues in Bilingualising a Specialised Glossary’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 119–45) offers a theoretical discussion emerging from the production of a glossary in Greek of English sociolinguistic terminology, emphasizing the importance of using corpora to determine the frequency and usage of terms in the target language. Wen Xiu Yang writes ‘On Pragmatic Information in Learners’ Dictionaries, with Particular Reference to <italic>LDOCE<sub>4</sub></italic>’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 147–73), and identifies strengths and weaknesses in the fourth edition of the <italic>Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English</italic>'s provision of pragmatic information. N.E. Osselton's ‘Innovation and Continuity in English Learners’ Dictionaries: The Single-Clause <italic>When</italic>-definition’ (<italic>IJL</italic> 20[2007] 393–9) finds that Elisha Coles used definitions of the type: ‘<bold>Obtuse angle</bold>, when two lines include more than a square’ as early as 1676.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC8"><title>8. Onomastics</title>
<p>Onomastics books published in 2007 were rare, but three are particularly noteworthy, two on place-names and a very welcome treatment of the theory of names from a linguistic and pragmatic perspective.</p>
<p>The first of the two place-name volumes is Keith Baca's <italic>Native American Place Names in Mississippi</italic>, a welcome addition to a long-neglected aspect of American place-naming, one which for too many years has been dismissed as ‘insignificant’ or patronized as ‘merely descriptive’. Keith Baca, a career archaeologist with the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, has selected just under 600 names, overwhelmingly from Choctaw or Chickasaw, closely related Muskogean languages and the main indigenous languages of Mississippi. Many of these are based upon a small number of Choctaw words (usually with close cognates in Chickasaw), such as <italic>Bogue</italic> (< <italic>bok</italic>) ‘stream’, <italic>chitto</italic> ‘big’, <italic>oka</italic> ‘water’, and <italic>homa</italic> ‘red’, which provide the roots for such names as <italic>Bogue Chitto</italic> ‘big creek’, <italic>Okahatta</italic> ‘white water’, and <italic>Tallahoma</italic> ‘red rock’. The entries include the name, location of the community or natural feature, the current local pronunciation and discussion of previously suggested etymologies and derivations (with references), followed by criticisms and Baca's own interpretations where earlier suggestions are non-existent or shown to be false. Baca's primary purpose is to determine the actual (or at least most probable) etymology for each name. To this end he holds previous suggestions to the light of Choctaw and Chickasaw vocabularies, rejecting many proposals, and in more than a hundred instances where no previous etymologies have been offered or are obviously erroneous he has provided his own, exposing many myths, legends and folk tales surrounding the names in the process. This is a valuable contribution to the growing body of literature showing the considerable impact of native names on the American landscape.</p>
<p><italic>The Place-Names of County Durham</italic> by the late Victor Watts—whose monumental <italic>Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names</italic> was reviewed in this section one year ago—and edited by Paul Cavill, is volume LXXXIII in the Survey of English Place-Names series. This particular issue is the first of several projected volumes dealing with the names of County Durham which draws upon the materials collected by Victor Watts from his home county over a thirty-year period. His lamentable passing in late 2002 left the final editing to Paul Cavill, who is to be commended for seeing this book through the publication process in so exemplary a manner. The present volume deals with only a part of County Durham. The organization proceeds from Stockton Ward itself to the twenty-two parishes contained within that ward to the townships within each parish. The names of not only communities but also those of ways, roads, buildings and fields are included as well. A welcome feature is the outstanding twenty-six-page appendix of the elements of place-names and field-names which appear among the names of Stockton Ward. This volume is an exceptional example of place-name research, a model for future scholars.</p>
<p>Willy Van Langendonck's <italic>Theory and Typology of Proper Names</italic> is the first comprehensive study of proper names in a quarter-century since John Algeo's <italic>On Defining the Proper Name</italic>, which was published in 1973. Van Langendonck is to be commended for bringing a considerable body of interdisciplinary material to bear on the issue of proper names. This is in essence a linguistic analysis of names, but it also includes evidence from philosophical, psycholinguistic, dialinguistic and neurolinguistic perspectives, which Van Langendonck uses to delineate the semantic and grammatical status of names and the boundaries between names and other nouns and noun-like objects. In the process he provides a typology of proper names based upon their grammatical, semantic and pragmatic properties. Especially impressive is Van Langendonck's use of neurolinguistic studies as major contributors to onomastic theory, especially those of Carlo Semenza and Marina Zettin, which allow him to conclude that proper names do not have lexical meaning in the same way that common nouns do and that the function of proper names is essentially referential. Van Langendonck defines a proper name as ‘a noun that denotes a unique entity at the level of established linguistic convention to make it psychosocially salient within a given basic level category. The meaning of the name, if any, does not (or not any longer) determine its denotations. An important reflex of this pragmatic-semantic characterization of names is their ability to appear in such close appositional constructions as <italic>the poet Burns</italic>, <italic>Fido</italic>, <italic>the dog</italic>, <italic>the River Thames</italic>, or <italic>the City of London</italic>’ (p. 116). Note that psycho-social saliency is a pragmatic function, the meaning is a semantic function, and these combined create the syntactic function of a proper name. There is a great deal more of both theoretical and practical interest in this book; hypotheses which will keep onomastic researchers busy for years to come. For instance, Van Langendonck claims that proper names are ‘the prototypical nominal category’ (p. 119), that names ‘like personal pronouns … are inherently referential and definite’ and that they are ‘singular, countable, nonrecursive and show third person on the lexical level’ (p. 182). Van Langendonck distinguishes four classes of names, ranging from personal and place-names (the prototypical category) through brand names and autonyms to appellatives. This is an important book and it is best to approach it directly. A review by Frank Nuessel appeared in <italic>Lingua</italic> (118[2008] 1233–8).</p>
<p>Before proceeding with summaries of some of the onomastic articles which were published in 2007, I would like to bring to readers’ attention three collections of essays, all of which make strides towards both defining the discipline and extending its boundaries. The long-delayed 2004 issue of <italic>Onoma</italic> (number 39) is devoted to teaching about names, a welcome issue on a long-ignored subject but one which is being given greater and greater attention. In fact the three most recent triennial meetings of the International Congress of Onomastic Sciences (ICOS) included sessions on the teaching of names. The selections in this issue of <italic>Onoma</italic> are highly varied; most are concerned with the teaching of names in particular institutions or particular countries: in Finland, in Italy, in Croatia, in Germany, in Norway; others deal with including onomastic units in courses devised primarily for other purposes, such as geography, anthropology, or the history of a particular language; still others survey the state of teaching onomastics in a particular location. The languages in which the contributions are written are likewise variable; here I will summarize only those written in English and concerned with onomastics in primarily English-speaking countries.</p>
<p>In ‘Teaching Names: A Personal Account’ (<italic>Onoma</italic> 39[2004] 19–28), W.F.H. Nicolaisen recounts his more than half-century of teaching and research and how he has given scores of talks on onomastics and conducted courses (both credit and non-credit) at the university level in the US and in Scotland. Nicolaisen provides a discussion of the differences between lexical and onomastic items, the lexicon and the onomasticon, sets out the goals for a course in onomastics and concludes with a useful appendix of a course outline for names in north-east Scotland. The appendix contains information useful to anyone contemplating a course on names or even giving an informal lecture on the subject. Grant Smith, in ‘Teaching Onomastics in the United States’ (<italic>Onoma</italic> 39[2004] 45–60), surveys the history of teaching names in colleges and universities in the US, focusing on the classes taught by himself, William G. Loy at the University of Oregon and Thomas J. Gasque at the University of South Dakota. Smith laments that onomastics courses are now generally absent from the curricula of American colleges and universities, citing among other reasons the fact that since individual departments want to hold onto their own students for purposes of generating enrolment ‘place name courses seem to suffer from what seems to be their greatest strength, their interdisciplinarity’ (p. 49). And I agree wholeheartedly with Smith's claim that unfortunately there are no courses currently taught in which the primary content is names. Smith proceeds to describe a Shakespeare seminar which he devoted primarily to names, in particular ‘to use the analysis of names as a way of understanding language and literature in general and of appreciating Shakespeare more profoundly’ (p. 51). Several appendices describing the class and its goals are included. Finally, an article relevant to anyone contemplating a course on onomastics is Naftali Kadmon's very informative ‘Teaching Toponymy at University Level’ (<italic>Onoma</italic> 39[2004] 275–87), a particularly useful aspect of which is the appendix where Kadmon lists several dozen topics included in the course he teaches, ranging from grammatical aspects of toponyms, to transliterating names, to political and cultural aspects of names, to present names authorities and names standardization.</p>
<p><italic>Names</italic> (55:iii[2007]), was a special issue devoted to ‘Women in Onomastics’, edited by Dorothy Dodge Robbins and Christine De Vinne. The issue contains four essays on aspects of women's names in the larger onomastic world. Beth DiNatale Johnson and Christine De Vinne (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 199–228) consider the names of women's colleges in the US; Laurie K. Scheuble and David R. Johnson report on ‘Social and Cognitive Factors in Women's Marital Name Choice’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 229–51), finding that women who make non-conventional name choices upon marriage (i.e. retaining their own surname or hyphenating their surname with that of their new husband) tend to marry later, live in larger communities, and are better educated than those who assume their husband's surname; Eileen Quinlan writes on ‘Ritual Circles to Home in Louise Erdrich's Character Names’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 253–75) and Lynn Westney, in ‘From Courtesans to Queens: Recipes Named for Women’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 277–86), considers some of the many recipes which have been named after women, from omelette Agnès Sorel to Melba toast to cantaloupe Lillian Russell.</p>
<p><italic>Names</italic> (55:iv[2007]) was a Festschrift in honour of Edwin D. Lawson, a tribute to Lawson for his nearly fifty years of social science research in onomastics, for his promotion of name study, for his encouragement of onomasts around the world, and for his work on behalf of the American Name Society, which he served as president in 1995 and 1996. The Festschrift contains twenty-one essays, obviously far too many to summarize here. Some titles, however, can be mentioned both to convey the flavour of the contributions and to appeal to readers with particular onomastic interests: ‘Naming the Goodyear Blimp’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 326–34) ‘Compass Points in English Surnames’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 343–8), ‘Names, Registration Plates, and Identity’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 354–62), ‘Two Worldviews Regarding Chinese American Names’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 363–71), and ‘War Names in the Zimbabwean Liberation War’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 427–36). In addition there are essays on the translation of proper names, the use of nicknames by politicians and the influence of popular culture on given names.</p>
<p>I have grouped the following onomastic articles into traditional categories: those dealing with the theory and practice of onomastics, those concerned primarily with geographical names, those emphasizing personal names and finally those best called socio-onomastic.</p>
<p>D.K. Tucker has been a primary contributor to the methodology of onomastic research for the past decade. His article in <italic>Nomina</italic> (30[2007] 5–22) continues his search for revealing ways to graphically present the distribution of name types and tokens from very large databases. Here he expands on an occupied frequency technique where a graph can be plotted from a desktop program such as Excel. These plots, which look like saggital sections of ships (Tucker once called them ‘Viking longboats’) show that surname distributions, regardless of country of origin, follow Zipf's law, a power law relationship of the form X times Y equals a constant.</p>
<p>The retrieval of names, especially those with more than a few variants, has long been an issue in onomastics. In recent times the search for a mechanism to retrieve similar names dates from at least 1918 when Richard Russell developed the well-known Soundex system, which attempted to retrieve name clusters that sounded similar, regardless of the different ways they might be spelled. This became an important issue in the US in the 1930s with the establishment of the social security system. An article by Ronald J. Leach (<italic>Names</italic> 54[2006] 321–30) reports an attempt to improve on both the Soundex and Daitch–Mokotoff retrieval systems by including essentially etymological information. The example used here is the habitational name Shirecliff, which has some fifty known variants. Adding the habitational field raised the success rate from 86 per cent for the two most common encodings in Soundex to 88 per cent, and from 86 per cent in Daitch–Mokotoff to 92 per cent. But as Leach cautions: ‘At present, the state of name matching leaves quite a bit to be desired’ (p. 328).</p>
<p>In 2007 Marc Picard (<italic>OnCan</italic> 89[2007] 27–51) continued his investigations, which have shown the great value of internet resources in replacing otherwise ‘unidentified’ or ‘uncertain’ origins of surnames with solid etymologies. Here, Picard removes more than 150 surnames from these categories and, conversely, shows that an additional sixty or so which were claimed to be from a given language in the <italic>Dictionary of American Family Names</italic> are in fact from other sources.</p>
<p>Newsletters are usually the repositories of chatty news items concerning an organization's business affairs, activities of its members, announcements of forthcoming meetings and the like. Rarely are they the home of serious, extended scholarly research. <italic>The Newsletter of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas</italic> (at least the January 2007 issue) is a welcome exception since it offers etymologies and derivations for three Native American names, two of which were previously problematic. David Costa, perhaps the world's leading authority on the now extinct Miami-Illinois language, reconsiders the origin and significance of the name Illinois, which has been taken to mean ‘tribe of superior people’ and tacitly accepted as the name by which the Illinois referred to themselves. Costa (<italic>SSILA Newsletter</italic> 25[Jan. 2007] 9–12) makes the case that the self-designation of the Illinois was Inoca, a name of unknown origin and meaning. The name from which Illinois is derived apparently originated in Miami-Illinois, was taken into Ojibwa and subsequently into French. Rather than meaning ‘superior people’, Illinois more likely means ‘I speak in the regular way.’ Michael McCafferty (<italic>SSILA Newsletter</italic> 25[Jan. 20072007] 13–14) takes on the origin and meaning of Peoria, a name for which at least seven meanings have been proposed. McCafferty suggests a derivation from Proto-Algonquian through Miami-Illinois and the meaning ‘to dream with the help of a manitou’.</p>
<p>The <italic>Journal of the English Place-Name Society</italic> contains its usual mix of articles, shorter items and reviews. Keith Briggs (<italic>JEPNS</italic> 39[2007] 7–44) takes on the task of explaining the motivation for the one hundred plus place-names in Europe meaning ‘seven springs’ or ‘seven streams’ (the appended gazetteer lists sixty-six in Britain, including ‘seven wells’). Briggs suggests that in pre-Christian folklore the ‘seven springs’ were likely considered sacred. When the church was unsuccessful in suppressing superstitions it in effect took them over and turned them to its own advantage, redefining them as the seven types of wisdom which flowed from Christ and which neutralized the seven deadly sins. Sound changes in English caused the etymologies to become obscure and the meanings to become opaque.</p>
<p>Richard Coates, of the University of the West of England in Bristol, is one of the pre-eminent and highly prolific contemporary onomasts. In 2007 he produced a number of articles of significance. In ‘Shoreditch and Car Dyke: Two Allusions to Romano-British Built Features in Later Names Containing OE dīc, With Reflections on Variable Place-Name Structure’ (<italic>Nomina</italic> 30[2007] 23–33), Coates suggests an origin for ‘shore’ which is much older than previously thought and which derives from Brittonic *<italic>Skor</italic> meaning ‘fort’ or ‘rampart’. As to ‘Car Dyke’, after considering previous work and especially looking at earlier spellings, Coates proposes that the first element is not from a Scandinavian personal name as had been suggested but is rather ‘an Old English rendering of Primitive Welsh …*<italic>kair</italic>, “civitas, city” ’ (p. 28). The same formative is found in Carlisle, Cardew, Cardinham and Carburton. A significant feature of this article is Coates's reference to the Onymic Default Principle, which, as far as I can determine, was coined and first introduced to onomastics by him at the 21st International Congress of Onomastic Sciences, held at Uppsala, Sweden, in 2002. As conceived by Coates, the Onymic Default Principle is a kind of folk etymology which holds that the interpretation of any string of opaque linguistic units will default to a proper name (real or imagined), especially where personal names are ‘found’ within otherwise opaque place-names. Examples given by Coates include ‘Ludgate’, associated with the legendary King Lud, ‘Edinburgh’ for King Edwin of Northumbria, and ‘Shoreditch’ for Jane Shore, the mistress of King Edward IV.</p>
<p>Coates (<italic>JEPNS</italic> 39[2007] 59–72) looks into the etymology of ‘Domball’, which he calls ‘a not previously noted place-name element’ (p. 59). After considering a number of possibilities and after providing copious historical and geographical relevancies, he suggests (tentatively) an origin which includes ‘a lost regional lexical word meaning “pasture subject to (occasional) tidal flooding” ’, which itself may have its roots ‘in a local Scandinavian expression *<italic>dunnu-ból</italic>, “mallard's, duck's lair or bed” ’ (p. 66). Coates contributed several additional articles to <italic>JEPNS</italic>, a substantial one of some seventy pages, which deals with a number of minor names, each in its own section, the concerns of which can be gathered by considering the title: ‘Azure Mouse, Bloater Hill, Goose Puddings, and One Land Called Cow: Continuity and Conundrums in Lincolnshire’ (<italic>JEPNS</italic> 39[2007] 73–143). A useful part of this article is the appended list of name formatives which appear in the text. These include ‘Cloot’, ‘Tid’, ‘Willow’ and the ever-popular ‘Tom Turd’, the generic name given to gatherers of night soil.</p>
<p>In ‘Bordastubble, a Standing Stone in Unst, Shetland, and Some Implications for English Toponymy’ (<italic>JSPNS</italic> 1[2007] 137–9) Coates shows how a single, isolated name can shed light not only on other names but on cultural aspects of locales as well. He suggests that ‘Bordastubble’ is from an ON descriptive for ‘battle axe pillar/post’, which leads him to conjecture that there was in former times a similar standing stone in at least five English places with variant names, including ‘Barnstable’ in Devon and probably ‘Bastow Hill’ as well. This is onomastic detective work at its finest and Coates demonstrates a remarkable range and depth of knowledge of not only British history but of related cultures and languages in this article and in many others. And, speaking of onomastic detective work, Coates likely has antedated by more than a century the first attestation of one of the most often denounced but most frequently used and certainly one of the most discussed words in English (remarkable for the fact that it has been both supported and condemned without using the word itself) by elucidating the history of the no longer existing field name which will immediately be obvious to all speakers of English, ‘Fockynggroue’, in his article ‘Fockynggroue in Bristol’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 54[2007] 373–6).</p>
<p>Jay H. Bernstein, in a creative article titled simply ‘New York Placenames in Film Titles’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 139–66), shows how a simple list (in this case the titles of the nearly 400 films made between 1914 and 2006 with titles referring to New York, its boroughs, neighbourhoods, streets, or locations) can be used to provide insights into the ‘psychological map’ (in this instance a conflicted one) of a culture. ‘New York’, ‘Manhattan’, ‘Broadway’ and ‘Times Square’ have been used by movie-makers since the beginning of the medium to evoke the collective imaginary of glitz, glamour and grandeur, the über-sophistication of the big city, while at the same time using such names as ‘Harlem’, ‘The Bowery’ and ‘Hell's Kitchen’ to elicit images of the squalor, hopelessness and despair of the tenements and the ethnic neighbourhoods.</p>
<p>In a study related to one reported here last year showing that baseball players with nicknames tended to live about two years longer than those without nicknames, Ernest Abel and Michael L. Kruger (<italic>PandMS</italic> 104[2007] 179–82) looked at baseball players whose initials spelled out ‘positive’ words (e.g. ACE, LAF, WOW) compared to those whose initials spelled out ‘negative’ words (e.g. DED, MAD, SOB), and found that players with positive initials lived an astounding average of thirteen years longer than those with negative or neutral initials. The authors attribute this effect to the likelihood that having positive initials is part of the ‘implicit self-esteem people associate with their names’ (p. 181). Abel and Kruger are certainly among the more creative name scholars. In an article dealing with the phonetics of pet names (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 53–64) they look at naming practices of dogs and cats in terms of their phonetic properties as related to human names and as given in two countries: the US and Australia. Hypothesizing that sex stereotyping of pets would take the same forms it does with humans, they found in general that ‘people applied the same gender-related naming practices for pets that they used for both male and female children’ (p. 53). In particular both the final letter and the final phoneme differentiated female pets from male pets just as they do for male and female human names. Somewhat surprisingly, cats (which are generally thought of as female) were not as a group characterized by a ‘female’ final letter or phoneme. In another article dealing with the naming of pets, Abel (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 349–53) found that dogs (and to a slightly lesser extent cats) were given human names more often than other species of pets. Nearly 50 per cent of dogs were given human names. Abel concludes that ‘pets kept in cages [birds, hamsters, rabbits] are less likely to be given human names than are pets allowed to roam freely within the home [dogs, cats]’ (p. 349).</p>
<p>In a creative use of a newly available database Iman Makeba Laversuch (<italic>Names</italic> 54[2006] 331–62) investigated the personal names of fugitive slaves, classifying them into plant and animal names (most of which, such as ‘Monkey’ and ‘Buckwheat’, were derogatory); place-names such as ‘Bristol’, ‘London’ and ‘Shrewsbury’; biblical names such as ‘Esther’ and ‘Matthew’; classical names such as ‘Cato’ and ‘Hector’; names from the British royal house such as ‘Charles’ and ‘Henry’; traditional African names, especially day names such as ‘Quashee’ and ‘Kofi’; and surnames, often of their owners. This is an interesting descriptive article but one which wanders too far into speculation, as when the author attempts to impute the heroic classical characteristics of, say, ‘Julius’ or ‘Pompey’ to escaped slaves, or, when this model does not fit, to simply brush it off with a too nimble ‘sometimes [the exact] opposite was the case’ (p. 347). An important finding is that apparently the names of female fugitives were −as is the case with contemporary names—considerably more diverse than male names: just under 40 per cent of male name tokens came from only fifteen name types.</p>
<p>Frank Exner, Little Bear, discusses personal names of North American Indians in their historical and contemporary forms in ‘North American Indians: Personal Names with Semantic Meaning’ (<italic>Names</italic> 55[2007] 3–16), emphasizing the problems different name forms can create cross-culturally. Currently, Native American names are of three forms: traditional (e.g. ‘Little Bear’), European (e.g. ‘Frank Exner’), and mixed (e.g. ‘Frank Exner, Little Bear’). Native American names differ from European names in that one name may be followed by an entirely different name at another time, and names may be concurrent, so one individual may have multiple names at any given time, and the social situation will dictate which is the appropriate name and conversely, the particular name used often elicits a specific response. As Exner, Little Bear, notes, in a Native American setting, if Severt Young Bear is asked to perform at a gathering there is no pressure on him to comply, but if he is asked as Hehaka Luzahan (‘Swift Elk’) then it is difficult for him to refuse.</p>
<p><italic>Onomastica Canadiana</italic> publishes twice a year and carries articles in French as well as English; thus on average about half of the articles which appear in <italic>OnCan</italic> are appropriate for this volume. In ‘ “Ils appellent le soleil Iesus”: Linguistic Interaction among Montagnais, Basques, and Jesuits in New France’ (<italic>OnCan</italic> 89[2007] 53–61), William Sayers takes what appears to be a simple and straightforward folk etymology and turns it into a revealing account of pidginization among social and linguistic groups in seventeenth-century Canada. A Jesuit report that local Montagnais called the sun ‘Jesus’ led to Sayers's conclusion that the source was <italic>eguzki</italic>, a Basque word for ‘sun’ which had become part of the trade jargon developed between the Montagnais and Basque whalers. The expected /eguski/ was rendered by the Montagnais (or more likely hopefully heard by French priests) as /dzezykri/.</p>
<p>Herbert Barry III (University of Pittsburgh, emeritus) continued his research into the psychological implications of names in literature, especially authorial ‘self-naming’, in which authors name characters, if not directly for themselves, with their own name. In ‘Characters Named Charles or Charley in Novels by Charles Dickens’ (<italic>PRep</italic> 101[2007] 497–500) Barry notes that in his fourteen completed novels Dickens created twelve fictional characters named Charles or Charley. In the early novels (<italic>Pickwick Papers</italic>, <italic>Oliver Twist</italic> and <italic>Nicholas Nickleby</italic>) these namesakes tend to be characterized by humour and spirit, but they become less so in the later novels (<italic>Dombey and Son</italic>, <italic>David Copperfield</italic>, <italic>Bleak House</italic>), and especially in <italic>Tale of Two Cities</italic> and <italic>Our Mutual Friend</italic>, written towards the end of his career and after Dickens's estrangement from his wife.</p>
<p>For nearly three decades Donna Lillian has been tracking the use of ‘Ms’ as a courtesy title for women in general corresponding to ‘Mr’ as a courtesy title for men. Using fifteen scenarios involving hypothetical women with imputed attributes and soliciting responses electronically, she found that, since 1995, although use of ‘Ms’ had increased from slightly more than half of all responses to nearly three-quarters in the intervening decade, the usage had become stereotyped and ‘used in a manner that is almost the complete opposite of its intended usage’ (in Reich, Sullivan,. Lommel and Griffen, eds., <italic>LACUS Forum 33: Variation</italic>, pp. 211–18) and had been ‘turned into a tool for more precisely identifying a woman's marital status’ (p. 211). ‘Specifically, a woman is more likely to be addressed with <italic>Ms</italic>. if she is divorced, separated, or widowed, if she is a lesbian, or if she is single and past the age of about 25’ (p. 217).</p>
<p>A reasonably new aspect of onomastics and one which will likely gain in application and significance is associated with the discipline of forensic linguistics, which offers linguistic expertise at various points in the judicial process. Although the testimony offered by linguists is currently confined largely to North America, its use appears to be spreading, especially in Europe. There is now an International Association of Forensic Linguists, which publishes <italic>The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law</italic>. Much expert testimony concerns names, in particular trade names and other registerable marks. One of the leading forensic linguists who has written extensively on names and the law is Ronald Butters. Butters, in ‘Changing Linguistic Issues in US Trademark Litigation’ (in Turrell, Spassova and Cicres, eds., <italic>Second European IAFL Conference on Forensic Linguistic / Language and the Law</italic>, pp. 29–42) gives a good overview of the kinds of contributions forensic linguists (onomasts in particular) can make to the legal process, as well as pointing out some of what he refers to as the changes and challenges in US trademark litigation. Butters presents a scale of trademark strength, which ranges from the weakest (true generics; in other words, common nouns) to descriptives (nouns which have taken on secondary meanings) to suggestives (nouns with positive connotations) to the strongest (arbitrary and fanciful names manufactured for the purpose of providing a trademarkable name). Butters illustrates extensively from cases on which he has provided expert opinion, especially the case questioning the genericness of the name ‘kettle chips’.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC9"><title>9. Dialectology and Sociolinguistics</title>
<p>This year's review starts with textbooks. Nikolas Coupland has written what is probably the first textbook on <italic>Style: Language Variation and Identity</italic>, and at the same time the first book-length introduction to postmodern concepts of the term. Coupland gives an excellent overview of the concept of style through time, from variationist sociolinguistics (William Labov's idea that <italic>style</italic> is ‘attention to speech’) via Howard Giles's and Allan Bell's idea of style as ‘audience design’ to the late modern idea that speakers actively employ style to stylize themselves through discourse, and indeed that all speech is performance. The individual chapters deal with ‘Style and Meaning in Sociolinguistic Structure’ (especially with the meaning potential of standard vs. non-standard speech), ‘Style for Audiences’ (note Giles's idea of style above), ‘Sociolinguistic Resources for Styling’ (relating the discussion to Pierre Bourdieu's concept of <italic>habitus</italic>, which we will meet again below), ‘Styling Social Identities’ (discussing ‘acts of identity’, ‘gender’ as well as ‘crossing’ on the way), ‘High Performance and Identity Stylisation’, where ‘high performance’ is meant to indicate public performances with a heightened (more intense) character. The crucial point is, of course, that every performance has some elements of ‘high performance’. Stylization can also be thought of as ‘pastiche’, or recycling, of (perhaps stereotyped) features of variants for a variety of reasons, from identity construction to parody and meta-parody. Throughout, the book is thoughtful as well as thought-provoking, full of text extracts and Coupland's own in-depth analyses, while Coupland's thesis that ‘style is performance’ is explored throughout the text. As the author himself notes, the book moves away ‘from one every particular, consolidated, disciplined and productive perspective [on style, viz. the variationist one] to a much more open, critical but speculative perspective’ (p. 177). A highly enjoyable and informative must-read for advanced students and researchers alike.</p>
<p>But before you think that postmodernism has finally arrived in linguistics, well, at least in sociolinguistics, it has to be said that the bulk of publications, perhaps with the exception of publications on gender (see below) are still written from a very traditional, highly objectivist perspective. A good example for this set of mind is the collection of introductory essays in the <italic>Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics</italic> edited by Carmen Llamas, Louise Mullany and Peter Stockwell. Extremely short (eight- to twelve-page) articles provide introductions to variationist methods and analysis techniques, the traditional extralinguistic variables (class, gender, age, ethnicity, speech community), what the editors call ‘socio-psychological factors’ (style, identity, mobility, accommodation, attitudes, politeness and power), ‘socio-political factors’ (standard language, mass media, multilingualism, education, language planning), and language change (curiously encompassing mainly creole studies, but also an article on language death). The list of contributors reads like a who's who in sociolinguistics, from Peter Auer to Walt Wolfram. Nevertheless, this is mainly a repetition of articles we have read in almost identical form many times before; the entries are too short to be really useful as introductions, but too long to function as lexicon entries, and the collection is too old-fashioned to be really fascinating.</p>
<p>On the subject of applied linguistics, Carolyn Temple Adger, Walt Wolfram and Donna Christian have written an updated second edition of <italic>Dialects in Schools and Communities</italic>, geared towards non-specialists (for example teachers or speech therapists), therefore paying particular attention to the fact that variation is inherent in language and systematic. They discuss lay perceptions of dialect and language variation before introducing more sociolinguistic ways of investigating and thinking about language variation. They also look at the role language plays in social interaction, and how dialect and cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings in the classroom. In addition, they deal with more narrowly relevant topics such as how to test language skills in the light of language differences, a discussion of the influence (and perhaps the value) of the vernacular in writing and in teaching reading skills, and the drawing up of a programme of dialect awareness for students. Throughout, this book is superbly informed, yet at the same time accessible to readers with no previous knowledge of sociolinguistics. It tries to dispel a range of popular myths about language that are not only ill informed from the point of view of sociolinguistics, but have very real repercussions on (dialect-speaking) students’ lives. Not surprisingly, the keyword of this book is ‘fairness’, and we can only hope that as many teachers and other non-specialists as possible will make use of this resource, now up-to-date.</p>
<p>Robert Bayley and Ceil Lucas have edited the in-depth <italic>Sociolinguistic Variation: Theories, Methods, and Applications</italic>, a volume dedicated to Walt Wolfram and obviously very much inspired by his work. Contributions are divided into the three parts of the subtitle, ‘Theories’ (eight chapters), ‘Methods’ (three chapters) and, indeed, ‘Applications’ (six chapters). The first part is the most interesting, since it provides a forum for the discussion of such important topics as the treatment of variation in phonological theories (Greg Guy), a discussion of syntactic variation (Lisa Green), inherent variability (Ralph Fasold and Dennis Preston), historical variationist studies (Kirk Hazen, but also Michael Montgomery), variation in second-language acquisition (Robert Bayley), and variation in sign language (Ceil Lucas)—topics often neglected in more standard sociolinguistic compendiums. Part II, the shortest, on methods in sociolinguistics, only features a chapter on sociolinguistic fieldwork (Natalie Schilling-Estes), one on quantitative analysis (Sali Tagliamonte) and one on ‘Sociophonetics’ (Erik Thomas)—surely not doing justice to the wide field of sociolinguistics as such, and not even to variationist sociolinguistics. Where are more modern ethnographic approaches, where is James and Lesley Milroy's network approach, where is the Community of Practice? The third part is a hotchpotch of topics not always discussed in other collections, from the more predictable relation to education (Carolyn Temple Adger and Donna Christian, and Angela and John Rickford), or to language acquisition (Ida Stockman), up to topics not usually found in sociolinguistics books, viz. ‘Sociolinguistic Variation and the Law’ (Ron Butters), an interesting introduction to forensic linguistics, or ‘Attitudes towards Variation and Ear-Witness Testimony’ (John Baugh), where ‘linguistic profiling’ is introduced, defined (and condemned). Finally, completing this collection, Roger Shuy writes a very personal and memorable afterword on Walt Wolfram. A very interesting collection, useful as introductory or supplementary texts, that should sit on every self-respecting sociolinguist's desk (then again, if you know Walt Wolfram, you probably contributed to this volume yourself), and which will be useful in advanced and graduate classes too.</p>
<p>Ethnography (and in particular linguistic ethnography (LE)), though perhaps missing from Bayley and Lucas, eds., is the subject of a special issue of the <italic>Journal of Sociolinguistics</italic> (11:v[2007]), edited by Karin Tusting and Janet Maybin. Particularly relevant to English sociolinguistics is Ben Rampton's contribution in which he traces ‘Neo-Hymesian Linguistic Ethnography in the United Kingdom’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 584–607) through persons, career paths and institutions, pointing out that LE in Britain has been the domain of sociolinguists, rather than anthropologists, and that as an interdisciplinary region it ‘sits comfortably in the much broader shift from mono- to inter-disciplinarity in British higher education’ (p. 584). Alison Sealey puts ‘Linguistic Ethnography in Realist Perspective’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 641–60), exploring answers that LE can provide to the basic sociolinguistic question of ‘which people use which kinds of language in what circumstances and with what outcome(s)?’ (p. 641). Sealey argues that LE, especially linked theoretically to social (or sociological) realism, can provide better answers than other approaches, in particular when it comes to taking into account speakers’ agency and the fact that social categories are mediated through discourse. It is especially this link to social realism that Sealey advocates and hopes to promote.</p>
<p>Moving to more general discussions of sociolinguistics and dialectology, the treatment of non-standard data in more abstract linguistic theories also plays a large role this year. Helmut Weiss calls for co-operation between theoretical (read: generative) linguistics and sociolinguistics in his paper ‘A Question of Relevance: Some Remarks on Standard Languages’ (in Penke and Rosenbach, eds., <italic>What Counts as Evidence in Linguistics: The Case of Innateness</italic>, pp. 181–208). Weiss makes the interesting point that English, like German, has a standard language heavily influenced by prescriptivism, and is therefore at least to some degree ‘unnatural’, while the data from dialects would present theoretical linguistics with more natural input. Graeme Trousdale and David Adger have edited a special issue of <italic>English Language and Linguistics</italic> (11:ii[2007]) on English dialect syntax, or perhaps more precisely, the treatment of variation in various syntactic frameworks (or syntactic theories). As the editors, they correctly point out that non-standard data have so far not really played a prominent role in theory-building, be it in the generative camp or elsewhere. (David Adger and Graeme Trousdale, ‘Variation in English Syntax: Theoretical Implications’, <italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 261–78). What is more, ‘syntactic variation in English dialects has been a thorny issue for dialectologists, sociolinguists, and theoretical linguists alike’ (p. 266), so that this topic has really been doubly (or trebly?) neglected, if you will—an oversight that this special issue sets out to remedy. Contributions range from Word Grammar to stochastic OT to Principles and Parameters, and the phenomena under discussion span an equally wide range from copula deletion to possessive constructions. Individual contributions are discussed in the regional subsections below. Perhaps even more abstract is William A. Kretzschmar Jr's contribution on ‘What's in the Name “Linguistics” for Variationists’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 263–77), geared especially towards the American linguistics scene which is dominated by structuralists or generativists, and as this subsection has repeatedly pointed out, generative grammar and linguistic variation are difficult to reconcile if you take variation seriously. Kretzschmar's advice in this difficult situation is that (theoretical) linguists need to ‘accept the idea that there are many different valid ways to study human language’ (p. 276).</p>
<p>After this more general overview, we now move to an overview of publications dealing with Great Britain. The collection of essays in David Britain, ed., <italic>Language in the British Isles</italic>, is in a way a new edition of Peter Trudgill's; first edition from 1984, taking over the basic division of chapters into English, Celtic and ‘Other Languages’. It is <italic>not</italic> just a new edition in that all the chapters are brand new, and especially the chapters on English (which, just, make up the bulk of this volume) deal with new subdivisions that would have been inconceivable twenty-five years ago (or so). In part, the chapters read like a miniature version of the 2004 <italic>Handbook of the Varieties of English</italic>, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar Schneider (<italic>YWES</italic> 85[2006]), but going beyond mere regional varieties. Thus, James Milroy deals with ‘The History of English’, Paul Kerswill discusses differences between ‘Standard and Non-Standard English’, Paul Foulkes and Gerard Docherty present ‘Phonological Variation in England’, David Britain gives an overview of the relatively new field of studies on ‘Grammatical Variation in England’ in a chapter that stands out by virtue of its depth and width of coverage, Paul A. Johnston Jr writes on ‘Scottish English and Scots’, Kevin McCafferty summarizes research on ‘Northern Irish English’, Raymond Hickey does the same for ‘Southern Irish English’, and Robert Penhallurick describes ‘English in Wales’. The rough regional divisions inside England (English in the north, Midlands, south-west, south-east, East Anglia) of the <italic>Handbook</italic> are not mirrored here in separate sections, for this the general phonological/morphological overview chapters have to suffice. Interesting for comparative reasons might be the chapters on the Celtic languages (there are chapters on Gaelic, Irish and Welsh, as well as an overview of the ‘History of the Celtic Languages in the British Isles’), and of course the third (‘Other’) part, which ranges from Caribbean creoles, Indic languages and Chinese to Channel Island French or Angloromani, and this reviewer at least would be hard pushed to name another publication with as wide a range of languages discussed. The fourth part, ‘Applied Sociolinguistic Issues’, deals with languages in the classroom from two perspectives: internal variation (a chapter by Ann Williams) and speakers of languages other than English (Ben Rampton, Roxy Harris and Constant Leung). In sum, this is an up-to-date (or at least it was, some four years ago) summary of much dialectological and sociolinguistic work done on language in the British Isles. Seeing the dynamics of this field, we look forward to a new edition in just a few years’ time. The more specifically regional contributions are also discussed below in the regional sections of this chapter.</p>
<p>Also overview-like in character are contributions to <italic>A History of the English Language</italic>, edited by the late Richard Hogg and David Denison, from last year (unaccountably overlooked by this reviewer then, our apologies). Hogg and Denison stress that the whole volume takes variation as a central theme, and this is perhaps clearest in Hogg's own chapter on ‘English in Britain’ (pp. 352–83), a thirty-page introduction to questions and methods of historical as well as present-day dialectology, and in Edward Finegan's mirror-chapter on ‘English in North America’ (pp. 384–419) (see below). Hogg's tour through the (dialectal nature of) the English language from Old English until today stresses that even in the age of mass media and high mobility, dialects are not just disappearing (although for rural dialects this is probably the case), but that there are also many innovative features in urban dialects, which, as he writes, have often been ignored for ideological reasons. Hogg also effortlessly moves from a discussion of historical to traditional dialectology and includes results from more modern variationist sociolinguistics.</p>
<p>Also taking a wide regional sweep of the country, and linking empirical variationist evidence with theoretical arguments, Joan Bresnan, Ashwini Deo and Devyani Sharma draw up a ‘Typology in Variation: A Probabilistic Approach to <italic>Be</italic> and <italic>N't</italic> in the <italic>Survey of English Dialects</italic>’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 301–46). The authors, with an interesting methodological twist, extract individual answers from the <italic>SED</italic> and model the ensuing variation in stochastic OT. General observations are that person distinctions of the singular tend to be levelled in the plural; person distinctions in positive contexts are levelled under negation to prevent ‘overloading of a single lexical form with multiple semantic features such as negation, person, and number’ (p. 305). Where systems are variable, ‘variation is idiosyncratic and inherent in individual grammars’ (p. 340), which can be reduced to two invariant systems; interestingly (almost) always consisting of a vernacular system and the standard English system. In other words, variation is played out between the ‘social prestige of the standard variety and [the] geographical continuity of vernacular varieties’ (p. 331), suggesting that ‘standard grammar is perturbing the vernacular grammar but not necessarily replacing it’ (p. 312).</p>
<p>Also on the basis of the <italic>SED</italic>, Robert G. Shackleton Jr analyses ‘Phonetic Variation in the Traditional English Dialects: A Computational Analysis’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 30–102) in what would probably win the prize for longest article this year. Based on the <italic>SED</italic> and the derived <italic>Structural Atlas of the English Dialects</italic> (Peter M. Anderson [1987]), this dialectometrical analysis uses clustering, phylogenetic methods, regression analysis, barrier analysis and principal component methods to measure the distance between traditional dialects of England and identify the features that distinguish the dialect regions. Shackleton finds that ‘phonetic variation in the dialects is simply not very systematic, but instead tends to involve largely uncorrelated variations’ (p. 42), and that ‘the [phonetic] distance measures are fairly closely correlated with geographic distance’ (p. 47). Interestingly, the General American ‘control’ speaker is most similar to south-western dialects, in fact Somerset. Shackleton also identifies seven major dialect regions of England: the far north, the upper north and the lower north, the central Midlands, the upper south-west, the lower south-west, and the south-east (including East Anglia), rather similar to Peter Trudgill's traditional dialect areas but notably different from many other approaches based on the same material.</p>
<p>Perceptual dialectology, more precisely over 5,000(!) informants’ reactions to English accents, are reported by Nikolas Coupland and Hywel Bishop in ‘Ideologised Values for British Accents’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 74–93), confirming that standard accents are linked to higher prestige and attractiveness, and urban accents (Birmingham, Liverpool, Glasgow) are systematically downgraded. What is new is that younger informants rate StE less highly, and that females in general produce more favourable evaluations.</p>
<p>In our regional overview, we will begin by looking at studies on Irish English. As noted above, Ireland features twice in Britain's <italic>Language in the British Isles</italic>. Kevin McCafferty distinguishes three varieties of ‘Northern Irish English’ on phonological grounds (pp. 122–34), namely Ulster Scots (which has the Scottish Vowel Length Rule), Mid Ulster (a transitional zone with ‘phonemic vowel length … but Northern Irish vowel quality’, p. 125), and South Ulster English. Grammatical features mentioned (but not necessarily distinctive of the three varieties) are the <italic>after</italic>-perfect, habitual <italic>be</italic>, <italic>do be</italic> or <italic>bes</italic>, modal <italic>be to</italic> (rarely noted elsewhere), subordinating <italic>and</italic>, the Northern Subject Rule, punctual <italic>whenever</italic>, <italic>for-to</italic> infinitives, and (the much more widespread) zero relatives, especially in existentials (again as in many other dialects). For ‘Southern Irish English’ (pp. 135–51), Raymond Hickey pays considerable attention to a periodization of Irish English, noting that language acquisition (of English) was largely unguided and took place over several centuries. Hickey distinguishes several dialect areas in Ireland, based on their settlement history (twelfth-century settlement in Dublin vs. seventeenth-century plantations in Ulster vs. Irish Gaelic-speaking population on the west coast), and relates this to the dialect features present, also pointing out which features Irish dialects have in common (the <italic>after</italic>-perfect, habitual <italic>be</italic>, negative concord or <italic>it</italic>-clefting). Hickey also discusses the research traditions (the substratists vs. the retentionists) and draws up a consensus table of putative origins of individual features.</p>
<p>In even more detail, Hickey presents a book-length introduction to <italic>Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms</italic>, pointing out that ‘the political division of Ireland has a linguistic equivalent’ (p. 2), although dialect differences of course go beyond the ‘basic split’ between Northern Ireland and the Republic. Hickey looks at the two settlement periods in two separate chapters, the twelfth-century settlement in the south, and the sixteenth-century settlement (‘plantation’) of Ulster, then discusses the ‘Emergence of Irish English’ as a contact phenomenon with all its consequences, mainly concentrating on the grammar (such as the <italic>after</italic>- perfect, the habitual, subordinating <italic>and</italic>, or cleft structures). Hickey also discusses the pronunciation of ‘Present-Day Irish English’, and here contrasts the rather conservative rural areas with the urban areas of Belfast, Derry, Coleraine and Dublin, a rare case of integration of these divergent systems (and studies) that is highly welcome. Especially the new developments in Dublin English rely on studies Hickey has reported on before (e.g. <italic>YWES</italic> 80[1999]). Hickey also reports on ‘the pragmatics of Irish English’, again a sub-field that is not usually integrated into more mainstream dialectological work. The final chapter, ‘Transportation Overseas’, is a useful outlook pointing out where in the world Irish settlers have influenced the local vernaculars (almost everywhere, according to Hickey, from Britain to, of course, the United States and Canada, but also Australia and New Zealand). The appendices contain outlines of the history, text extracts from the highly conservative language enclaves of Forth and Bargy, and a host of useful maps. In sum, this is probably the most comprehensive book on the subject yet, taking account of most previous work, and as such an ideal start for getting acquainted with the fine details of Irish English.</p>
<p>Alison Henry and Siobhan Cottell present ‘A New Approach to Transitive Expletives: Evidence from Belfast English’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 279–99), the phenomenon under investigation being transitive constructions with <italic>there</italic>, as in <italic>There’ve lots of people passed the test</italic>. Although this construction resembles similar constructions in other languages, for example Icelandic, it seems to have none of the features associated with it in earlier generative analyses. Transitive expletives seem to be an innovation of Belfast English, and the authors link it to the extensive use of subject contact clauses, to which they bear a superficial resemblance (cf. <italic>There</italic>'<italic>s somebody bought the book</italic>). Especially with contracted auxiliaries, a reanalysis from <italic>there is</italic> to <italic>there has</italic> is possible, and bingo, there's your transitive expletive.</p>
<p>John Wilson and Karyn Stapleton deal with a possibly more serious topic in ‘The Discourse of Resistance: Social Change and Policing in Northern Ireland’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 393–425), where they investigate the discourse of nationalist Catholic women in Belfast through which they pragmatically ‘block off institutional … forms of interpretation, and then reinterpret … all messages within an alternate social world’ (p. 395). ‘Pragmatic blocking’ is used as a term for the process of challenging (explicit or implicit) assumptions in prior talk, and offering an account for that challenge. In this way, an anti-police <italic>habitus</italic> (in Bourdieu's sense) is passed on to each new generation, where the women deny that the (formerly mainly Protestant, Unionist) police force, long seen as the enemy, has changed at all, despite political changes from above. Perhaps rather rarely for linguistic analysis, this one also has serious real-world implications, for policing policy in Northern Ireland.</p>
<p>Moving across the Irish Sea we turn to English in Scotland. Paul A. Johnston Jr's ‘Scottish English and Scots’ (in Britain, ed., pp. 105–21), not surprisingly, seeing the title, proposes a cline from Scottish Standard English (SSE) to the Scots end of a continuum, which, over the last centuries, has evolved (or devolved?) from a written standard language to a ‘localised vernacular, complete with working-class associations and the stigmatisation that goes with them’ (p. 106). As Johnston points out, SSE ‘also forms the basis of Highland and Hebridean English’, where Gaelic was traditionally spoken and broad Scots therefore never had a chance of disseminating. The complementary area, if this makes sense, is discussed more fully in Robert McColl Millar's small monograph <italic>Northern and Insular Scots</italic>. ‘Northern’ Scots here refers to the varieties spoken in pockets rather than contiguous areas of northern Scotland where Gaelic was not spoken, encompassing in particular the areas around Aberdeen (also sometimes called the <italic>Doric</italic>, cf. Derrick McClure in <italic>YWES</italic> 83[2002]), Inverness and Caithness, which is the furthest north-west corner of (mainland) Scotland including the towns of Wick, Thurso and (famously) John O’Groats. As McColl Millar notes, ‘all of these dialects are bounded on a least one side by the sea, and on another by areas where the local population spoke Gaelic until recently’ (p. 3). Insular Scots is more easily delimited, being spoken on Orkney and the Shetland Islands. Memorable not just for its title photograph, which exhorts ‘Dunna Chuck Bruck’ (for non-Scotticists, ‘Don't throw away litter’—obviously part of the ‘Keep Shetland Tidy’ campaign), McColl Millar discusses in exhaustive detail the phonetics and phonology (mostly of vowels), morphosyntax (where differences are mostly of degree, rather than absolute) and lexis (based on ‘anecdotal, personal and indicative’ instances, p. 79) of these non-Lowlands and non-Highlands varieties, noting that these regions are relic areas whose distinctive history can also be traced in the Gaelic and Scandinavian influences on the language. The book also contains two chapters that are more appendix-like, one a ‘Survey of Previous Works and Annotated Bibliography’, possibly a great help for further research, the other a collection of representative texts from Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, the Black Isle (the peninsula north of Inverness) and some more general ‘northern’ dialect areas.</p>
<p>Also, with respect to a rather marginal area (even by Scottish standards), Peter Sundkvist discusses ‘The Pronunciation of Scottish Standard English in Lerwick, Shetland’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 1–21), finding that speakers are bi-dialectal and using SSE increasingly. The most striking phonetic feature is the effect of a voiced consonant on a preceding short vowel, which is raised, fronted, or diphthongized (in words like <italic>bin</italic>, <italic>don</italic> or <italic>badge</italic>), a ‘highly salient localized process referred to as “vowel mutation” or “vowel softening” ’ (p. 18), which contributes to the distinctiveness of this dialect.</p>
<p>Richard Hudson integrates an analysis of inherent variability (exemplified by taking Jennifer Smith's data on <italic>was</italic>/<italic>were</italic> variation in Buckie, northern Scotland) with his theory of Word Grammar in ‘English Dialect Syntax in Word Grammar’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 383–405), coming to the conclusion that ‘a model of I-language should be able to include very specific linguistic categories such as “the <italic>was</italic> of <italic>we was</italic>” and to link these linguistic categories to particular kinds of speakers defined in terms of whatever social categories are available in the speaker's social cognition (“I-society”)’ (p. 400), accounting for example for the fact that, in Buckie, middle-aged women prefer <italic>we were</italic>, whereas young men tend to say <italic>we was</italic>. In this way, Hudson claims, his framework of Word Grammar can model acts of identity. The acquisition of variable forms in Buckie by small children is the subject of Jennifer Smith, Mercedes Durham and Liane Fortune in ‘ “Mam, my trousers is fa’in doon!”: Community, Caregiver, and Child in the Acquisition of Variation in a Scottish Dialect’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 63–99). The authors find that in the two variables under investigation (the <italic>house</italic> diphthong, which is sometimes a monophthong /u:/ <italic>hoose</italic>, and variable -<italic>s</italic> in third-person-plural environment, following the Northern Subject Rule), the social and linguistic constraints (of the variable) evident in the speech of the mothers are matched by the speech of their small children, suggesting that ‘input from the primary caregiver is crucial’ (p. 63).</p>
<p>Moving to the west coast, Jane Stuart-Smith, Claire Timmins and Fiona Tweedie are ‘ “Talking Jockney”? Variation and Change in Glaswegian Accent’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 221–60), where their analysis of eight consonant features (TH, alveolar taps for TH, L-vocalization, T-glottaling, apico-alveolar /s/, /x/, /hw/ and postvocalic /r/) in thirty-two speakers shows that middle-class speakers (i.e. those speakers with weaker social network ties, higher mobility and more contact with English English speakers) are maintaining traditional Scottish variants (e.g. /x/, /hw/ and postvocalic /r/), whereas more working-class speakers start to use non-local features like the notorious TH-fronting (<italic>bruvver</italic>) and have reduced rhoticity, perhaps contrary to what one would expect. The authors propose that ‘local context is the key to these findings’, namely that middle-class speakers actively reject working-class innovations, and that ‘working-class speakers try to be as anti-middle-class, and anti-establishment as possible’ (p. 251), especially the adolescents, for fear of sounding ‘posh’. The local history of Glasgow city repeatedly destroying working-class living areas and disrupting neighbourhoods may also have a role to play.</p>
<p>Moving south, but staying with the ‘Celtic fringes’ just briefly, ‘English in Wales’ is discussed by Robert Penhallurick (in Britain, ed., pp. 152–70). Penhallurick takes great care to chart the Welsh phonetic system by going through Wells's set of lexemes one by one, noting Welsh influence where plausible, but he also devotes some space to morphology and syntax, where he discusses features such as predicate fronting (<italic>a weed it is</italic>), periphrastic verbs and a wider range of uses of the progressive to indicate habitual action.</p>
<p>The north of Britain features in a number of publications this year. Christoph Schubert provides a general overview of ‘Dialect and Regional Identity in Northern England’ (in Ehland, ed., <italic>Thinking Northern: Textures of Identity in the North of England</italic>, an interdisciplinary collection of essays, pp. 73–90). The author draws attention to pervasive stereotypes that are exploited in the media—from Joseph, the epitome of a Yorkshire dialect speaker in <italic>Wuthering Heights</italic> in the nineteenth century, to more recent British films such as <italic>Brassed Off</italic> or <italic>Michael Eliot</italic>, where the regional variety is on a par with terraced houses and the cloudy sky, constituting the ‘resilient Northerner, hard-working and humorous, blunt speaking and straight-forward’ (p. 86). Going into some more grammatical detail, Willem Hollmann and Anna Siwierska give ‘A Construction Grammar Account of Possessive Constructions in Lancashire Dialect: Some Advantages and Challenges’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 404–24). They find that the construction patterns according to alienability (or not) of the possessum (<italic>my football shoes</italic> vs. <italic>me brother</italic>), which may be caused by underlying frequency effects. The north-east is the topic in Carmen Llamas's account of ‘ “A Place Between Places”: Language and Identity in a Border Town’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 579–604), the town in question being Middlesbrough, whose political affiliation has changed four times over the last thirty years. Llamas investigates glottalization of the voiceless stops /p, t, k/, a stereotypical feature of Newcastle and Tyneside English (to the north of Middlesbrough) but not of Yorkshire English (to the south of Middlesbrough) and shows that ‘shifting … from an orientation towards Yorkshire to one toward the North East’ (p. 599) correlates with a higher use of glottalized /p/, which may, however, index a more specifically Middlesbrough identity for speakers today.</p>
<p>Moving across the ocean to North America, let us begin by looking at studies dealing with Canada. <italic>Language Issues in Canada: Multidisciplinary Perspectives</italic>, edited by Martin Howard, curiously mainly deals with French, although Howard admits that ‘English has dominant status’ (p. 1). Three chapters may be of interest to English sociolinguistics, namely the overview by Howard himself on ‘Language in Canada’ (pp. 1–23), a brief overview of language policy issues in this multilingual state, ‘Legislating for Language: The Canadian Experience of Language Policy and Linguistic Duality’ by Maeve Conrick (pp. 24–39), and an article by Shana Poplack, James A. Walker and Rebecca Malcolmson, ‘An English “Like No Other”?: Language Contact and Change in Quebec’ (pp. 156–85), where the English are in the (unusual) position of being in the minority. Poplack et al. investigate spontaneous speech of speakers of Quebec city, Montreal and the anglophone-controlled Oshawa and find that unselfconscious borrowings from French are surprisingly rare. Instead, anglophone speakers use French lexemes rhetorically or metalinguistically. In this situation, structural repercussions on Quebecois English are highly unlikely. One persistent feature of Quebec English is investigated further by James A. Walker in ‘ “There's bears back there”: Plural Existentials and Vernacular Universals in (Quebec) English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 147–66), indeed one of the prime candidates for a general feature of non-standard English attested in practically all varieties. Walker's study supports the impression that <italic>there</italic>'<italic>s</italic> has lexicalized and is therefore as good as invariant, whereas singular agreement patterns differently, which would also argue for not considering <italic>there is</italic>/<italic>there</italic>'<italic>s</italic> in future studies on variable agreement. Quebec is also featured in the special May issue of the <italic>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</italic> (185[2007]), on ‘Official Language Minorities in Canada’. John A. Dickinson provides a historical overview of the Anglophone community in ‘The English-Speaking Minority of Quebec: A Historical Perspective’ (<italic>IJSL</italic> 185[2007] 11–24), claiming that, at least before 1977, the anglophones’ minority status in the province was offset by its political and economic clout’ (p. 12). A detailed demographic investigation shows, however, that in terms of percentage, the anglophone population already ‘peaked in the 1860s and has declined ever since’ (p. 13), while the old ‘consociational arrangement’ whereby elites negotiated compromises for their part of the population came to an end with the rise of the nationalist movement. This was marked especially by the 1973 Bill making French the (only) official language in Quebec, which has led to an exodus of anglophones from the province ever since. Continuing this investigation, Jack Jedwab proposes ‘Following the Leaders: Reconciling Identity and Governance in Quebec's Anglophone Population’ (<italic>IJSL</italic> 185[2007] 71–87), looking at recent debates on ‘how and by whom political advocacy and representation are conducted’ (p. 71) for the anglophone minority. Although institutional representation is very good, the anglophones nevertheless lack a strong sense of group consciousness, and may even lack any meaningful self-definition. Patricia Lamarre discusses ‘Anglo-Quebec Today: Looking at Community and Schooling Issues’ (<italic>IJSL</italic> 185[2007] 109–32), claiming that young speakers in Montreal today are not only bilingual, they are bicultural, shown (<italic>pace</italic> Poplack et al.) by extensive code-switching, ‘blurring … individual and collective identity’ (p. 110) (which might of course constitute the new identity of Montrealers, or Quebecois), in stark contrast to the situation, say, a generation ago. In fact, the English-sector school system is a stronghold of bilingual programmes.</p>
<p>Moving to the rest of Canada, Sali Tagliamonte and Alexandra D’Arcy put ‘The Modals of Obligation/Necessity in Canadian Perspective’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 47–87). They show that, in Toronto, ‘the system of obligation/necessity … has undergone nearly complete specialization to <italic>have to</italic>’ (p. 47), and in this respect CanE ‘seems to be at the forefront of change’ (p. 47) compared with other (British and) North American varieties. Deontic <italic>must</italic>, on the other hand, is noticeably less frequent than in other varieties of English, and has ‘all but run its course’ (p. 68). Our overview of articles dealing with Canada is completed by looking at Susanne Wagner, who asks: ‘Unstressed Periphrastic <italic>do</italic> — from Southwest England to Newfoundland?’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 249–78) (incidentally, the answer is ‘No’). Periphrastic <italic>do</italic> is a dialect feature of the English south-west, and (with slightly different semantics) of Irish English, the two main founder populations of Newfoundland, but is noticeably absent from that dialect. Wagner argues that settlers at most brought a variable system with them, which competed with habitual -<italic>s</italic> and a more standard system and which in this situation was not adopted.</p>
<p>Studies on ‘English in North America’ are summarized by Edward Finegan (in Hogg and Denison, eds., pp., 384–413), concentrating mainly on lexis and onomastics, but some syntactic patterns (always in contrast to BrE) are noted as well. Phonological patterns and dialect areas follow Labov's <italic>Atlas of North American English</italic> (<italic>ANAE</italic>). Social variation is rather inelegantly dealt with in a page and a half, ethnic varieties are given a little more space, but two pages of running text obviously cannot do the complex structure of AAVE justice, so that this overview chapter might really only be helpful for someone with no previous knowledge whatsoever. Adding much more linguistic detail, Ewa Jacewicz, Joseph Salmons and Robert A. Fox compare ‘Vowel Duration in Three American Dialects” (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 367–85), i.e. in Wisconsin (for the Inland North), Ohio (for the Midland) and North Carolina (for the South), an area of phonetics that is not much studied in sociolinguistics and dialectology. This is rather surprising, since the authors find robust systematic differences in the vowels in <italic>hid</italic>, <italic>head</italic>, <italic>had</italic>, <italic>hayed</italic> and <italic>hide</italic>. In all cases, the vowels had ‘the longest durations in the South and the shortest in the Inland North, with the Midlands in an intermediate but distinct position’ (p. 367), opening up an interesting new area of comparative dialectology.</p>
<p>More specifically regional, Julie Roberts discusses ‘Vermont Lowering? Raising Some Questions about /ai/ and /au/ South of the Canadian Border’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 181–97). She finds fronting for /au/, and raising, as well as possibly backing, for /ai/ for the older speakers, whereas the younger speakers ‘show a more typical Canadian raising pattern’ (p. 194). An old classic is revived this year by Jennifer Pope, Miriam Meyerhoff and D. Robert Ladd, who trace ‘Forty Years of Language Change on Martha's Vineyard’ (<italic>Language</italic> 83[2007] 615–27) by replicating as closely as possible Labov's seminal study from the early 1960s. In this way, Labov's apparent-time design is complemented by a real-time comparison, validating his original approach, <italic>pace</italic> Renée Blake and Meredith Josey [2002] (cf. <italic>YWES</italic> 83[2002]). The authors find that the iconic (icons not in the Peircean sense, but as ‘icons’ (stereotypes) of the dialect area) diphthongs (ay) and (aw) are still centralized most by islanders with positive attitudes towards island life, in particular the fishermen, but that this change seems to have accelerated, especially for (aw) (not studied by Blake and Josey). As the authors note, ‘the antipathy toward the summer people that Labov documented was still very much present in 2002’ (p. 621), not least because of the high cost of living on the island due to the super-rich tourists (see also <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">section 3</xref> above).</p>
<p>William Labov himself distinguishes ‘Transmission and Diffusion’ (<italic>Language</italic> 83[2007] 344–87) in a family-tree model. Based on his data from the <italic>ANAE</italic>, Labov argues that the transmission of linguistic change <italic>within</italic> a speech community is characterized by faithful reproduction, and extension, of a pattern (as children incrementally advance the change in the same direction, increasing the distance between branches on the family tree), whereas the diffusion <italic>across</italic> communities (promoted by adult learning) may show weakening of the pattern and loss of structural features (across branches on the family tree, decreasing their distance). Labov illustrates these assumptions with data on short-<italic>a</italic> tensing (diffused from New York to four other communities) and on the Northern Cities Shift (diffused from Chicago to St Louis). Labov admits, however, that this model only works for relatively abstract chain shifts, which may be more typical of America than, say, of Europe.</p>
<p>Adrian Pablè and Radosław Dyłewski investigate ‘Invariant <italic>Be</italic> in New England Folk Speech: Colonial and Postcolonial Evidence’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 151–84), which, they argue (rather controversially), is a genuine New England innovation, at least in its use as the singular indicative (<italic>What be I doing here?</italic>). The authors trace this form to the seventeenth century, arguing that the settlers brought with them invariant <italic>be</italic> used in the plural only, and that the expansion into the singular happened in both British and American varieties independently of each other. Perhaps one should say it <italic>was</italic> a genuine American innovation, since it seems to have disappeared in the 1940s or 1950s and hasn't been revived to date.</p>
<p>Moving south a little, Terry Lynn Irons reports ‘On the Status of Low Back Vowels in Kentucky English: More Evidence of Merger’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 137–80) in this important transitional area between Midland and Southern dialects. In the Midland region, the <italic>cot–caught</italic> merger is expanding, whereas in the South the vowels are still distinct. Evidence of the low back merger that Irons finds in rural areas might be an indication that this is an independent development resulting from ‘back upglide loss’ (p. 138), which in turn might be linked to a ‘negative social evaluation and rejection of this feature as a stigmatized marker of local identity’ (p. 167). Not far from Kentucky, Brian José discusses whether there may be ‘Appalachian English in Southern Indiana? The Evidence from Verbal -<italic>s</italic>’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 249–80). Appalachian English is characterized by a distinctive (non-)concord pattern similar to the Northern Subject Rule (see above), as well as a range of other morphosyntactic similarities. José argues for what he calls a ‘family resemblance account’ (p. 254) between the two dialects since they have similar historical connections to Scots-Irish immigrants and a very similar mix of morphosyntactic features that is very unlikely to result from coincidence.</p>
<p>Moving west, the perceptual dialectology of California is the topic of Mary Bucholtz, Nancy Bermudez, Victor Fung, Lisa Edwards and Rosalva Vargas, winning the prize for greatest number of co-authors this year, in ‘Hella Nor Cal or Totally So Cal?’ (<italic>JEngL</italic> 35[2007] 325–52), based on map-labelling tasks inside California. The most salient boundary is between northern California and the south, linked to the salience (not necessarily the actual usage) of English vs. Spanish. Interestingly, the north is associated with unmarked or ‘normal’ speech, although it is simultaneously associated with ruralness (although not by the same informants). The lexical marker commented on most is <italic>hella</italic> from the title (<italic>nor</italic> stands for <italic>North</italic> and <italic>Cal</italic> for <italic>California</italic>, by the way …), probably a lexicalization of <italic>a hell of</italic>, which can be used as a quantifier (<italic>There were hella people there</italic>) or as an intensifier (<italic>He runs hella fast</italic>).</p>
<p>The topic of age and ageism is taken up by Gerline Mautner, who undertakes ‘Mining Large Corpora for Social Information: The Case of <italic>Elderly</italic>’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 51–72), obviously a contested term. Mautner shows that <italic>elderly</italic> is mainly found in discourses of ‘disability, illness, care, and vulnerability to crime’ (p. 63), which leads her to conclude that the ageist <italic>elderly</italic>, rather than designating chronological age, really indicates a social stereotype.</p>
<p>Jenny Cheshire investigates ‘Discourse Variation, Grammaticalisation and Stuff Like That’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 155–93) in the speech of adolescents in three English towns, and finds that ‘general extenders’ like <italic>and stuff</italic> in the title or <italic>and things</italic> are rather middle-class, whereas working-class speakers prefer <italic>and that</italic> or <italic>and everything</italic>. As Cheshire points out, ‘the multifunctionality of the general extenders caused problems for a rigorous analysis of their pragmatic functions’ (p. 155), which are precisely multifunctional and often simultaneously so; this of course throws up important questions of how to conduct quantitative analyses of discourse forms like these at all.</p>
<p>An all-time favourite of this section, quotatives, is discussed again this year by John R. Rickford, Thomas Wasow, Arnold Zwicky and Isabelle Buchstaller in ‘Intensive and Quotative <italic>All</italic>: Something Old, Something New’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 3–31). On the basis of a variety of data (sociolinguistic interviews, but also data from the internet), the authors find that intensifier <italic>all</italic> (as in <italic>my Mom is all mad at me</italic>) is not a new phenomenon (indeed, there are even attestations from OE), but has expanded its syntactic scope, such that it can now be used with verbs (<italic>I all screamed when we hit the skunk</italic>)—note that the example comes from the original. In fact, intensifier <italic>all</italic> is the fourth most frequent intensifier after <italic>really</italic>, <italic>so</italic> and <italic>very</italic>. Quotative <italic>all</italic> (or, more precisely, <italic>BE all</italic>), on the other hand, is new and probably originated in California in the 1980s, but has already peaked, as studies also from recent years have shown in detail. The most popular quotative of the day is now <italic>BE like</italic>, and, interestingly, the two can be used together, as in <italic>he</italic>'<italic>s all like ‘I have to wear socks on my ears’</italic> (cf. <italic>YWES</italic> of the last few years). Alexandra D’Arcy looks at the rival discourse marker and quotative (and its responsibility for ruining the English language …) in ‘<italic>Like</italic> and Language Ideology: Disentangling Fact and Fiction” (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 386–419). As she puts it, the ‘enduring belief that young people are ruining the language and that, as a consequence, the language is degenerating’ (p. 386) is often linked to the perceived over-use of, precisely, <italic>like</italic>. This use is criticized as being, like, meaningless, promoted by women, an Americanism, and introduced by the Valley girls. Based (not only) on data from Toronto, D’Arcy bravely argues against these myths. There are four functionally different variants of <italic>like</italic> (the quotative, the approximative use, the discourse marker and the discourse particle), only some of which are favoured by women, and the discourse marker can be traced back at least to the nineteenth century. In other words, perhaps with the exception of the quotative use, the vernacular functions of <italic>like</italic> are ‘complex and historically long-standing features of English dialects’ (p. 412). However, it is highly improbable that with the publication in a scholarly journal this repudiation of popular misconceptions will have much effect on laypeople's ideas. (Then again, this may be a good thing, since several female linguists trying to repel widespread language myths have recently been receiving death threats—so good luck to you, Alex!).</p>
<p>Sali A. Tagliamonte and Alexandra D’Arcy deal with <italic>be like</italic> at the community level in ‘Frequency and Variation in the Community Grammar: Tracking a New Change through the Generations’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 199–217), testing whether we are dealing with age-grading, a generational or indeed a communal change in Toronto English. The authors find that indeed, ‘<italic>be like</italic> overshadows all other forms among speakers under age 30’, whereas for the older speaker, <italic>say</italic> dominates. This ‘dramatic division’ or even ‘catastrophic shift’ in the population is linked to the different function of <italic>be like</italic>, which seems to have started out as a marker of quoted thought, a niche that already existed before <italic>be like</italic> entered the system.</p>
<p>A slightly larger range of quotatives is investigated by Federica Barbieri, in particular their use by ‘Older Men and Younger Women: A Corpus-Based Study of Quotative Use in American English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 23–45). Her examination of the role gender and age play in the use of <italic>be like</italic>, <italic>go</italic>, <italic>be all</italic> and <italic>say</italic> shows that, perhaps not surprisingly, ‘the quotative <italic>be like</italic> is the favored choice for young women in their late teens and early to mid-20s’ (p. 26), whereas for men it is the ‘older’ men (in their late twenties and thirties) who favour <italic>be like</italic> and <italic>go</italic>. Barbieri proposes some kind of convergence since it is a truth universally acknowledged that ‘men in their late 20s to early 30s … generally aspire to, and thus socialize with slightly younger women’ (p. 42), suggesting that these dating practices are reflected in the use of quotatives.</p>
<p>The field of gender studies boasts many publications again this year, from the more traditional variationist sociolinguistic ones to new methodologies, one of them Judith Baxter's monograph <italic>Positioning Gender in Discourse: A Feminist Methodology</italic> (originally from 2003, now reprinted in paperback). Baxter here tries to establish feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis (FPDA) in the field of gender studies, stressing the constructivist notion that ‘relationships … are always discursively produced, negotiated and contested <italic>through</italic> language’ (p. 91) and paying attention to several ‘polyphonic voices’ rather than just the one ‘authorial voice’. Baxter employs FPDA in two case studies on power, one on classroom interaction between students, and one on a management team study. Her accessible book shows the ethnographic approach ‘in action’ and makes clear what is meant by investigating gender polarization, or the ‘culturally accreted discourse of gender differentiation’ (p. 183), precisely <italic>in</italic> discourse.</p>
<p>Liz Morrish and Helen Sauntson provide us with <italic>New Perspectives on Language and Sexual Identity</italic>, a monograph on the discourse of lesbian women, in some ways a counterpart to Paul Baker [2005] (cf. <italic>YWES</italic> 86[2005]). Morrish and Sauntson analyse narratives of ‘coming out’, the discourse of ‘shame, risk and concealment’, and a corpus of lesbian erotica, where differences from gay men's erotica are particularly revealing. They also analyse the construction of the stereotypes ‘butch’ and ‘femme’ in a number of films, finding that these stereotypes in turn draw on linguistic gender stereotypes of ‘male’ vs. ‘female’. Finally, the authors investigate ‘How the British Broadsheet Press Learned Gay Slang’, here, however, focusing on two male politicians (Michael Portillo and Peter Mandelson), rather than on lesbians (it is not quite clear what motivated this choice; perhaps there are no high-profile lesbians in British politics?). Anyway, the authors show convincingly how ‘camp codes of homosexuality have been used to taunt unpopular politicians, with the presumed intent of trivializing their work and undermining their credibility’ (p. 166)—subtle enough not to call libel lawyers on the plan but transparent enough for readers to guess at the message.</p>
<p>Kathryn Campbell-Kibler adds an interesting study on the perception of the variable (–<italic>ing</italic>) in ‘Accent (ing), and the Social Logic of Listener Perceptions’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 32–64). In a matched guise experiment, she finds that the non-standard alveolar variant (-<italic>in</italic>) is perceived as being more Southern (US), less educated, more rural and more masculine, confirming older studies, but adds the interesting detail that the standard, velar nasal or variant (-<italic>ing</italic>) is perceived as more educated, more urban, and less masculine; instead, it is perceived as ‘metrosexual’, or even decidedly gay—a finding with its link of non-standard speech and (heterosexual) masculinity that would go a long way towards explaining the covert prestige of non-standard varieties.</p>
<p>Continuing his studies from last year (see <italic>YWES</italic> 87[2008]), Erez Levon puts ‘Sexuality in Context: Variation and the Sociolinguistic Perception of Identity’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 533–54), examining the identification of gayness in male speakers through the auditory perception of pitch range and sibilant duration (corresponding to the popular perceptions of ‘gay’ high voices and a ‘gay men's lisp’). Levon again uses the mechanically manipulated gay men's speech, but also uses a heterosexual control whose pitch range was widened. Levon finds that shortening the sibilants and decreasing the pitch range (in conjunction) increases the perception of a speaker as ‘masculine’, and that pitch range ‘is acting as indexical of sexuality for the listener population’ (p. 546). Manipulating the ‘straight’ speaker did not result in any different perception, however. Indexicality is clearly a more complex, contingent phenomenon. Also on the subject of sounding gay, Robert J. Podesva discusses ‘Phonation Type as a Stylistic Variable: The Use of Falsetto in Constructing a Persona’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 478–504), the persona being a gay ‘diva’, which is indexed, together with other linguistic and non-linguistic resources, by the use of a falsetto voice (technically: rapid vocal fold vibrations that raise the fundamental frequency f0 to between 240 and 634 Hz, contrasting with the usual 100 Hz for men and 200 Hz for women)—‘a socially marked behaviour [which is] at odds with more culturally normative pitch practices for men, and may be involved in the performance of stereotypical gay identity’ (p. 480). The subject under investigation uses falsetto significantly more frequently at a barbeque with his friends than when talking on the phone or to a patient. Part of the ‘gay diva’ stereotype is ‘sounding flamboyant’, a style that a falsetto voice with its connotations of ‘performing expressiveness’ (p. 482) seems particularly apt to underline, since both expressiveness and falsetto constitute ‘non-normative behaviour’ (p. 496) for men.</p>
<p>Moving to ethnic varieties, but also related to the recurrent theme of stereotypes, Jacquelyn Rahman discusses ‘An <italic>Ay</italic> for an <italic>Ah</italic>: Language of Survival in African American Narrative Comedy’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 65–96), stereotypical rendering of AAVE (by AAVE comedians for a primarily AAVE audience) here relying to a large degree on the monophthongal variant (ah) in words like <italic>time</italic>, while the diphthong (ay) is linked stereotypically to white, middle-class speech. Rahman argues that vernacular AAE constituted in this way ‘indexes a self-empowering ideology that is prevalent in the narratives and that serves as a source of strength for African Americans in the face of perceived racism’ (p. 66). Elaine M. Stotko and Margaret Troyer have discovered ‘A New Gender-Neutral Pronoun in Baltimore, Maryland: A Preliminary Study’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 262–79), the new pronoun being <italic>yo</italic> as in <italic>yo handing out the papers</italic> (<italic>he/she…</italic>) in the language of (mostly black) schoolchildren. On the basis of elicitation data from more than 200 middle-school students, Stotko and Troyer distinguish third-person <italic>yo</italic> from second-person uses (<italic>yo mamma</italic>), to which it seems unrelated, and from focusing <italic>yo</italic>, as in <italic>yo, get away from my locker</italic>, which they present very tentatively as a possible source. <italic>Yo</italic> is used when the referent is known, so the original motivation cannot therefore have been unknown gender. But before you try this out yourself, a note of warning: it is apparently disrespectful to refer to a teacher as <italic>yo</italic>.</p>
<p>Tracy Weldon contributes a missing detail to the debate of the origins of AAVE with her analysis of ‘Gullah Negation: A Variable Analysis’ (<italic>AS</italic> 82[2007] 341–66). Based on data from very rural, older, Southern speakers of Gullah with little formal education, Weldon suggests that the variation between <italic>ain't</italic> and <italic>didn't</italic> in past-tense contexts at least allows for the possibility that Gullah and AAE are related.</p>
<p>An old favourite of AAVE studies, copula deletion (or copula absence) is the topic of Emily M. Bender in her discussion of ‘Socially Meaningful Syntactic Variation in Sign-Based Grammar’ (<italic>ELL</italic> 11[2007] 347–81), i.e. in HSPG. Bender makes the interesting point that ‘syntactic constraints and social meaning are intertwined’ (p. 347) and investigates what the ‘identity turn’ (the third wave in Eckert's conceptualization of sociolinguistics) means for syntactic theory; more precisely, how can we model the fact that social meaning is attached to linguistic features smaller than whole varieties which speakers are free to choose from to constitute their identity? Bender argues that, in order to model this behaviour, syntactic theory has to include ‘social meaning, prefabricated “chunks” of linguistic structure, and some reflection of probabilistic (or frequentistic) aspects’ (p. 359) as parts of grammar.</p>
<p>Other ethnic groups that play a role this year are Mexican Americans; here Petra Scott Shenk proposes ‘ “I’m Mexican, remember?”: Constructing Ethnic Identities via Authenticating Discourse’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 194–220). Authenticating discourse, Shenk writes, is ‘part of an ongoing ordinary interactional routine through which speakers take overt authentication stances’ (p. 195). The initial sentence of her title illustrates nicely how ethnicity is continually constructed and co-constructed in and through discourse and ‘subject to shared ideological interpretation’ (p. 197). The Mexican American (college student) speakers under investigation here take three constructs as central: presumed purity of bloodline, purity of nationality and fluency in Spanish, also indicating the important role language and language choice have in identity construction. In fact, Shenk points out that ‘a speaker's ability to produce well-formed Spanish utterances is tantamount to her/his ability to maintain an ethnic identity as Mexican’ (p. 201). This concludes our review of publications dealing with dialectology and sociolinguistics this year.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC10"><title>10. New Englishes and Creolistics</title>
<p>The most important publication on English as a world language is undoubtedly Edgar W. Schneider's <italic>Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World</italic>, which is based on his article in <italic>Language</italic> 79[2003] (cf. <italic>YWES</italic> 84[2005] 88–9) and elaborates the model of the development of the New Englishes presented there. In his introduction, Schneider discusses the development of English as a world language, pointing out that despite the individual social and historical circumstances the processes of linguistic nativization are similar for each variety of English outside the British Isles. In the second chapter, he charts the development of linguistic research into English as a world language, presenting various models of accounting for the different varieties. Schneider prefers the term ‘Post-colonial Englishes’ over more common labels such as ‘New Englishes’ (p. 4). In the third chapter, Schneider presents his model for the development of Post-colonial Englishes. He distinguishes between the English-speaking settlers or colonialists as the ‘STL [i.e. ‘settlers’] strand’ of the development and the InDiGenous population as the ‘IDG strand’, whose group identities and attitudes towards and uses of English are of importance in the course of the evolution of a new variety. According to Schneider, the Post-colonial Englishes develop in five phases, which will be summarized briefly. In Phase 1, ‘Foundation’, English-speaking settlers arrive in the area. The IDG and the STL group are characterized by a relationship of otherness, but within the STL group, dialect levelling or koinéization occurs, evening out differences between the different varieties spoken by the settlers. Phase 2, ‘Exonormative Stabilization’, involves political stabilization, usually in the form of an official colony during which the STL group begins to develop a ‘British-cum-local’ (p. 37) identity which also leads to changes in the English spoken by them, mainly in the form of borrowed words. As more members of the IDG acquire English, ‘Structural Nativization’, the hallmark feature of Phase 3, is also under way. This phase is also characterized by political semi-autonomy with regard to the colonial mother country, for example as members of the Commonwealth. In Phase 4, political independence has been gained and ‘Endonormative Stabilization’ sets in, as the STL and the IDG strands begin to view themselves as members of the newborn nation. This leads to the acceptance and codification of local norms. In Phase 5, finally, the focus shifts from a larger national identity to smaller group identities, whether regional or social, leading to linguistic ‘Differentiation’. Schneider also presents variations of this basic pattern, before he proceeds to discuss the linguistic aspects of nativization in greater detail in chapter 4. Chapter 5 is devoted to a total of sixteen case studies, from Fiji, Australia and New Zealand, via Asian varieties, such as SingE and IndE, to African varieties, such as SAE or NigE, to Caribbean varieties from Barbados and Jamaica to Canada. Chapter 6 presents a test case from hindsight, namely the case of AmE, which Schneider argues is exemplary for the developmental cycle outlined in chapter 3. The conclusions include a summary of the main facts, as well as a number of points related to the applicability of the model, which is designed to account for pidgin and creole varieties as well as for standard or standardizing varieties. Schneider's model, drawing on earlier work by Salikoko Mufwene, as well as Sarah Thomason and Terence Kaufman, is without doubt a very important step towards a unified but yet comparative approach to accounting for the emergence of the New Englishes. While not every linguist may agree with Schneider's analysis (cf. the review of Mukherjee's article on IndE below), it is without doubt a book which will generate a lively discussion in the field and certainly inspire more research.</p>
<p>Another monograph on English as a world language with a completely different angle is Alastair Pennycook's <italic>Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows</italic>, in which the author examines the effects of the global spread of hip-hop music and culture on linguistic usage. After three introductory chapters on the issue of English as a global language, a wide range of theories of transgression, and questions of performativity, Pennycook gives a large number of examples of how rap and hip-hop have led to new forms of localization while at the same time providing global identification. The linguistic result of this twofold aim is often mixed codes or new vernacular forms of English which borrow from the originally African-American hip-hop as well as from local indigenous languages. The examples include rap lyrics from Japan, Malaysia, Senegal or Australia, which Pennycook ties in with a discussion of research on hip-hop culture in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Pacific. Pennycook stresses the transgressive potential of hip-hop language or ‘raplish’ (p. 4) and therefore does not consider these uses of English as instances of cultural imperialism along the lines of Robert Phillipson and others. Pennycook's arguments are supported by Jamie Shinhee Lee's article ‘<italic>I’m the illest fucka</italic>: An Analysis of African American English in South Korean Hip Hop’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:ii[2007] 54–60), which illustrates the processes of linguistic borrowing from AAVE but at the same time localization by creating new lexical items from English and Korean morphological material.</p>
<p>A number of shorter publications also deal with English as a world language. Barbara A. Fennel's contribution on ‘Colonial and Postcolonial Varieties’ (in Llamas, Mullany and Stockwell, eds., pp. 192–8) offers a very concise overview of relevant issues and concepts. Joseph A. Foley offers ‘English as a Global Language: My Two Satangs’ Worth’ (<italic>RELC</italic> 38[2007] 7–17), addressing issues of standards and norms and the native-speaker teacher of English and questions of linguistic ownership. Similarly, Keith Davidson discusses ‘The Nature and Significance of English as a Global Language’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:i[2007] 48–9), coming to the conclusion that native speakers need to adjust their ways of speaking in a global context in order to communicate successfully.</p>
<p>A number of articles specifically address English as a lingua franca (ELF). Martin Dewey's article ‘English as a Lingua Franca and Globalization: An Interconnected Perspective’ (<italic>IJAL</italic> 17[2007] 332–54) provides a comprehensive overview of current ELF research and proposes a transformationalist approach in dealing with ELF as its realizations are necessarily dynamic rather than static. Luke Prodromou asks ‘Is ELF a Variety of English?’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:ii[2007] 47–53), and comes to the conclusion that despite various claims made by ELF researchers, there is no empirical proof of a homogenous variety of ELF. Similarly, Sandra Mollin wonders ‘New Variety or Learner English? Criteria for Variety Status and the Case of Euro-English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 167–85), and argues quite convincingly that there is no empirical evidence for a variety of English which could be called ‘Euro-English’. Nevertheless, Nicos Sifakis calls for ‘The Education of Teachers of English as a Lingua Franca: A Transformative Perspective’ (<italic>IJAL</italic> 17[2007] 354–75), claiming that teacher education for TESOL should be informed by the ELF context and include native-speaker and non-native-speaker interaction. An empirical analysis of ELF communication is provided by Anne Kari Bjørge's study of ‘Power Distance in English Lingua Franca Email Communication’ (<italic>IJAL</italic> 17[2007] 60–80), which is based on a corpus of e-mails written by international students in Norway to two professors. Bjørge's analysis of the greetings and complimentary close formulae reveals that not only the medium of communication and the students’ L1 influence the linguistic choices made in the English-language e-mails, but also the politeness conventions of their home culture.</p>
<p>Two publications compare data from a wider range of Englishes and are therefore included in this introductory section. Christian Mair looks at ‘Varieties of English around the World: Collocational and Cultural Profiles’ (in Skandera, ed., <italic>Phraseology and Culture in English</italic>, pp. 437–68), establishing typical collocational patterns in L1 and L2 varieties of English from Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Singapore, the Philippines, Jamaica, Kenya and Tanzania on the basis of the web, the <italic>BNC</italic> and the International Corpus of English (ICE). The study shows that while huge amounts of data are necessary to arrive at any conclusions, the study of collocational or phraseological patterns is very promising also with regard to identifying varieties of English. Ulrike Gut compares ‘First Language Influence and Final Consonant Clusters in the New Englishes of Singapore and Nigeria’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 346–59), showing that despite similarities between the L1s of the speakers analysed, there is actually a high degree of variation in the realizations of final consonant clusters by educated Singaporean and Nigerian speakers of English. Gut attributes these differences to the different status of English in the two countries under analysis and differences in norm orientation which have led to a higher degree of nativization in the case of Singapore.</p>
<p>As in past years, we will begin the survey of the individual varieties with those from the southern hemisphere. A special issue of <italic>JAPC</italic> (17[2007]), edited by Yinxia Zhu and Herbert Hildebrandt, on the topic of <italic>Culture, Contexts, and Communication in Multicultural Australia and New Zealand: An Introduction</italic> contains a number of contributions dealing with AusE and NZE which will be reviewed individually below. Two publications compare AusE and NZE. Deanna Wong and Pam Peters provide ‘A Study of Backchannels in Regional Varieties of English, Using Corpus Mark-Up as the Means of Identification’ (<italic>IJCL</italic> 122[2007] 479–509) on the basis of the telephone conversations in the Australian and New Zealand subcorpora of <italic>ICE</italic>. Comparing their findings to earlier research based on AmE they come to the conclusion that speakers of NZE and AusE use a similar repertoire of backchannels, but the AusE speakers showed more repetition while the NZE speakers employed a greater variety of forms. In comparison to previous research on AmE, the Southern Hemisphere varieties are significantly different from AmE, which indicates a great potential for the analysis of regional variation elsewhere. Gina Poncini is ‘Exploring the Image of New World Wine Producers: Website Texts for Wineries in Australia and New Zealand’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 105–25) on the basis of the evaluative linguistic devices used and the strategies for building up shared knowledge.</p>
<p>AusE has received most scholarly attention this year. Peter Collins provides a comprehensive description of the semantics of ‘<italic>Can/Could</italic> and <italic>May/Might</italic> in British, American and Australian English: A Corpus-Based Account’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 474–91) on the basis of ICE-GB, ICE-AUS and a specially compiled corpus of AmE, showing that there are significant regional differences in the usage of these modals. Peter Collins also looks at ‘Modality across World Englishes: The Modals and Semi-Modals of Prediction and Volition’ (in Butler, Downing and Lavid, eds., <italic>Functional Perspectives on Grammar and Discourse</italic>, pp. 447–68), comparing the functions of <italic>will</italic>, <italic>shall</italic>, <italic>be going to</italic>, <italic>gonna</italic>, <italic>want to</italic>, <italic>wanna</italic> and <italic>be about to</italic> on the basis of the same AusE, BrE and AmE corpora. Bert Peeters discusses ‘Australian Perceptions of the Weekend: Evidence from Collocations and Elsewhere’ (in Skandera, ed., pp. 79–107), defining ‘weekend’ as a cultural key term in Australian English based on expressions such as ‘the land of the long weekend’ or ‘Mondayitis’. Pam Peters looks at ‘Similes and other Evaluative Idioms in Australian English’ (in Skandera, ed., pp. 235–55) in the Australian Corpus of English, ICE-AUS and the web. Peters shows the productivity of many expressions and patterns, e.g. <italic>as</italic> ADJ <italic>as a bandicoot</italic>, whether they are based on an older British expression or local inventions. Thérèse Lalor and Johanna Rendle-Short report on ‘ “That's so gay”: A Contemporary Use of <italic>Gay</italic> in Australian English’ (<italic>AuJL</italic> 27[2007] 147–73), which is especially common among younger speakers with a negative meaning of ‘boring’ or ‘stupid’ and found most frequently in constructions with BE and an inanimate subject. Johanna Rendle-Short also discusses ‘ “Catherine, you’re wasting your time”: Address Terms within the Australian Political Interview’ (<italic>JPrag</italic> 39[2007] 1503–25) during the time leading up to the federal election in 2004. Using CA methodology, Rendle-Short shows distinct differences in the address strategies of journalists and politicians, in the choice of address terms as well as in the sequential positioning of the address.</p>
<p>Gerhard Leitner examines ‘Australia's “Asia Competence” and the Uneasy Balance between Asian Languages and English’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 29–60) in the light of Australian language policy since the 1980s. Verna Robertson Rieschield looks at ‘Influences of Language Proficiency, Bilingual Socialization, and Urban Youth Identities on Producing Different Arabic-English Voices in Australia’ (<italic>Novitas</italic> 1[2007] 34–52) on the basis of interview data and matched-guise experiments. She comes to the conclusion that there is no uniform Arabic-AusE ethnolect, but rather a range of different varieties, depending on the speaker's individual background. In addition to that, younger speakers also make use of the mixed code Arabizi or the urban variety Lebspeak, which combines Arabic-heritage-AusE, global hip-hop language and Arabic loanwords, to express group identity and solidarity.</p>
<p>Three publications deal with Australian Aboriginal English. Ian G. Malcolm and Ellen Grote provide a brief survey of the features of ‘Aboriginal English: Restructured Variety for Cultural Maintenance’ (in Leitner and Malcolm, eds., <italic>The Habitat of Australia</italic>'<italic>s Aboriginal Languages: Past, Present and Future</italic>, pp. 153–79), including information on linguistic processes involved in its development, its functions and uses and information on regional, social and stylistic variation. Diana Eades explores the uses of ‘Aboriginal English in the Criminal Justice System’ (in Leitner and Malcolm, eds., pp. 299–326) on the basis of court transcripts of a number of cases in which the Aboriginal English spoken by the defendants led to misunderstandings in the courtroom or in which linguistic evidence was used to identify fabricated confessions. Eades concludes that all legal professionals in Australia should be educated with regard to the specific features of Aboriginal English in order to avoid fatal miscommunication. Ian G. Malcolm and Farzad Sharifian discuss ‘Multiword Units in Aboriginal English: Australian Cultural Expression in an Adopted Language’ (in Skandera, ed., pp. 375–98) on the basis of a large corpus of interview and free speech data. The analysis shows that Aboriginal English contains a wide range of multi-word units which differ from General AusE due to different discourse strategies and encoding conventions.</p>
<p>Moving on to New Zealand, Martin East, Nick Shackleford and Gail Spence look at ways of ‘Promoting a Multilingual Future for Aotearoa/New Zealand: Initiatives for Change from 1989 to 2003’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 11–28), examining the language policy of the New Zealand government during this period with regard to its effectiveness. Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren, Dianne Beardsley, Marianna Kennedy and George Major provide a very concise overview of educated Pakeha NZE pronunciation in ‘Illustrations of the IPA: New Zealand English’ (<italic>JIPA</italic> 37[2007] 97–102). Margaret Maclagan and Jennifer Hay focus on ‘Getting <italic>Fed</italic> Up With Our <italic>Feet</italic>: Contrast Maintenance and the New Zealand English “Short Front Vowel Shift” ’ (<italic>LVC</italic> 19[2007] 1–25), showing that for some younger speakers of NZE, the DRESS vowel completely overlaps the space of the FLEECE vowel which has led to a subsequent diphthongization of the latter in order to maintain the phonemic distinction. John Macalister discusses ‘<italic>Weka</italic> or <italic>Woodhen</italic>? Nativisation through Lexical Choices in New Zealand English’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 492–506) on the basis of a diachronic analysis of twelve Maori-English synonym pairs to determine which factors lead to the use of a Maori loanword when an English equivalent exists.</p>
<p>David Cooke, T. Pascal Brown and Yunxia Zhu look ‘Beyond Language: Workplace Communication and the L2 Worker’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 83–103) on the basis of data from three New Zealand worksites, showing that small talk is used in the exercise of power and that L2 workers have to struggle considerably in participating in verbal exchanges. The authors thus formulate implications for language teaching and the need for consciousness-raising measures at workplaces with L2 speakers of English. Angela Chan examines ‘Same Context, Different Strategies: A Company Director's Discourse in Business Meetings’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 61–81) on the basis of audio and video recordings of a New Zealand IT company director in business meetings, identifying the discourse strategies employed in dealing with his subordinates.</p>
<p>Moving on to further southern hemisphere varieties, Marianne Hundt and Carolin Biewer report on ‘The Dynamics of Inner and Outer Circle Varieties in the South Pacific and East Asia’ (in Hundt, Nesselhauf and Biewer, eds., pp. 249–69) on the basis of a newspaper corpus downloaded from the web which includes AusE, NZE, AmE and BrE as inner-circle varieties and Singapore E, Philippine E and Fiji E as outer-circle varieties. The analysis of the occurrences of present perfect and past tense forms showed that some of the outer-circle varieties pattern with BrE while others have developed their own norms. It remains to be seen if NZE or AusE are sources of exonormative orientation in the southern hemisphere. Donna Starks, Jane Christie and Laura Thompson discuss ‘Niuean English: Initial Insights into an Emerging Variety’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 133–46) as spoken by Niueans in New Zealand with regard to its phonological and suprasegmental features. Their research is another step in the analysis of the Pasifika Englishes spoken in New Zealand. Finally, Daniel Schreier examines ‘Greetings as Acts of Identity in Tristan da Cunha English: From Individual to Social Significance?’ (in Skandera, ed., pp. 353–74), looking at the social functions of the Tristanian greeting formula <italic>How you is?</italic>. Finally, a special volume supplement of <italic>American Speech</italic> (<italic>AS</italic> 91:i[2007]) deals with the Bonin Islands, where a variety of English has been spoken since the late nineteenth century. While most of the contributions are concerned with Japanese and various indigenous languages, a number of articles in this volume also deal with the development of English on the Bonin Islands, for example Peter Trudgill's ‘Late-Nineteenth-Century Bonin English’ (<italic>AS</italic> supplement 91[2007] 99–120). As very little research has been done on Bonin Islands English so far, this collection is a very valuable contribution to the field.</p>
<p>With regard to English in Asia, we welcome the publication of the five volumes on <italic>Asian Englishes</italic>, edited by Kingsley Bolton and Braj B. Kachru. With this collection, many key publications on Asian Englishes, dating back into the nineteenth century, have been made available to the interested linguist. Volume 1 is concerned with <italic>South Asian English, 1837–1938</italic>, including seminal text such as Henry Yule's ‘Hobson-Jobsonia’ (originally published in the <italic>Asiatic Quarterly Review</italic> in 1886). Volume 2 is dedicated to the phenomenon of <italic>Baboo English, 1890–1891</italic>, collections of letters and petitions written by Westerners, for example the journalist Arnold Wright, mocking the elaborate English style of Indian writers. These have strongly influenced stereotypes of IndE until the present day. Volume 3 presents <italic>Features of Indian English, 1907–1954</italic>, namely George Clifford Whitworth's book <italic>Indian English: An Examination of the Errors of Idiom Made by Indians in Writing English</italic> [1907], which has been reprinted many times and was used in Indian schools until very recently, and <italic>G. Subba Rao</italic>'s study of <italic>Indian Words in English: A Study in Indo-British Cultural and Linguistic Relations</italic> [1954], which shows the development of Indian loanwords in English. Volume 4 is dedicated to <italic>Debating English in India, 1968–1976</italic> and contains Amritlal B. Shah's book <italic>The Great Debate: Language Controversy and University Education</italic> [1968] and Klayan K. Chatterjee's work <italic>English Education in India: Issues and Opinions</italic> [1976], both illustrating the post-independence language controversy about the role of English and Hindi in India. Volume 5, finally, presents <italic>East Asian Varieties of ‘Pidgin English’ 1836–1960</italic>, including various accounts of Canton and Chinese Pidgin English from the nineteenth century, as well as Yokohama Pidgin and Korean and Japanese Bamboo English, which refer to the English spoken by American GIs who were stationed in Japan or Korea and which led to a kind of Pidgin English in interaction with the local population. While the collection is very much focused on Indian English, it nevertheless provides very important early writing on Asian Englishes which is often difficult to obtain today. It thus gives research on Asian, and especially IndE, more historical perspective. Another collection concerned with Asian Englishes focuses on the present-day situation and the more recent past. Amy B.M. Tsui and James W. Tollefson are the editors of <italic>Language Policy, Culture and Identity in Asian Contexts</italic>, which covers a wide range of Asian countries, from South Korea to Cambodia. The contributions of interest to the linguist working on the New Englishes will therefore be reviewed below in the sections concerned with the individual countries.</p>
<p>Most scholarly attention has been devoted to the study of English in Hong Kong and China this year. Loretta Fung and Ronald Carter provide interesting insights into ‘Cantonese E-Discourse: A New Hybrid Variety of English’ (<italic>Multilingua</italic> 26[2007] 35–66) based on Hong Kong university students’ communication via the web-based message service ICQ. The corpus reveals code-switching between Cantonese and English, but also loan translations and borrowings as well as prosodic effects realized by spelling and punctuation changes. Amy B.M. Tsui examines ‘Language Policy and the Construction of Identity: The Case of Hong Kong’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 121–41), tracing the development of national identity and language policy from the colonial into the postcolonial period. It becomes quite clear that today English and Cantonese are an integral part of Hong Kong's identity. Empirical support of Tsui's conclusions is provided by Mee Ling Lai's contribution on ‘Exploring Language Stereotypes in Post-Colonial Hong Kong through the Matched-Guise Test’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 225–44) with regard to English, Cantonese and Putonghua. The results from testing more than a thousand secondary students showed that English rates highest with regard to power and Cantonese received highest marks for solidarity, whereas Putonghua rated lowest in both dimensions. With regard to the teaching of English in Hong Kong, Cheung Yin Ling and George Braine studied ‘The Attitudes of University Students towards Non-Native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong’ (<italic>RELC</italic> 38[2007] 257–77), revealing that the attitudes of third-year students were more favourable towards non-native teachers than those of first-year students. This is explained by their ability to judge the advantages and disadvantages of non-native-speaker English teachers in terms of teaching effectiveness and strategies. Along similar lines, Andy Kirkpatrick is concerned with ‘Setting Attainable and Appropriate English Language Targets in Multilingual Settings: A Case for Hong Kong’ (<italic>IJAL</italic> 17[2007] 376–91), criticizing the native-speaker model used in Hong Kong's language policy and promoting an ELF approach in language teaching in multilingual countries like Hong Kong. This is echoed in David C.S. Li's article on ‘Researching and Teaching China and Hong Kong English’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:iii and iv[2007] 11–17), who also advocates a focus on ELF and World Englishes in lieu of the current (American) native-speaker models in the teaching of English in those two countries.</p>
<p>Bertha Du-Babcock looks at ‘Language-Based Communication Zones and Professional Genre Competence in Business and Organizational Communication: A Cross-Cultural Case Approach’ (<italic>JAPC</italic> 17[2007] 149–71) on the basis of data from the US, Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China. Sylvia Xiaohua Chen and Michael Harris Bond work on ‘Explaining Language Priming Effects: Further Evidence for Ethnic Affirmation among Chinese-English Bilinguals’ (<italic>JLS</italic> 26[2007] 398–406) within a framework of accommodation theory. In a survey of over 450 university students from China and Hong Kong, who were fluent in Chinese and English, they found that the Chinese students identified more with Western and Chinese cultures, while the Hong Kong students scored lower on both, probably due to a stronger identification with local Hong Kong culture.</p>
<p>Moving on to Singapore, Lionel Wee looks at ‘Singapore English <italic>X-self</italic> and <italic>Ownself</italic>’’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 360–72), discussing the semantic and functional differences between these reflexive forms in Colloquial SingE. Lisa Lim reports on ‘Mergers and Acquisitions: On the Ages and Origins of Singapore English Particles’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 446–73), tracing the development of the discourse particles <italic>lah</italic>, <italic>ah</italic>, <italic>what</italic>, <italic>lor</italic>, <italic>hor</italic>, <italic>leh</italic>, <italic>meh</italic> and <italic>ma</italic> and identifying their most likely substrates on the basis of sociolinguistic profiles for various phases in Singapore's history. While <italic>lah</italic> and <italic>ah</italic> are found to have originated in Hokkien or Bazaar Malay, Lim attributes the other particles to borrowing from Cantonese while maintaining their original tonal structure. Rani Rubdy examines ‘Singlish in the School: An Impediment or a Resource?’ (<italic>JMMD</italic> 28[2007] 308–24) on the basis of two surveys in Singapore primary schools, and comes to the conclusion that despite the government's campaign against the use of the local vernacular variety it could even be instrumentalized as a pedagogical resource in the education system. Viniti Vaish discusses ‘Bilingualism without Diglossia: The Indian Community in Singapore’ (<italic>IJBEB</italic> 10[2007] 171–87) based on findings from the Sociolinguistic Survey of Singapore conducted in 2006. The survey covers language use in various public and private domains, and while the trend of language shift from Tamil to English among the Indian community in Singapore is indeed confirmed, there are also tendencies of language maintenance, often more situation- than domain-dependent. Wendy D. Bokhorst-Heng, Lubna Alsagoff, Sandra McKay and Rani Rubdy also look at the linguistic behaviour of another ethnic group in Singapore, namely ‘English Language Ownership among Singaporean Malays: Going Beyond the NS/NNS Dichotomy’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 424–45). The researchers recorded eight Malay informants of varying age and social class while they completed a questionnaire of acceptability judgements to gain insights into their English-language norms. They found a strong adherence to exonormative standards, but also a growing sense of linguistic ownership especially among the younger informants. These findings are also mirrored in Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew's study ‘Remaking Singapore: Language, Culture, and Identity in a Globalized World’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 73–93), which is based on a survey of language attitudes among Singaporeans during the government's Speak Good English Movement campaign. Chew found that Singlish is especially mentioned with regard to a Singaporean identity, while English is viewed as a useful and non-threatening global language.</p>
<p>Joanne Rajadurai offers ‘Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Variation in Non-Native Varieties of English: The Case of Malaysian English’ (<italic>Multilingua</italic> 26[2007] 409–26) on the basis of recorded speech from various domains and follow-up interviews. Rajadurai is able to show how skilfully speakers use educated and colloquial Malaysian English according to the demands of the context. Maya Khemlani David and Subramaniam Govindasamy discuss ‘The Construction of National Identity and Globalization in Multilingual Malaysia’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 55–72). After providing a brief survey of Malaysia's sociolinguistic background and development, the authors examine current Malaysian English textbooks with regard to their success in representing the official policy of national integration. Mukul Saxena reports on ‘Multilingual and Multicultural Identities in Brunei Darussalam’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 143–62), which involve an intricate balance of local Malay, English and various other indigenous languages and cultures in a concept of governance that consists of Muslim, Hindu and Western values and ideologies.</p>
<p>Two articles deal with the specific linguistic requirements of outsourced call centres in Asia. Eric Friginal studies ‘Outsourced Call Centers and English in the Philippines’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 331–45) by analysing the English communication and Transaction monitoring scores of seventy-four Filipino customer-service representatives over a period of seven months. The study showed the importance of job-related language training, but also of task-specific skills, such as intercultural pragmatics. Claire Cowie examines ‘The Accents of Outsourcing: The Meanings of “Neutral” in the Indian Call Centre Industry’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 316–30) on the basis of an ethnographic analysis of a call-centre training institute in Bangalore, South India. Cowie concludes that the growing acceptability of an educated Indian accent, the traditional use of the British model in the education system and the customer demand for American accents come into conflict in call-centre language training resulting in mixed messages for the trainees.</p>
<p>Moving on to South Asia, Joybrato Mukherjee discusses ‘Steady States in the Evolution of New Englishes: Present-Day Indian English as an Equilibrium’ (<italic>JEL</italic> 35[2007] 157–87), taking Edgar Schneider's dynamic model reviewed above as a departing point for a closer look at IndE. Unlike Schneider (cf. pp. 161–73), Mukherjee claims that IndE has progressed to the stage of endonormative stabilization while retaining some features from the stage of nativization. While Schneider's model entails that eventually all New Englishes progress to stage 5 (development of dialects), Mukherjee puts forward arguments in favour of a steady-state situation, in which conservative and progressive forces hold each other in check. He views IndE thus as a semi-autonomous variety, which includes the common core of international English, structures taken over from indigenous languages but also developing its own norms with regard to English. Joybrato Mukherjee and Sebastian Hoffmann examine ‘Ditransitive Verbs in Indian English and British English: A Corpus-Linguistic Study’ (<italic>AAA</italic> 32[2007] 5–24), looking at the complementational profiles of ditransitive verbs in IndE and BrE on the basis of various synchronic and diachronic corpora. They find that there are significant differences between the two varieties and that the new patterns in IndE are not retentions of earlier BrE norms but rather innovations by means of extensions of an existing paradigm. Claudia Lange has worked on ‘Focus Marking in Indian English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 89–118), analysing the functions of the forms <italic>only</italic> and <italic>itself</italic> in ICE-India. Lange is able to show that the forms have acquired additional presentative functions in IndE and have developed a distributional pattern according to text type. Kanthimathi Krishnasamy presents a case of code-mixing in southern India, namely ‘English in Tamil: The Language of Advertising’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:iii–iv[2007] 40–9), giving many examples of the linguistic creativity, for example wordplay, of advertisers in combining Tamil and English to make their ads work for a bilingual audience.</p>
<p>R.K. Agnihotri discusses ‘Identity and Multilinguality: The Case of India’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 185–204), tracing the history of language policy in India, with a special focus on the language debate after independence and the status and functions of English in present-day India. Other South Indian states in which English plays an important role in terms of language policy are also represented in the same volume. Selma K. Sonntag presents ‘Change and Permanence in Language Politics in Nepal’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 205–17), pointing out that, unlike in the past, the current political developments are not conducive to the learning and teaching of English. Tariq Rahman looks at ‘The Role of English in Pakistan with Special Reference to Tolerance and Militancy’ (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 219–39), providing data on the sociolinguistic profile, current language policy and current uses of English in education, the media, and government and administration. Tania Hossain and James W. Tollefson report on ‘Language Policy in Bangladesh’ since independence (in Tsui and Tollefson, eds., pp. 241–57), especially with regard to the education system and the rivalry with Bengali. Sebastian M. Rasinger has tackled <italic>Bengali-English in East London: A Study in Urban Multilingualism</italic>, more precisely, whether the English spoken by first-generation immigrants from Bangladesh, whose L1 is Sylheti, in the Tower Hamlets community represents an identifiable variety of English. Rasinger's study is based on the qualitative analysis of sociolinguistic interview data as well as on the quantitative analysis of questionnaire data. He comes to the conclusion that the first-generation immigrants do not speak a focused variety of English, but rather a very variable kind of Sylheti–English interlanguage. However, he has found evidence that second-generation younger speakers have indeed developed their own variety, sometimes dubbed <italic>Benglish</italic>. To conclude this section on Asian English, I would like to refer to Priyanvada Abeywickrama's article ‘Do We Codeswitch or Codemix in Sri Lanka?’ (<italic>JMD</italic> 2[2007] 63–77), in which it is argued that in conversations code-switching between Sinhala and English gives way to a mixed code.</p>
<p>With regard to English in Africa, there is a wide range of publications on a larger number of varieties than usual. Augustin Simo Bobda offers a comparative analysis of ‘Patterns of Segment Sequence Simplification in Some African Englishes’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 411–23), examining a large number of varieties mainly on the basis of previous research and identifying similar patterns, for example in the monophthongization of diphthongs or in consonant cluster reduction.</p>
<p>West Africa is a major focus in the study of African Englishes this year. Rotimi Taiwo, Akin Odebunmi and Akin Adetunji have edited a volume on <italic>Perspectives on Media Discourse</italic>, which mainly contains contributions on pragmatic aspects of Nigerian media discourse. Rotimi Taiwo looks at ‘Language, Ideology and Power Relations in Nigerian Newspaper Headlines’ (pp. 40–60), using CDA (Critical Discourse Analysis) methodology in the analysis of a corpus of headlines collected from six Nigerian newspapers. Olatunde Ayodabo reports on ‘Pragmatic Functions of Newspaper Cover Lead News Headlines in Nigeria’ (pp. 114–39) on the basis of a different corpus of headlines from six Nigerian newspapers, with a view to their adherence to the Co-operative Principle and the speech-act type employed. Akin Odebunmi discusses ‘Explicatures and Implicatures in Magazine Editorials: The Case of Nigerian <italic>TELL</italic>’ (pp. 84–99), looking at the Generic Structure Potential in the editorials of sixty editions of <italic>Tell</italic> magazine. Moses Alo examines ‘Representation of People in the News in the Nigerian Print Media’ (pp. 100–13) on the basis of the linguistic strategies in naming and referring to people in NPs in a corpus compiled from five Nigerian newspapers. Akin Adetunji provides an analysis of ‘Meaning Death Mediation: A Pragmatic Study of Obituaries in Nigerian Newspapers’ (pp. 198–221) on the basis of obituaries sampled from Nigeria's major newspapers. Innocent Chiluwa discusses ‘Discourse Features of the Language of Nigerian News Magazines’ (pp. 222–49), analysing lexical usage, graphological elements and strategies of cohesion in a corpus compiled from three widely read news magazines, <italic>Tell</italic>, <italic>The News</italic> and <italic>Newswatch</italic>. Godwin Eliarekhian Oboh provides ‘Tidbits on News and Editorial Writing in Nigerian Weekly Magazines’ (pp. 280–95), showing that the editorials analysed are not so much opinion pieces but rather summaries of the news reported elsewhere. Oni Olawale and Oluseye Abiodun B. report on ‘The Mass Media and Public Opinion: A Content Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Alamieyeseigha's Bail Jump Saga’ (pp. 296–325) in three major Nigerian newspapers in order to assess the role of public opinion in Nigerian news reporting. Kate Azuka Omenugha remarks on ‘Playing Unfair: The Synergy of Culture and Sexism in Nigerian News Discourse’ (pp. 156–81) on the basis of data collected from four Nigerian newspapers, showing which images of women are presented there. Mafhouz Adedimeji provides ‘A Speech Acts Analysis of Cigarette Advertising in the Nigerian Media’ (pp. 267–79) taken from nine advertising billboards in south-western Nigeria. Finally, S.A. Aladeyomi discusses ‘Errors of Segmental Phonemes in the Spoken English of Nigerian Television Newscasters’ (pp. 182–97) on the basis of recordings of sixty television newscasters from state and federal television stations, including speakers of all major and a number of minority languages. Aladeyomi uses error analysis to discuss various features, such as consonant and vowel substitutions, and concludes by recommending pronunciation training for newscasters.</p>
<p>Efurosibina Adegbija provides a comprehensive account of ‘Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria’ (in Kaplan and Baldauf, eds., <italic>Language Planning and Policy in Africa</italic>, vol. 2: <italic>Algeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria and Tunisia</italic>, pp. 190–255), discussing the language profile of Nigeria and questions of language spread through education and the media, as well as language policy since the colonial period. Adegbija specifically discusses the role of English and Nigerian Pidgin, predicting that without political measures to ensure the maintenance of the indigenous languages, the shift towards English and Nigerian Pidgin will continue because of their economic value and the prestige of English, especially in urban areas. Augustin Simo Bobda presents a detailed study of ‘Some Segmental Rules of Nigerian English Phonology’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 279–310), which consists mainly of the reanalysis of previous research. His focus is on the identification of phonological rules and their sequencing in contrast to RP. Grace Ebunlola Adamo discusses ‘Nigerian English: Is It—Can It Be—Part of a Quest for Cultural Expression and Identity?’ (<italic>EnT</italic> 23:i[2007] 42–7), coming to the conclusion that despite considerable nativization English is not a language suited to be Nigeria's national language as it lacks the facilities for cultural self-expression. Bolanle Akeredolu Ale reports on ‘Good English for What? Learners’ Motivation as a Factor in Declining Learners’ Performance in English Language Acquisition and Use in Nigerian Schools’ (<italic>ChE</italic> 14[2007] 231–45), arguing that the growing acceptance of a local variety of English is reflected in the results of nationwide school examinations in English.</p>
<p>Jean-Paul Kouega has compiled <italic>A Dictionary of Cameroon English Usage</italic>, which does not only contain dictionary entries of current Cameroon English usage, but also some background information on the geographical and linguistic situation in Cameroon, a brief survey of CamE features, as well as a short chapter on the sources of the dictionary. In the appendix there is a list of proverbs and sayings, a list of common names and a bibliography containing recent literary works by Cameroonian writers. Despite the very short introductory chapters, the dictionary will be very useful for interested linguists as it provides the most comprehensive collection of CamE lexical items, including a large number of abbreviations for state agencies and institutions. Yves Talla Sando Ouafeu looks at ‘Intonational Marking of New and Given Information in Cameroon English’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 187–99) on the basis of interview and reading passage data. The author is able to show that, in contrast to some other New Englishes, there is an intonational distinction between given and new information in CamE, but new information is not highlighted by using a higher pitch but rather by increasing intensity and duration. Daniel Nkemleke wonders ‘ “You will come when?”: The Pragmatics of Certain Questions in Cameroon English’ (<italic>TLJ</italic> 2[2007] 128–42). Using rather unusual terminology, Nkemleke analyses 160 tokens of questions with the <italic>wh</italic>-word <italic>in situ</italic> from conversational data, coming to the conclusion that this question type is used in informal situations and is modelled on the interrogative patterns of various Bantu languages spoken in Cameroon. He is not aware of the fact that this pattern is common in many varieties of English. Hans-Georg Wolf and Frank Polzenhagen discuss ‘Fixed Expressions as Manifestations of Cultural Conceptionalizations: Examples from African Varieties of English’ (in Skandera, ed., pp. 399–435) on the basis of the Cameroon English Corpus and a thematic database from unidentified African sources on the web. Their analysis is based on conceptual metaphors in the Lakoffian tradition and Anna Wierzbicka's cultural key words, and it reveals differences from the BrE and AmE corpora which are corroborated by a questionnaire survey. The same data are also used in Frank Polzenhagen and Hans-Georg Wolf's study of ‘Culture-Specific Conceptualisations of Corruption in African English: Linguistic Analyses and Pragmatic Applications’ (in Sharifan and Palmer, eds., <italic>Applied Cultural Linguistics: Implications for Second Language Learning and Intercultural Communication</italic>, pp. 125–68). Anne Schröder looks at ‘Camfranglais—A Language with Several (Sur)Faces and Important Sociolinguistic Functions’ (in Bartels and Wiemann, eds., <italic>Global Fragments: (Dis)Orientation in the New World Order</italic>, pp. 281–98), showing that this mixed code spoken by younger urban francophone Cameroonians has two major varieties, one based on French syntax, the other on the syntax of Cameroonian Pidgin English.</p>
<p>Three articles deal with SAE phonetics and phonology. Ian Bekker and Georgina Eley provide ‘An Acoustic Analysis of White South African English (WSAE) Monophthongs’ (<italic>SALALS</italic> 25[2007] 107–14), more precisely of the speech of ten younger speakers of the prestige variety spoken in the northern suburbs of Johannesburg. The analysis reveals that this variety is indeed characterized by a number of distinct vowel qualities. Andries W. Coetzee and Daan P. Wissing compare ‘Global and Local Durational Properties in Three Varieties of South African English’ (<italic>LingRev</italic> 24[2007] 263–89), namely WSAE, Afrikaans English and Tswana English. While the last of these reveals a more syllable-timed pattern, the two former varieties are stress-timed just like RP and other L1 varieties of English. Philippa Louw and Febe De Wet investigate ‘The Perception and Identification of Accent in Spoken Black South African English’ (<italic>SALALS</italic> 25[2007] 91–105), addressing the question whether Nguni and Sotho L1 speakers can determine each other's L1 via their accent when speaking English. The analysis reveals that the correlation between L1 and pronunciation is not straightforward enough for a reliable recognition.</p>
<p>Rajend Mesthrie discusses ‘Dialect Representation versus Linguistic Stereotypes in Literature: Three Examples from Indian South African English’ (in Bartels and Wiemann, eds., pp. 261–80). After briefly outlining key features of the Indian South African speech community, Mesthrie tests samples from a satirical radio show and two literary texts as to how realistically they depict the variety under analysis, showing that the authors of the texts skilfully exploit stereotypical features for a comic or satirical effect rather than aiming at dialect realism. Nkonko M. Kamwangamalu reports on ‘One Language, Multi-Layered Identities: English in a Society in Transition: South Africa’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 263–75), using the concepts of Acts of Identity and John Gumperz's [1982] notion of <italic>we</italic>-code and <italic>they</italic>-code. He comes to the conclusion that as English takes on the role of a <italic>we</italic>-code for black South Africans, indigenous languages are endangered by language shift. Similarly, Bongi Bangeni and Rochelle Kapp investigate ‘Shifting Language Attitudes in a Linguistically Diverse Learning Environment in South Africa’ (<italic>JMMD</italic> 28[2007] 253–69), tracing how black students develop a dual affiliation towards English during their undergraduate studies at a formerly ‘white’ university, even if they had negatively associated English with ‘whiteness’ before. Similarly, Joel M. Magogwe's article ‘An Investigation into Attitudes and Motivation of Botswana Secondary School Students towards English, Setswana and Indigenous Languages’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 311–28) reveals that despite students’ loyalty to Setswana, the official language, English is preferred as medium of instruction.</p>
<p>Sinfree Makoni, Janina Brutt-Griffler and Pedzisai Mashiri explore ‘The Use of “Indigenous” and Urban Vernaculars in Zimbabwe’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 25–49), i.e. those mixed codes that combine morphological material from various indigenous languages and English, such as the Harare urban vernaculars, which fulfil a number of functions in multilingual societies. Along similar lines, Christina Higgins examines ‘Shifting Tactics of Intersubjectivity to Align Indexicalities: A Case of Joking Around in Swahinglish’ (<italic>LSoc</italic> 36[2007] 1–24), a mixed code of Swahili and English used in urban Tanzania by a group of journalists in a jocular conversation, which is analysed according to ethnographic principles. Based on the same data, Christina Higgins also writes on ‘Constructing Membership in the In-Group: Affiliation and Resistance among Urban Tanzanians’ (<italic>Pragmatics</italic> 17[2007] 49–70), showing how the outsider in the group is ethnified by the others but resists this process of ethnification and thus manages to be reintegrated.</p>
<p>Moving on to the Caribbean, there is one article which covers both standard Jamaican English and JC. Alicia Beckford Wassink, Richard A. Wright and Amber D. Franklin discuss ‘Intraspeaker Variability in Vowel Production: An Investigation of Motherese, Hyperspeech, and Lombard Speech in Jamaican Speakers’ (<italic>JPhon</italic> 35[2007] 363–79) pointing out differences between Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole speakers with regard to five acoustic parameters in the various speech modes analysed, as well as within the speech of individuals, which are attributed to style-shifting between Creole and English.</p>
<p>A number of publications deal with creole languages in general or provide a comparative analysis. We welcome the long-overdue publication of <italic>Comparative Creole Syntax: Parallel Outlines of 18 Creole Grammars</italic>, edited by John Holm and Peter L. Patrick. The volume contains contributions on creoles with a large number of European and non-European lexifiers, which are all ordered in the same way for easier reference and comparison. After a brief introduction of the variety, they deal with the unmarked verb, the anterior marker, the progressive marker, habitual aspect, completive aspect, irrealis, complementizers, dependent clauses, negation, passive constructions, verbal functions of adjectives, the copula, serial verbs, the NP, possession, personal pronouns, co-ordinating conjunctions, prepositions and word order. The chapters dealing with English-lexifier creoles are ‘Jamaican Patwa’ (by Peter L. Patrick), ‘Krio (Creole English) or Sierra Leonian’ (by Sorie M. Yillah and Chris Corcoran), ‘Ndyuka’ (by Mary Huttar) and ‘Tok Pisin (Pidgin/Creole English)’ (by Nicholas Faraclas). This volume is highly interesting for all creolists as it combines relevant morphosyntactic information on a broad scope of creoles in an easily accessible format and with—at least largely—comparable terminology. Summary tables at the end of each section make typological comparison even easier, but it must be pointed out that these tables necessarily represent simplifications.</p>
<p>The editors of <italic>Deconstructing Creole</italic>, Umberto Ansaldo, Stephen Matthews and Lisa Lim, set out to critically examine some widespread beliefs about creoles, such as their grammatical simplicity, their exceptional diachrony or their inadvertent decreolization, as Umberto Ansaldo and Stephen Matthews explain in the introduction to the volume, ‘Deconstructing Creole: The Rationale’ (pp. 1–18). I will concentrate on those contributions which deal with creoles in general or specific English-lexifier creoles. Joseph T. Farquharson offers insights on ‘Typology and Grammar: Creole Morphology Revisited’ (pp. 21–37), providing counter-evidence to the claim that creoles do not possess morphology. Enoch O. Aboh and Umberto Ansaldo use Salikoko Mufwene's concept of the feature pool to account for ‘The Role of Typology in Language Creation’ (pp. 39–66), based on the development of Sranan and Sri Lanka Malay. David Gil assesses ‘Creoles, Complexity and Associational Semantics’ (pp. 67–108) on the basis of experimental data from speakers of Sranan, Bislama and Papiamentu as well as various African, Asian European and Semitic languages. He finds that the creoles under analysis do not exhibit the simplest semantic associations, which would be counter-evidence to John McWhorter's claim that creoles are the simplest languages due to their relative youth. Jeff Siegel discusses the importance of ‘Sociohistorical Contexts: Transmission and Transfer’ (pp. 167–201) in creole genesis, pointing out the crucial role of SLA in this process. Nicholas Faraclas, Don E. Walicek, Mervyn Alleyne, Wilfredo Geigel and Luis Ortiz examine ‘The Complexity that Really Matters: The Role of the Political Economy in Creole Genesis’ (pp. 227–64), developing a matrix of creolization in the Caribbean based on the economies, political systems and prevalent ideologies of the territories involved. These factors had a considerable influence on the actual linguistic outcome of the creolization process because they determine interaction types and attitudes.</p>
<p>Salikoko S. Mufwene provides a very concise overview of ‘Creoles and Pidgens’ discussing their features and development (in Llamas, Mullany and Stockwell, eds., pp. 175–84). Marlyse Baptista discusses ‘Properties of Noun Phrases in Creole Languages: A Synthetic Comparative Exposition’ (in Baptista and Guéron, eds., <italic>Noun Phrases in Creole Languages: A Multi-Faceted Approach</italic>, pp. 461–70), summarizing the findings from a larger number of contributions on creoles with various European lexifiers, pointing out the importance of the concept of ‘specificity’ in the creole NP. As in the past, there is a lot of interest in issues of creole genesis. Jeff Siegel provides ‘Recent Evidence against the Language Bioprogram Hypothesis: The Pivotal Case of Hawai’i Creole’ (<italic>SLang</italic> 31[2007] 51–88), critically examining Bickerton's work and pointing out features of Hawai’i Creole, which are not in line with Bickerton's claims, which were based on his analysis of this particular variety. Anna L. Moro's article ‘An Exploration of Colour Terms in English-Lexifier Atlantic Creoles’ (<italic>Lingua</italic> 117[2007] 1448–61) provides evidence for substrate influence and universal tendencies in the development of the colour terminology of creoles such as Jamaican Creole, Bahamian Creole, or Cameroon Creole. Darlene LaCharité proposes an important role for ‘Multilingualism in Creole Genesis’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 159–64) based on widespread bi- and multilingualism in Africa and its role in the adaption of loanwords.</p>
<p>A special issue of the <italic>Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages</italic> (22:i[2007]) is devoted to the question of ‘Substrate Influence in Creole Formation’, as the editors, Bettina Migge and Norval Smith, explain in their introduction (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 1–15). The contributions concentrate on the Suriname creoles because they are widely considered as very conservative creoles, on which a lot of research is being done. Richard Price offers ‘Some Anthropological Musings on Creolization’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 17–36), tracing the spread of the concept of creolization into the fields of anthropology and history, especially in the study of slavery in the Americas. James Essegbey and Felix K. Ameka compare the semantics of ‘ “Cut” and “Break” in Gbe and Sranan’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 37–55), pointing out that the semantics of the verbs in Sranan are closer to their Dutch and English etyma, but their syntax is strongly influenced by the Eastern Gbe varieties. This is a counter-argument against the relexification hypothesis. George L. Huttar, James Essegbey and Felix K. Ameka also study ‘Gbe and other West African Sources of Suriname Creole Semantic Structures: Implications for Creole Genesis’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 57–72) in a large-scale project on the semantics structures of Ndyuka by comparing a large set of lexemes with corresponding lexemes in various Gbe languages, other Kwa languages, such as Akan or Ga and non-Kwa Niger–Congo languages. The data analysis revealed that some features are widespread enough to be considered areal features, but others can be traced to specific languages, which played an important role in various periods of creole development. Donald Winford and Bettina Migge report on ‘Substrate Influence on the Emergence of the TMA Systems of the Surinamese Creoles’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 73–99), assessing the role of various Gbe languages in the development of the TMA system of the Suriname creoles, based on contemporary data from a variety of languages and historical data from Sranan. Their analysis reveals enough similarities to posit substrate influence in the formation of the TMA systems, but a number of differences also point towards the influence of other European languages and mechanisms of language change. Norval Smith and Vinije Haabo examine ‘The Saramaccan Implosives: Tools for Linguistic Archaeology?’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 101–22), using the presence or absence of implosive voiced stops as a means to identify different historical strata in the Saramaccan lexicon. They also argue that Fon must have contained implosive stops in the seventeenth century which were subsequently lost. All the articles in this special issue reveal that, while substrate influence is more or less undisputed today in creole genesis, its exact nature is very complex and often difficult to assess for lack of data.</p>
<p>Moving on to research on the Surinamese and other Atlantic creoles, Adrienne Bruyn discusses ‘Bare Nouns and Articles in Sranan’ (in Baptista and Guéron, eds., pp. 339–81), showing that the uses of bare nouns and NPs with articles and demonstratives in Sranan differ both from constructions in English and in the Gbe substrate languages. Bettina Migge looks at ‘Code-Switching and Social Identities in the Eastern Maroon Community of Suriname and French Guiana’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 53–73) within the framework of Carol Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model. She finds that code-switching between various creole varieties fulfils similar functions in creating interactional meaning as have been shown for bilingual speech communities. Miriam Meyerhoff and James A. Walker discuss ‘The Persistence of Variation in Individual Grammar: Copula Absence in Urban Sojourners and their Stay-at-Home Peers, Bequia (St Vincent and the Grenadines)’ (<italic>JSoc</italic> 11[2007] 346–66), showing that Bequians who have spent considerable time abroad may sound very different from those who have not left the island, but an analysis of their grammatical system reveals only very superficial restructuring. The constraints governing copula absence remain the same and only the overall frequency of the feature is reduced in the speech of the returnees. Janina Fenigsen traces a development ‘From Apartheid to Incorporation: The Emergence and Transformations of Modern Language Community in Barbados, West Indies’ (<italic>Pragmatics</italic> 17[2007] 231–61), evaluating the sociolinguistic stratification of Bajan and Barbadian English with a view to colonial and later postcolonial, national ideologies. Aonghas St Hilaire reports on ‘National Development and the Language Planning Challenge in St Lucia, West Indies’ (<italic>JMMD</italic> 28[2007] 519–36) during the colonial period and thereafter, especially with regard to the relationship of the French-lexifier Kweyol and English.</p>
<p>Stephanie Hackert and Magnus Huber examine ‘Gullah in the Diaspora: Historical and Linguistic Evidence from the Bahamas’ (<italic>Diachronica</italic> 24[2007] 279–325), providing convincing evidence for a close relationship between Bahamian Creole and English and Gullah, which runs counter to previous claims which regarded Bahamian Creole English as a diaspora variety of AAVE. John Victor Singler also looks at the relationship of Atlantic creoles and AAVE, comparing the situation in ‘Samaná and Sinoe’ in two of his columns, ‘Part I: Stalking the Vernacular’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 123–48) and ‘Part II: Provenance’ (<italic>JPCL</italic> 22[2007] 309–46). The Settler English spoken by descendants of ex-slaves in Sinoe County, Liberia, and the English spoken by African-Americans on the Samaná peninsula in the Dominican Republic are compared and a number of differences are identified, the possible causes of which are discussed in the second part, namely the differences between free and emancipated slaves, whose provenance from the north or south of the US must have played an important role in the linguistic development.</p>
<p>Michele M. Stewart reports on ‘Aspects of the Syntax and Semantics of Bare Nouns in Jamaican Creole’ (in Baptista and Guéron, eds., pp. 383–99), reanalysing <italic>dem</italic>, which has been considered a plural marker, as a marker of inclusiveness. She also identifies definite and indefinite senses in NPs lacking overt modification, which leads her to reject the term ‘bare NP’ in these cases. Dagmar Deuber and Lars Hinrichs examine the ‘Dynamics of Orthographic Standardization in Jamaican Creole and Nigerian Pidgin’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 22–47), pointing out that due to the increased presence of these predominantly oral varieties in computer-mediated communication, a process of grassroots spelling standardization is taking place, which mainly relies on English orthography but also shows deviations for phonological reasons. Lothar Peter and Hans-Georg Wolf provide ‘A Comparison of the Varieties of West African Pidgin English’ (<italic>WEn</italic> 26[2007] 3–21), that is WAPE as spoken in Nigeria, Ghana and Cameroon, based on their own research and previous research. Their survey includes phonological, morphosyntactic and a smaller number of lexical features.</p>
<p>Finally in this section on English-lexifier creoles, Pacific creoles will be considered. Toshiaki Furukawa studies ‘No Flips in the Pool: Discursive Practice in Hawai’i Creole’ (<italic>Pragmatics</italic> 17[2007] 371–85) on the basis of data obtained from a local comedy show in which Hawai’ians of Filipino origin (‘Flips’) are constructed as the social Other by means of code-switching between Hawai’i Creole and English. Peter Mühlhäusler discusses ‘The Pitkern-Norf’k Language and Education’ (<italic>EWW</italic> 28[2007] 215–47), pointing out that the language policy in favour of English, among other factors, has led to a considerable decline of Norf’k on Norfolk Island. John Harris reports on ‘Linguistic Responses to Contact: Pidgins and Creoles’ (in Leitner and Malcolm, eds., pp. 131–51) in Australia, such as Macassan Pidgin, which was spoken in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Aborigines and white settlers in north Australia, or Northern Territory Kriol, a creole language still spoken mainly by Aborigines in the Northern Territory. The article provides a good survey of pidgins and creoles spoken in Australia and their socio-historical background.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC11"><title>11. Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis</title>
<p>As Emmanuel Schegloff explains in the introduction, his <italic>Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis</italic>, volume 1 is the first of what is to be a three-volume introductory series on conversation analysis. This first volume is concerned with sequence organization. Schegloff describes sequences as stretches of talk, larger than a turn, that somehow ‘hang together’. How these sequences are organized into larger units of spoken interaction is the focus of the volume. Each chapter centres on conversation analysis (CA) topics such as adjacency pairs, pre-expansions, insert expansions, post-expansions, and preference/dispreference. Although Schegloff's prose is characteristically dense, the use of technical terminology specific to CA is aided by numerous examples and excerpts from transcripts which helpfully illustrate the phenomena under discussion. A further excellent feature is that the book provides a URL for a companion website which features audio and video files of the transcript excerpts reproduced in the book. The book's status as a primer, or basic introduction, to the subject of sequence organization is somewhat questionable—a point which Schegloff himself addresses in his introduction. Furthermore, Schegloff's recommendation in the book's conclusion that the reader re-read the entire text immediately after the initial reading is certainly well taken: it contains a wealth of information to process. Consequently, there is no doubt that Schegloff's first volume in this series will serve as an excellent resource for slightly more advanced students of talk and social interaction, and will quickly become a classic and authoritative work on the basics of CA.</p>
<p>Elizabeth Holt and Rebecca Clift's volume, <italic>Reporting Talk: Reported Speech in Interaction</italic> brings together ten chapters by different authors, each of whom examines different aspects of reported speech and related phenomena. Topics explored include the use of reported speech in witness testimony in the courtroom (Renata Galatolo's chapter ‘Active Voicing in Court’) to the sequential organization in the talk of mediums, who claim the ability to communicate with the spirit world (Robin Wooffitt's ‘The Dead in the Service of the Living’). The majority of the contributions adopt a CA approach, concentrating on the details of talk, specifically on the ‘design and placement of reported speech—and thought—in sequences of conversation’ (p. 2). This CA approach is enhanced by contributors such as Charles Goodwin, whose close analysis of excerpts of interaction in ‘Interactive Footing’ include attention to speakers’ gazes, gestures and body placement as an integral part of the analysis of talk, and Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, whose own analysis of reported speech and thought in non-narrative contexts (‘Assessing and Accounting’) is enriched by acoustic analysis of selected excerpts. It is encouraging to see that not only Couper-Kuhlen's chapter, but also chapters such as those by Markku Haakana (‘Reported Thought in Complaint Stories’) and by John Rae and Joanne Kerby (‘Designing Contexts for Reporting Tactical Talk’) include increasing attention to reported thought; in other words, there is growing awareness of quoted material that does not necessarily represent only speech. This volume is a welcome contribution for scholars interested in reporting discourse.</p>
<p><italic>Stancetaking in Discourse</italic>, edited by Robert Englebretson, offers a number of interesting papers addressing the topic of stance from various perspectives. The collection is prefaced by the editor's introduction, which discusses the heterogeneity of approaches and perspectives found in current research on stance. Englebretson begins with a metalinguistic analysis of ‘stance’, a corpus-based exploration of how the term is used in everyday speech and writing. This is followed by a more traditional literature review, in which he explains the relationship of subjectivity, evaluation, and interaction to stance. The introductory chapter concludes with an overview of the remainder of the volume. Although the individual contributors emphasize different aspects of stance, a theme that clearly underlies all of the papers in the volume is a stress on the situated, pragmatic and interactional nature of stance. A chapter by John W. Du Bois presents his framework (employing a heuristic of ‘stance triangle’) for analysing stance, which highlights the intersubjective, sequential, and context-bound nature of stance-taking. Du Bois's framework is not only elegant but also useful, as is illustrated by a number of chapters by other authors who adopt it in their own analyses. For example, Elise Karkkainen draws on Du Bois's framework in her analysis of the discourse marker <italic>I guess</italic>, which—as she illustrates—functions more as a marker of evidentiality than of epistemicity. Similarly, Pentti Haddington combines Du Bois's framework with the methods of CA in an analysis of alignment in news interviews. Other chapters of interest in this volume include Susan Hunston's, in which she combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to the analysis of corpora, and illustrates how stance is constructed at the level of phraseology, rather than at the level of lexis. Also of note is Barbara Johnstone's chapter, in which she demonstrates how stance emerges as speakers in a sociolinguistic interview both discuss—and perform—a regional dialect.</p>
<p><italic>Person Reference in Interaction: Linguistics, Cultural, and Social Perspectives</italic>, a volume edited by N.J. Enfield and Tanya Stivers, offers a cross-linguistic examination of person reference (mostly initial third-person reference), in order to understand marked versus unmarked usage in everyday conversation. The volume begins with a clear and focused introduction by Stivers, Enfield and Steven Levinson, which defines what is encompassed by the term ‘person reference’, provides some background on how the topic has been approached by the disciplines of cognitive science, philosophy, anthropology and linguistics, and discusses similarities as well as differences in person reference across languages. This introductory chapter is followed by a brief chapter by Harvey Sacks and Emmanuel Schegloff, originally written in 1973, which includes a number of assumptions about reference that are taken up by some of the other authors included in this volume: assumptions such as the preference for minimization (i.e. reference is preferably done with a single form) and a preference for using ‘recognitionals’ (for example, in English, the use of first names). Stivers's chapter identifies four specific types of ‘alternative recognitionals’ (i.e. pragmatically marked types of person-reference) and illustrates how their use works to manage relationships between speaker, addressee and referent. Drawing on an earlier unpublished paper from 1979, Schegloff's ‘Conveying Who You Are: The Presentation of Self, Strictly Speaking’ examines a set of phone-call openings to determine how it is that speakers do self-reference. Recipient design as well as a preference for minimization are the fundamental concepts that Schegloff uses to understand the patterns he finds in his data. John Heritage's chapter ‘Intersubjectivity and Progressivity in Person (and Place) Reference’ illustrates how, in conversation, the recognition of a reference to a person or place is assumed by a speaker unless a recipient indicates otherwise. He also shows how, in talk-in-interaction, the preference for progressivity (i.e. moving the talk along) appears to be stronger than that for intersubjectivity, or securing common ground. Finally, a number of other chapters which explore referring practices in specific languages (e.g. Lao, Korean, Yucatec Maya, Tzeltal) offer fascinating reading as well.</p>
<p>Ian Hutchby's <italic>The Discourse of Child Counselling</italic> offers a concise and tightly focused CA study of one particular type of institutional discourse. In this work, Hutchby examines talk produced by counsellors and children whose parents are going through separation. The book opens with a discussion of different sociological approaches to the study of children's social competence. This is followed by a chapter which outlines the methodological approach that Hutchby adopts (i.e. CA, specifically CA in institutional settings). The next four chapters constitute the analysis provided by the book. Chapter 3 examines the ways in which participants orient to being audio-recorded in the setting; chapter 4 explores how the perspective-display series (PDS) is used by counsellors to topicalize ‘difficult issues’ in these interactions; chapter 5 focuses on the ways in which counsellors do ‘active listening’; and chapter 6 looks at the resources children use to resist responding to counsellors’ questions. The concluding chapter offers a compact summary of the main points of the analysis, and presents some implications for counselling practitioners. With its clear analysis and straightforward prose, Hutchby's discussion of features of this type of institutional discourse is accessible even for readers with little background knowledge of these types of interactions.</p>
<p>Another work that looks at various types of institutional discourse is <italic>Discursive Research in Practice: New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction</italic>, edited by Alexa Hepburn and Sally Wiggins. The editors’ introductory chapter offers a clear and helpful discussion of the various points of theoretical and methodological convergence and divergence between CA and discursive psychology (DP), as well as an overview of the remainder of the volume. The volume consists of three parts. The first section includes chapters that all illustrate how discursive psychology differs from other psychological approaches, in that it represents ‘an action-orientated approach to what have traditionally been characterized as inner states’ (p. 17), such as emotions, for example. Derek Edwards's chapter is a nice illustration of such an approach: in it, he examines how subjectivity is constructed and managed in talk. The second part of the book includes DP analyses of various institutional interactions, focusing especially on ‘how clients and professionals display their concerns and orientations in the unfolding features of interaction’ (p. 25), in environments as diverse as gender-identity clinics, sex-offender group meetings, and family medical practice settings. The last part, ‘Youth in Institutions’, centres specifically on examinations of child–adult interactions, such as Wiggins and Hepburn's own chapter, which examines child and adult discussions of ‘troubled’ eating. This volume represents a contribution to the growing literature on institutional discourse from a DP perspective.</p>
<p><italic>Political Discourse in the Media: Cross-Cultural Perspectives</italic>, edited by Anita Fetzer and Gerda Eva Lauerbach, is a collection of studies that take a comparative/contrastive approach to the analysis of political discourse on television. Genres analysed include political interviews, political debates and political speeches. The editors’ introduction provides an overview of relevant theoretical issues (i.e. the notion of ‘culture’ as it applies to studies of international media in an era of globalization), in addition to an overview of the volume. The volume is organized into three sections. The first section includes chapters which take a form-to-function approach to analysis. For example, in a chapter by Anne-Marie Simon-Vandenbergen, Peter R.R. White and Karin Aijmer, the authors examine the marker of expectation ‘of course’ (and its equivalents in Flemish and Swedish) and its functions in radio/television interviews and debates. Another chapter in this section examines the metaphors used in televised election coverage in Britain, the US and Germany. The second section concentrates on various discursive practices in political interviews, and includes chapters on topics such as represented discourse in interview answers from French and British political interviews (Marjut Johansson), and patterns of challenge and support in Arabic and Hebrew television news interviews (Elda Weitzman, Irit Levi and Isaac Schneebaum). The volume's third and final section takes a macro-perspective in the examination of larger media events, and includes chapters which address, for example, multimodality in televised Christmas messages delivered by different European heads of state (Christoph Sauer), and cross-cultural analyses of election night coverage in three countries (Gerda Eva Lauerbach).</p>
<p>The papers in <italic>Healthcare Interpreting</italic>, edited by Franz Pöchhacker and Miriam Shlesinger, were originally published as a special issue of the journal <italic>Interpreting</italic> in 2005. In addition to legal settings and educational contexts (i.e. interpreting for the deaf), health care represents another institutional domain which has seen a dramatic rise in interpreting, or ‘mediated communication’. Nevertheless, in their introduction the editors point out that in spite of increased attention to communication in medical fields over the last fifteen years or so, health-care interpreting remains a relatively underexplored field of enquiry. Following the editors’ introduction, which contextualizes the collection of papers within the literature on medical interpreting more broadly, the volume consists of five papers and three book reviews. All five papers in the volume represent discourse analyses of interpreter-mediated interaction. Topics range from the interpreter's role in interaction in pediatrics, to the use of reported speech by interpreters in psychotherapeutic encounters. Because this volume represents one of the first collections of research focusing exclusively on interpreting in health care, it is clear that much more work remains to be done in this area.</p>
<p>The collection of essays in <italic>Narrative: State of the Art Narrative</italic> edited by Michael Bamberg, was originally published as a special issue of the journal <italic>Narrative Inquiry</italic> (16:i[2006]), for which Bamberg also serves as editor. In his introduction to this most recent volume (a slightly expanded version of his introduction to the original special issue), Bamberg explains that the recent profusion in theorizing on narrative from various disciplinary perspectives has resulted in a field of narrative of studies which is ‘not necessarily coherent or homogenous’ (p. 2). The volume's chapters—which certainly do attest to this diversity of perspectives—were kept deliberately short in order to include as wide a variety of approaches to narrative as possible. Following Bamberg's brief introduction, the volume consists of twenty-five essays, with an average length of ten pages per essay. Contributions in the volume focus on the following questions posed by the editor: ‘What was it that made the original turn to narrative so successful? What has been accomplished over the last 40 years of narrative inquiry? What are the future directions for narrative inquiry?’ (p. 4). While the volume's authors represent a wide spectrum of disciplines, from internal medicine to philosophy, approximately half of the contributors represent some domain of psychology (clinical, personality, social, discursive, counselling, etc.). Discourse analysts whose work is represented in this volume include Jan Blommaert, and Derek Edwards and Elizabeth Stokoe. In ‘Applied Ethnopoetics’, Blommaert offers a more critical perspective to narrative analysis. Blommaert argues that an ethno-poetic approach to narrative analysis can be an especially useful tool for understanding stories told in interactions where ‘different systems of meaning-making’ converge. Blommaert illustrates this approach with data from cross-cultural bureaucratic encounters: stories told by African asylum-seekers to Belgian immigration officials. Discursive psychologists Stokoe and Edwards examine how speakers formulate and orient to the telling of a narrative in naturally occurring talk-in-interaction in their chapter, ‘Story Formulations in Talk-in-Interaction’. Finally, the central chapters by applied linguist Alexandra Georgakopoulou (‘Thinking Big with Small Stories in Narrative and Identity Analysis’), narrative psychologist Mark Freeman (‘Life “on Holiday”? In Defense of Big Stories’), and narrative psychologist/editor Bamberg (‘Stories: Big or Small—Why Do We Care?’) provide some of the richest and most interesting discussion of the critical issues in narrative studies these days.</p>
<p><italic>Selves and Identities in Narrative and Discourse</italic>, edited by Michael Bamberg, Anna De Fina and Deborah Schiffrin, is a collection of various studies of narrative, the focus of which is on narrative as the site for construction of identity; or, more specifically, the theme that underlies chapters in the volume is that of the generative, dynamic and emergent nature of identity as it takes shape in narratives. (Georgakopoulou—see below—describes this approach to the analysis of identity in narrative as a ‘microgenetic’ one.) Different methodological approaches are represented in this collection. For example, it includes chapters by scholars approaching narrative analysis from sociolinguistic traditions, such as variationism (for example Catherine Evans Davies's ‘Language and Identity in Discourse in the American South: Sociolinguistic Repertoire as Expressive Resource in the Presentation of Self’) and ethnography of communication (for example Amanda Minks on Miskitu children's narratives of spirit encounters, and Cecilia Castillo Ayometzi on Mexican immigrants’ narratives of religious conversion). Other contributors offer analyses that are more informed by ethno-methodological approaches to the study of talk in interaction, such as MCA, or membership categorization analysis (such as Eleni Petraki, Carolyn Baker and Michael Emmison's analysis of how mothers and daughters project their identities in stories they tell, in their chapter, ‘ “Moral Versions” of Motherhood and Daughterhood in Greek-Australian Family Narratives’). Overall, the volume contains a number of interesting papers, with a wide variety of narrators (and thus, identities) represented.</p>
<p>One of the most exciting publications on narrative this year is Alexandra Georgakopoulou's monograph, <italic>Small Stories, Interaction and Identities</italic>. Her primary objective in this work is ‘to put small stories firmly on the map of narrative analysis, as a timely and needed antidote to the longstanding tradition of “big stories” ’ (p. 147). In addition to arguing for the validity and importance of studying ‘small stories’—which she defines as ‘fleeting moments of narrative orientation to the world’ (p. vii)—Georgakopoulou also engages with a number of other theoretical and methodological issues in narrative analysis. For example, challenging the dominant Labovian model, she offers a well-articulated reconceptualization of narrative structure. She also demonstrates how some of the tools of CA (for example, sequentiality and Membership Category Analysis) can be usefully and appropriately applied to narrative analytic studies focusing on identity. Because Georgakopoulou uses ethnographic data to illustrate her points, it is not surprising to find that she aptly draws on linguistic anthropological notions such as a ‘practice-based view of language’, ‘indexicality’ and ‘recontextualization’ in her work. The book has five chapters: the first introduces central concepts associated with narrative; the second defines, explains and exemplifies different types of small stories; and the third focuses on issues of structure in small stories. Whereas the first three chapters are more theoretical, chapters 4 and 5—with their focus on identity and positioning, respectively—offer more fine-grained analyses. Throughout the book, Georgakopoulou's prose is clear and convincing. There is no doubt that <italic>Small Stories, Interaction and Identities</italic> will quickly become essential reading for any scholars who work with narrative.</p>
<p>Another work which explores the relationship between language and identity is Nikolas Coupland's <italic>Style: Language Variation and Identity</italic>. Although the book is framed in sociolinguistic terms, the topics that Coupland explores in it also very much represent areas of interest to many discourse analysts. The focus of the book is on linguistic ‘style’ and speaker identity. The introduction presents a brief overview of the different ways that ‘style’ has been addressed in sociolinguistic research over the past decades. Chapter 2 discusses more traditional variationist approaches to the topic by focusing on style, stratification and standards. Chapter 3 explores the topics of accommodation and audience design. The following three chapters discuss ‘styling’ and ‘performance’ of identities and the ways that these concepts have been applied in more recent sociolinguistic/discourse analytic work (for example, work by Ben Rampton). The concluding chapter ties together a number of themes explored throughout the book, discusses the role of new media in shaping language and identity, and situates them in late modernity. One of the highlights of Coupland's book is the numerous examples and illustrations he offers of each phenomenon discussed—many from his own work, and many from the work of other researchers. Another highlight of the book is the way in which Coupland weaves in relevant social theory to the topics being discussed. <italic>Style</italic> demonstrates that there are often no clear boundaries between discourse analysis, sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology.</p>
<p><italic>Functional Perspectives on Grammar and Discourse</italic>, edited by Christopher S. Butler, Raquel Hidalgo Downing and Julia Lavid, brings together a diverse collection of topics. Following three more general opening papers (including one by Talmy Givón on ‘Grammar as an Adaptive Evolutionary Product’) the remainder of this Festschrift is conceptually organized around the three Hallidayan metafunctions of language: experiential, textual and interpersonal. Included among the first group are chapters such as J. Lachlan Mackenzie's, which examines ‘Double-Possessive Nominalizations in English’. Chapters in the textual portion of the volume focus on different aspects of discourse structure: for example, Bruce Fraser's study, which examines the functions of ‘The English Contrastive Discourse Marker <italic>instead</italic>’. Finally, the third section, which is concerned with the interpersonal functions of language, includes chapters such as Gordon Tucker's on apologies (‘ “Sorry to muddy the waters”: Accounting for Speech Act Formulae and Formulaic Variation in a Systemic Functional Model of Language’), and Peter Collins's on modals in different varieties of English (‘Modality across World Englishes: The Modals and Semi-Modals of Prediction and Volition’). The contributions to this volume illustrate compellingly the importance of considering the interface between grammar and discourse, as well as of examining grammar in interaction.</p>
<p><italic>Metapragmatics in Use</italic>, edited by Wolfram Bublitz and Axel Hübler, consists of a number of chapters which examine the role of metapragmatic utterances in communicative practice. Each of the chapters is concerned with metapragmatics in the sense of the ‘reflexive management of ongoing discourse’ (p. 7). In their introduction, the editors begin by exploring relevant concepts discussed by Roman Jakobson, Gregory Bateson, Michael Silverstein, and John A. Lucy, and then draw on Claudia Caffi's [1994] work to define metapragmatics. The introduction is followed by the first of three parts, ‘Metapragmatics in Everyday Use’. Highlights in this section include Sanna-Kaisa Tanskanen's investigation of ‘Metapragmatic Utterances in Computer-Mediated Interaction’, in which the author explores various writers’ purposes for using metapragmatic utterances in asynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC), and Axel Hübler's chapter, which explores the metapragmatic functions of different types of gesture in conversation. The second part of the book, ‘Metapragmatics in Educational Use’, includes chapters which explore the role of metapragmatics in a variety of educational settings. For example, Sara Smith and Xiaoping Liang examine ‘Metapragmatic Expressions in Physics Lectures’, and find that, in their data, the physics instructor used metapragmatic expressions to integrate various representations of related phenomena to guide students’ processing strategies, and to assign participant roles to students. The volume's third section, ‘Metapragmatics in Specialized Use’, highlights some of the specific functions of metapragmatic utterances in different institutional contexts. For example, in ‘ “So your story now is that …’: Metapragmatic Framing Strategies in Courtroom Interrogation’, Richard Janney uses excerpts from a US civil jury trial to illustrate how prosecuting attorneys use metapragmatic utterances strategically to frame a defendant's testimony as ‘vague, misleading, evasive, uncooperative, or deceptive’ (p. 231). Janney argues that these metapragmatic framing strategies play a major role in the jury's construal of how credible or co-operative a defendant is. In another chapter of this section, ‘A Metapragmatic Examination of Therapist Reformulations’, Peter Muntigl examines both the forms and functions of reformulations in a number of couples’ therapy sessions. It includes an interesting analysis which compares the grammatical structures of client formulations and the subsequent therapist reformulations. Because there has only been one other volume on this topic (Adam Jaworski et al., <italic>Metalanguage: Social and Ideological Perspectives</italic> [2004]), <italic>Metapragmatics in Use</italic> is a most welcome addition to this area of discourse analysis.</p>
<p>In her monograph <italic>Creativity and Convention</italic> Rosa Vega Moreno examines figurative language in everyday speech. Moreno takes a relevance-theoretic approach to account for how we understand metaphors and, more generally, idiomatic speech. A fascinating and clearly written work, Vega Moreno's book opens with a chapter which provides background on cognition and selective processing. This is followed by a second chapter which presents an introduction to relevance theory. Chapter 3 discusses other approaches and theories of metaphor-processing. Chapters 4 and 5 apply relevance theory to metaphor interpretation, and chapters 6 and 7 address issues of analysability, transparency and pragmatic inference in idiom comprehension. The final chapter closes with a discussion of how metaphor interpretation relies on a balance of creativity and convention.</p>
<p>As is explained in the book's preface, the multiple authors represented in <italic>Discourse on the Move: Using Corpus Analysis to Describe Discourse Structure</italic> edited by Douglas Biber, Ulla Connor and Thomas Upton, share a mutual interest in examining discourse structure and organization from a corpus linguistic perspective. Approximately half of the book's chapters used the notion of ‘vocabulary-based discourse units’ to describe the text structure of different registers, such as biology research articles (James Jones), or university class sessions (Eniko Csomay). The other half of the book includes chapters which combine corpus linguistics techniques with Swalesean move analysis to describe genres such as biochemistry research articles (Budsaba Kanoksilapathom) and fundraising letters (Douglas Biber, Ulla Connor and Thomas Upton).</p>
<p><italic>Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and Interlanguage English</italic>, edited by Bettina Kraft and Ronald Geluykens, provides a glimpse into the current state of research in cross-cultural, intercultural and inter-language pragmatics. The book is divided into three sections: the first includes chapters which focus on theoretical issues; the second includes studies which investigate face-threatening acts in elicited data (i.e. DCTs, or discourse completion tasks); and the third part consists of chapters focusing on pragmatic issues found in interactional data. In their opening chapter, ‘Defining Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Pragmatics’, the editors first define the terms ‘cross-cultural pragmatics’, ‘intercultural pragmatics’, ‘contrastive pragmatics’ and ‘interlanguage pragmatics’, and then provide a focused discussion of areas of overlap among these terms. This discussion helps set the stage for their central argument, which is that ‘cross-cultural pragmatics’ should be used as a cover term for all of these various, yet interconnected, strands of research. The chapter concludes with an overview of the rest of the volume. In addition to this introductory chapter, perhaps the other most useful contribution is the subsequent chapter by Geluykens, entitled ‘On Methodology in Cross-Cultural Pragmatics’. In it Geluykens, making reference to numerous relevant studies, examines the strengths and limitations of various research methodologies used to investigate cross-cultural phenomena. He concludes by arguing for the need for more truly mixed-method, or multi-method, studies in the field. The second part of the volume consists of four chapters that focus on the following speech-acts: requests, apologies, complaints and responses to threats. Among the topics explored here are gender variation, variation in BrE and AmE, and variation between native speakers and language learners. The third part of the book includes four chapters which examine interactional data, such as, for example, speakers’ use of coherence devices in a corpus of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) conversation (‘Coherence Devices in the Englishes of Speakers in the Expanding Circle’ by Christiane Meierkord), and differences in patterns of discourse organization between speakers of Hong Kong English and native speakers of English (‘Discourse Patterns in Intercultural Conversations’ by Winnie Cheng).</p>
<p>Another collection focusing on communication across cultures is <italic>Beyond Misunderstanding</italic>, edited by Kristin Bührig and Jan D. ten Thije. Ten Thije begins his introductory chapter by explaining that the essays in the volume challenge a few dominant assumptions in work on intercultural interactions, which include an emphasis on the frequency of miscommunication, and the belief that intercultural communication is ‘solely constituted by the fact that individuals from different cultural groups interact’ (p. 1). Instead, the perspective of the authors featured here is that ‘interculturality’ is something that may—or may not necessarily—be relevant when speakers from different language background interact. The first set of chapters focuses more on theoretical issues—for example Georges Lüdi's ‘Multilingual Repertoires and the Consequences for Linguistic Theory’, which explores the complex relationships between multilingualism, communicative competence, code-switching, and ‘translinguistic markers’. The second portion of this eclectic collection includes a number of analyses of intercultural discourse, such as Claudia Bubel's chapter, which analyses small-talk sequences in British–German telephone sales, and Lise Fontaine's study on the construction of an intercultural community in an online environment.</p>
<p><italic>Dialogue and Culture</italic>, edited by Marion Grein and Edda Weigand, is a collection which explore the relationships between language, culture and nature. A number of authors represented in this volume use Weigand's ‘dialogic action game’ model in their analysis of dialogic interaction. The volume is divided into three broad sections. The first part provides some background on the ‘language instinct debate’, the second presents different theoretical positions and the third includes a number of empirical studies. The volume opens with a spirited chapter by Geoffrey Sampson, ‘Minds in Uniform: How Generative Linguistics Regiments Culture, and Why It Shouldn't’, in which Sampson raises a number of arguments against the non-empiricist side of the ‘language instinct debate’ and makes the case for his own empiricist position. This is followed by Weigand's ‘The Sociobiology of Language’, in which she presents her dialogic action game, or mixed game, model. Essentially, this framework conceptualizes ‘language as dialogue’; in Weigand's terms, this ‘is an open concept that copes with ever-changing empirical performance as well as with rules and conventions’ (p. 38). Part II includes chapters on topics such as the interface between linguistic typology and dialogue linguistics (by Walter Bisang), and a cross-cultural study of gestural regulators and how they are used by speakers of English, French and Japanese (by Caroline Nash). The final part features a number of empirical studies, such as a cross- cultural examination of the speech-act of greeting (by Sebastian Feller) among speakers of English, German and Spanish. Although the scope of the volume as a whole is quite broad, many individual chapters represent rather standard types of pragmatics research, for instance, by drawing on speech-act theory, politeness theory, making reference to the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) and using discourse completion tests (DCTs) to collect data.</p>
<p><italic>Context and Appropriateness</italic>, edited by Anita Fetzer, addresses context and appropriateness from various theoretical and applied perspectives. Following Fetzer's introduction, part I of the volume, ‘Bridging Problems between Context and Appropriateness’, includes three theoretical papers, including one (by Etsuko Oishi) which explores the concept of appropriateness from a speech act theoretic perspective. Part II, ‘Bridging Problems between Communicative Action and Appropriateness’, includes three chapters with a more applied focus, for example Lawrence Berlin on ‘Cooperative Conflict and Evasive Language’ found in the 9/11 US congressional hearings, and Annette Becker on ‘The Appropriateness of Questions’ in political media interviews. Finally, part III, ‘Bridging Problems Between Micro and Macro’, includes two chapters which offer analyses of the conditional and contrastive markers in two different sets of Italian interaction.</p>
<p>Wallace Chafe's latest work, <italic>The Importance of Not Being Earnest</italic>, examines the connections between laughter, humour and what he terms ‘the feeling of nonseriousness’. Opening chapters discuss the physical properties of laughter—such as vowel quality, pitch contour, pulses, inhalations/exhalations—and include spectrographic representations of various laughter types. Subsequent chapters address different reasons for laughter, different types of humour (unplanned, jokes, humour in writing), and humour in various cultures (e.g. Japanese, Navajo, Iroquois). In addition to a final coda, the book concludes with Chafe's reflections on how other authors (starting from Plato) have addressed the topics of humour and laughter. Chafe includes examples of humour from casual conversations and from literary texts, as well as from jokes. This is an interesting book, focusing on elements of discourse (i.e. laughter and humour), which are, in fact, pervasive in much of our talk, and yet have not been the main focus of many discourse analytic works.</p>
<p>Axel Hübler's <italic>The Nonverbal Shift in Early Modern Conversation</italic> offers a fascinating multidisciplinary historical account of how the uses of gesture for communication gradually became supplanted by prosodic means in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century England. Hübler draws on multiple historical documents from this period, including published ‘courtesy books’, which prescribe appropriate behaviour, as well as texts such as letters, diaries and chronicles, which document observations and provide commentaries on gestural behaviour during the same period. This historical anthropological approach is complemented by an analysis of concurrent developments in the English lexicon. Specifically, Hübler illustrates a gradual increase in verbal substitutes for gestures, and he also argues that the rise of lexical expressions related to prosodic characteristics indicates a shift away ‘from kinesic gesturing to prosodic forms’ (p. 214). In addition to chapters which focus on the aforementioned topics, the book also includes a helpful overview of different types of gesture, as well as a discussion of cognitive theories which address the interaction between the verbal and nonverbal in utterance production.</p>
<p><italic>Irony in Language and Thought: A Cognitive Science Reader</italic>, edited by Raymond Gibbs and Herbert Colston, is an impressive volume of over 600 pages, which brings together authors who study irony from various perspectives and disciplines, including pragmatics. Each of the chapters has been previously published elsewhere, either in books or journals. The volume is framed by the editors’ introductory chapter, ‘A Brief History of Irony’, and their concluding chapter, ‘The Future of Irony Studies’, where they point to broadening the scope of study to include examinations of irony in art, literature and music. The remaining twenty-two chapters are organized around five major themes: theories of irony, context in irony comprehension, the social functions of irony, development of irony understanding and situational irony. The first of these sections (i.e. theories of irony) includes a paper by Herbert Clark and Richard Gerrig, which provides an overview of some of the major theories of irony (pretence theory, mention theory and psychological approaches), a paper by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, which sketches out different types of verbal irony, and a paper by Salvatore Attardo, which conceptualizes irony as ‘relevant inappropriateness’. The next section, focusing on irony comprehension, includes a number of experimental studies examining factors such as response times in irony-processing, discourse factors influencing irony comprehension, and irony comprehension in brain-damaged patients. The following section, on the social functions of irony, includes chapters which explore the vocal patterns of irony, and responses to irony in different types of spoken discourse (conversation, mass media, etc.). The next section takes a developmental perspective and includes various studies of how children perceive, recognize and comprehend irony. The volume's final section includes chapters which address different aspects of situational irony.</p>
<p>In <italic>The Golden Silence: A Pragmatic Study on Silence in Dyadic English Conversation</italic>, Yan Zuo examines an often neglected aspect of conversation—silence. Specifically, Zuo merges cognitive and CA approaches to come up with a framework for investigating silence in conversational interaction (i.e. data from three corpora of dyadic conversations). Zuo's study indicates that there is much more discourse analytic work that remains to be done on this topic.</p>
<p>Additionally, the following three titles on relevant topics may also be of interest to scholars of discourse and pragmatics. First, Daniel Chandler's <italic>Semiotics: The Basics</italic> (second edition) offers quite an accessible introduction to a very complex topic. Clearly written, and filled with examples, Chandler's book covers models of the sign, and notions such as codes and textual interactions. The appendix includes a list of ‘Key Figures and Schools’ of semiotics, a list of suggested readings for semiotics in different fields of study (for example advertising, cinema and architecture) and a glossary of terminology. Next, Richard Dimbleby and Graeme Burton's <italic>More Than Words: An Introduction to Communication</italic> is a very introductory-level text that focuses on communication as social interaction, covering topics such as interpersonal communication, communication in organizations and mass communication. The book's clear and direct writing style, plentiful examples and chapter-final summaries, discussion questions and exercises indicate that it would be an appropriate textbook for undergraduate students new to communication studies. Finally, Martin Conboy's <italic>The Language of the News</italic>, is another introductory-level text, and one which focuses on the language of journalism, specifically newspaper language. The opening chapters, which draw on critical linguistics (specifically, on the work of Gunther Kress and Robert Hodge), introduce readers to various ‘analytic tools’ and present examples of how nominalizations and transitivity function in newspaper reporting. Subsequent chapters focus more at the macro-levels of newspaper discourse (i.e. rhetorical and semiotic) and explore issues such as gender, exclusion and language ideology. Some of the useful features of the book include text boxes with activity ideas (which provide excellent ideas for instructors using the book in a course), as well as many excerpts from actual newspapers, which are also set apart in text boxes. However, the majority of the examples in the book come from British newspapers (with considerably fewer examples from Australian or US newspapers) and the book therefore appears to assume a primarily British readership.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC12"><title>12. Stylistics</title>
<p>At the inaugural conference of the International Society for the Linguistics of English (ISLE, Freiburg, 8–11 October 2008), Elizabeth Closs Traugott remarked in her presidential address on the renewed popularity that stylistics is now enjoying after a considerable period in the academic wilderness. Those who specialize in stylistics would say that it never actually went away. There is, after all, a specialist society for stylistics (the international Poetics and Linguistics Association, or PALA), as well as numerous journals focused on this area of language study (including PALA's own <italic>Language and Literature</italic>). Nonetheless, what was striking at the ISLE conference was the breadth and depth of interest in matters stylistic among those linguists who would not necessarily be found at a dedicated stylistics conference. In addition to a named strand in stylistics, there were, scattered around the conference, a large number of papers dealing with aspects of style in language, from reported discourse in Middle English to corpus-based analyses of lexico-grammatical features of style and their influence on identity construction. This is heartening, since it demonstrates that stylistics encompasses much more than the linguistic analysis of literary texts (a narrow conception of the discipline that is sometimes off-putting to language scholars working in other areas), and that its remit is wide and its methodologies varied. What it also demonstrates is that stylistics is unremittingly linguistic in nature. It shares with linguistics what Mick Short described at the conference as ‘an attitude of mind’. That is, it proceeds on such principles as rigour, detail, replicability, falsifiability and objectivity. All of these traits were very much in evidence in the best work in stylistics from 2007.</p>
<p>Of all the stylistics publications in 2007, easily the most influential is the second edition of Geoffrey Leech and Mick Short's <italic>Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose</italic>. The extent of this book's influence may be seen from its 30,000+ sales and also by the fact that the first edition was recognized by members of PALA as the most influential publication in stylistics in the first twenty-five years of its existence. This prize was awarded in 2005 in celebration of PALA's twenty-fifth anniversary, and the appearance of the second edition two years later met an unremittingly enthusiastic reception. Wisely, Leech and Short avoided the temptation to substantially revise the book, since it would no doubt have been difficult to integrate new stylistic approaches into its already successful structure. Instead, the book has been updated by the addition of two additional chapters. In the first of these—‘Stylistics and Fiction 25 Years on’—Leech and Short consider how stylistics has developed as a subdiscipline since the book's original publication. In so doing, the authors review issues concerning plot, fictional worlds and characterization. In the second—‘The Bucket and the Rope’—Leech and Short bring together these new analytical methods and frameworks in an analysis of a complete short story by T.F. Powys, taking into account corpus and cognitive stylistic approaches, while also considering the value of these new techniques. These new chapters clearly confirm their authors’ standing as two of the foremost stylisticians of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and this is a book that belongs on the shelf of any serious practitioner of stylistics. Following these two new chapters is a useful annotated list of further reading that takes particular account of more recent work. (As a minor aside, it is interesting to note that the revision of the book even extends to the foreword by Randolph Quirk; while the first edition referred to Leech and Short as ‘men who are undoubtedly (but certainly not solely) linguists’, new linguistic sensibilities have clearly motivated the change of this description to ‘<italic>scholars</italic> who are … linguists’. Even this small change is a measure of the stylistic sensitivity to be found in this new edition of the book!)</p>
<p>That <italic>Style in Fiction</italic> should occupy such an important place in the stylistics bibliography is apparent from the work that it has influenced on the stylistics of prose. In 2007 some excellent work was carried out on the stylistics of prose fiction, much of which was influenced—at least in some way—by the analytical models proposed originally by Leech and Short. Reiko Ikeo (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 367–87), for example, investigates the notion of ambiguity in free indirect speech and thought presentation (FIS and FIT respectively) in an analysis of the Lancaster Speech, Writing and Thought Presentation corpus (compiled by Short and a project team at Lancaster University). Her analysis is focused on explaining how prototypical FIS/FIT can be distinguished from examples that are ambiguous between FIS/FIT and narration. As a result of this analysis, she suggests that prototypical FIS/FIT is marked by the ‘consistent management of a reported speaker's viewpoint’ (p. 386). Ambiguous cases, on the other hand, are marked by unstable viewpoint shifts. Her corpus stylistic approach to the issue generates a number of other insights which would be unavailable using a qualitative methodology—for instance, that cases of FIS that are ambiguous with ‘narration’ (Ikeo's term for parts of the text that do not constitute discourse presentation) are to be found more often in journalistic prose than in fiction. Ikeo's analysis further refines the work on discourse presentation initiated by Leech and Short in <italic>Style in Fiction</italic>.</p>
<p>Joe Bray (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 37–52) also investigates free indirect discourse, though from a different perspective. Bray is interested in whether readers really do construct a dual voice when they read free indirect discourse (as critics such as Monika Fludernik have suggested), and how readers identify point of view. Bray reports on a small empirical study designed to investigate these two questions. Respondents were asked to read passages from Jane Austen's <italic>Pride and Prejudice</italic> and Charlotte Smith's <italic>Marchmont</italic> before answering a multiple-choice question concerning whose speech and whose viewpoint was represented in the extract. From this experiment, Bray concludes that to claim that readers do indeed construct a dual voice when they encounter free indirect discourse is perhaps rash. This was not the experience of many of his informants; fewer than half identified both Elizabeth's and the narrator's voice in the <italic>Pride and Prejudice</italic> example. Bray suggests instead that the effects of free indirect discourse are perhaps more easily recognized when one is already familiar with the nature of free indirect discourse. One issue with Bray's experiment (which he readily acknowledges) is that a far greater number of informants would be needed before such findings could be verified statistically. Nonetheless, this small-scale study does point towards some interesting hypotheses which could be tested in a larger experiment. One of the most successful aspects of Bray's article is his effort to make connections between his empirical findings and cognitive stylistic theories of text comprehension. All too often, cognitive stylistics proceeds without empirical verification, and Bray's work demonstrates that it is perfectly possible to test some of its key ideas.</p>
<p>The long arm of <italic>Style in Fiction</italic> also extended its reach to a special issue of the journal <italic>Style</italic> (41[2007]). The issue consists of papers from the <italic>Style in Fiction</italic> symposium, held at Lancaster University in March 2006 to commemorate the award of the PALA twenty-fifth anniversary book prize to Geoffrey Leech and Mick Short. The issue includes papers by all the plenary speakers from the symposium. Geoffrey Leech's opening article, ‘Style in Fiction Revisited: The Beginning of <italic>Great Expectations</italic>’ (<italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 117–33), discusses how topics from <italic>Style in Fiction</italic> have been further explored in the years since its publication. Leech then demonstrates some of the advances that have been made in an analysis of the opening of Dickens's <italic>Great Expectations</italic>. The analysis is a tour de force of stylistic detail and would make an excellent article to have undergraduate students of stylistics read, not least because of the clarity of the writing and thought. What I also particularly appreciated was its grounding in the formal features of the text and its focus on the concept of foregrounding and how an interpretation of the text ‘grows’ out of this. That Leech is then able to connect such concepts to recent developments in cognitive stylistics clearly demonstrates why he has achieved such eminence in the field. Barbara Dancygier's article, ‘Narrative Anchors and the Processes of Story Construction: The Case of Margaret Atwood's <italic>The Blind Assassin</italic>’ (<italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 133–52) focuses on blending theory and explores how the concept of narrative anchors (defined by Dancygier as textual devices that prompt the emergence of narrative spaces) might be used to explain the construction of stories. Dancygier postulates that stories are complex blends arising out of the integration of narrative spaces. Although this is an interesting idea, one issue I have with Dancygier's article concerns the replicability of her analysis (and, indeed, of analyses generally that make use of blending theory). It is difficult to see the criteria by which blends are identified, though this issue does raise the possibility of doing some interesting empirical work. Following Dancygier, Elena Semino also takes a cognitive stylistic approach in her analysis of mind style and the advances that have been made in this area since the publication of <italic>Style in Fiction</italic> (‘Mind Style Twenty-Five Years On’, <italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 153–73). Semino explores how cognitive theories such as schema theory and cognitive metaphor theory can be applied in the analysis of mind style, as well as pragmatic theories such as Gricean theory and politeness theory. Semino ends by considering the value of corpus linguistic methodologies. This move towards a computational method is the starting point for David Hoover's article, ‘Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James’ (<italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 174–203). This paper focuses on stylometric techniques for exploring authorial style variation. Interestingly, both Hoover's and Leech's articles in this issue involve returning to core principles of stylistics, though armed with contemporary analytical tools. This is also the case in ‘Stylistics Meets Cognitive Science: Studying Style in Fiction and Readers’ Attention from an Interdisciplinary Perspective’, by Catherine Emmott, Anthony J. Sanford and Eugene J. Dawydiak (<italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 204–26). This fascinating article reports on a study testing whether stylisticians’ intuitive notions of what constitute foregrounded parts of a text have any reality in the experiences of other readers. To do this, the authors use a psychological framework that measures depth of processing. Their article is the result of an interdisciplinary collaboration between linguists and psychologists and demonstrates well the capacity that stylistics has for absorbing ideas and methods from other disciplines. Finally, Mick Short's article, ‘Thought Presentation Twenty-Five Years On’ (<italic>Style</italic> 41[2007] 227–41), discusses issues arising from the corpus-based investigation of discourse presentation that he and Elena Semino (and others) have been involved in since the early 1990s. This work was aimed initially at testing the model of speech and thought presentation outlined in <italic>Style in Fiction</italic>, and Short's article on the subject here demonstrates the value of this corpus-based approach. For example, the exhaustive annotation of around 250,000 words of text for categories of speech, writing and thought presentation has led to insights into the forms and functions of discourse presentation that would have been unlikely to have been discovered through qualitative analysis of specially selected examples. For instance, Short describes in his article how analysis of the Lancaster corpus has led to a question mark over the status of internal narration as a thought-presentation category. There is a clarity to Short's writing that belies the complex subject matter, and the article is a useful addition to the growing body of work on discourse presentation.</p>
<p>In the same way that the <italic>Style</italic> special issue returned to some of the key elements of stylistics, so too did the special issue of <italic>Language and Literature</italic> on ‘Foregrounding’, edited by Willie van Peer. Van Peer's preface, ‘Introduction to Foregrounding: A State of the Art’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 99–104), introduces the seven articles that comprise the issue, which are followed by van Peer's review article of Marisa Bortolussi and Peter Dixon's <italic>Psychonarratology</italic> (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 214–24). The first article in the issue is Olívia da Costa Fialho's ‘Foregrounding and Refamiliarization: Understanding Readers’ Response to Literary Texts’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 105–24), in which she demonstrates empirically, through a study of humanities students’ and engineering students’ responses to a short story, that response to foregrounding in texts is independent of literary training. Jèmeljan Hakemulder's ‘Tracing Foregrounding in Responses to Film’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 125–39) reports on an experiment to discover whether foregrounding theory can predict audiences’ responses to films in the same way that it can predict readers’ responses to literary texts. Hakemulder finds evidence to support the view that it can, and his work will have resonance for anyone interested in multimodal stylistics (indeed, this careful empirical work is exactly what cognitive stylisticians should be taking account of as they construct elaborate theories of reader responses to multimodal texts). Colin Martindale's ‘Deformation Forms the Course of Literary History’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 141–52) explores the hypothesis that by investigating the way in which readers conceive of novel word combinations, it is possible to predict the direction of literary change. Martindale's hypothesis is fascinating, though readers may find it necessary to read his article in conjunction with some of his earlier work (for which see the references to Martindale's paper) in order to be firmly convinced. Following this, David Miall's study, ‘Foregrounding and the Sublime: Shelley in Chamonix’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 155–68), explores the notion of the sublime being an effect of defamiliarization, while Yeshayahu Shen's ‘Foregrounding in Poetic Discourse: Between Deviation and Cognitive Constraints’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 169–81) examines potential constraints on linguistic deviations. In ‘ “Creation from Nothing”: A Foregrounding Study of James Joyce's Drafts for <italic>Ulysses</italic>’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 183–96), Paul Sopcák applies foregrounding analysis to <italic>Ulysses</italic> in an effort to see whether foregrounding theory can account for effects in a longer and more complex text than the poems or straightforward narratives that are usually the material of analysis for foregrounding scholars. In this respect, Sopcák follows Hakemulder's lead in testing the limits of foregrounding theory. The final article in this special issue is ‘Lines on Feeling: Foregrounding, Aesthetics and Meaning’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 197–213) by Willie van Peer, Jèmeljan Hakemulder and Sonia Zyngier. In this, the authors explore the relationship between deviation and aesthetic experience and find some evidence for a connection between the two. Overall, the issue is a well put together volume clearly covering the state of the art in what must be seen as a linchpin in the stylistics machinery. Readers interested specifically in empirical stylistics will also enjoy Willie van Peer, Jèmeljan Hakemulder and Sonia Zyngier's <italic>Muses and Measures: Empirical Research Methods for the Humanities</italic>, an ambitious textbook that aims to introduce empirical research methods not just to literary critics but to humanities students and scholars generally. This is a very valuable book for students, with much practical advice concerning experiment design, using SPSS and presenting results at conference. The book also includes a CD-ROM with helpful exercises and self-tests.</p>
<p>Concerning work in genre-based stylistics, a key publication in 2007 was Marina Lambrou and Peter Stockwell's edited collection of essays, <italic>Contemporary Stylistics</italic>. The innovative feature of this book is that chapters are written by more recent scholars of stylistics and introduced by established stylisticians. This is a thoughtful and successful way of presenting new research, and one of the book's most useful features is the fact that all the chapters demonstrate the practice of stylistic analysis—a feature that will make it particularly attractive to new students of stylistics. The book is divided into three sections: ‘Stylistics of Prose’, ‘Stylistics of Poetry’ and ‘Stylistics of Dialogue and Drama’. Each section contains a wealth of practical stylistic analysis, and while there are too many chapters to discuss each in turn, I can perhaps single out Michael Burke's ‘ “Progress is a comfortable disease”: Cognition in a Stylistic Analysis of e.e. cummings’ (pp. 144–55), Violeta Sotirova's ‘Woolf's Experiments with Consciousness in Fiction’ (pp. 7–18) and Dany Badran's ‘Stylistics and Language Teaching: Deviant Collocation in Literature as a Tool for Vocabulary Expansion’ (pp. 180–93) as being exemplars of the excellent work to be found in the book. The only surprise is that Continuum has not yet seen fit to produce a paperback version of the volume, since this is a book that would surely sell well to undergraduate students.</p>
<p>Turning specifically to the stylistics of prose fiction, Nina Nørgaard's ‘Disordered Collarettes and Uncovered Tables: Negative Polarity as a Stylistic Device in Joyce's “Two Gallants” ’ (<italic>JLS</italic> 36[2007] 35–52) explores the meaning-making potential of negative propositions such as ‘He approached the young woman and, without saluting, began at once to converse with her’ (Joyce, quoted in N. Nørgaard, p. 43). Nørgaard argues that the negative propositions in ‘Two Gallants’ are not defamiliarizing but are more semantically loaded than their positive counterparts.</p>
<p>This concentration on small-scale linguistic features of a text is characteristic too of Christiana Gregoriou's first book, <italic>Deviance in Contemporary Crime Fiction</italic>, a study of linguistic, social and generic deviation in one particular literary genre. Gregoriou examines the work of such contemporary crime novelists as James Patterson, Michael Connelly and Patricia Cornwell, and explores such notions as mind style, demonstrating the linguistic make-up of the criminal in the texts she analyses, and how this differs from what we might perceive to be a norm. In so doing she provides a linguistic perspective on a genre that tends to be approached primarily from a non-linguistic, literary-critical angle (though 2007 also saw the publication of John Douthwaite's study, ‘Using Speech and Thought Presentation to Validate Hypotheses Regarding the Nature of the Crime Novels of Andrea Camilleri’, in Hoover and Lattig, eds., <italic>Stylistics: Prospect and Retrospect</italic>, pp. 143–68). Gregoriou's book has already been nominated for two awards from within the crime-writing community, but it is perhaps a shame that it appears in a series (Crime Files) that is not specifically linguistic or stylistic in nature, since it deserves the attention of this specialist readership.</p>
<p>The edited collection, <italic>Stylistics and Social Cognition</italic> by Lesley Jeffries, Dan McIntyre and Derek Bousfield is a volume of papers selected from the twenty-fifth annual PALA conference held at Huddersfield University in 2005, and focused around the theme of that conference: social cognition. David Hoover and Sharon Lattig's edited volume <italic>Stylistics: Prospect and Retrospect</italic> is the preceding volume in the series of which Jeffries et al.'s book is a part, and collects together some of the best papers from PALA's 2004 conference in New York. Both books are peer-reviewed collections which demonstrate the broad spectrum of current research in stylistics. Stand-out chapters in Hoover and Lattig's volume include Violeta Sotirova's ‘Historical Transformations of Free Indirect Style’ (pp. 129–42) and Mick Short's analysis of the speech-act of apology in the film <italic>A Fish Called Wanda</italic> (pp. 169–89). In Jeffries, McIntyre and Bousfield the stand-out chapters for me were David West's appraisal of I.A. Richards as a proto-cognitivist (pp. 1–18), Matt Davies's non-literary stylistic analysis of the effects of constructed oppositions in news texts (pp. 71–101) and Larry Stewart's ‘You Must Alter Your Style, Madam: <italic>Pamela</italic> and the Gendered Construction of Narrative Voice in the Eighteenth-Century British Novel’ (pp. 141–52).</p>
<p>Continuing the genre-based approach to stylistics, Susan Mandala's <italic>Twentieth-Century Drama Dialogue as Ordinary Talk</italic> is a welcome addition to the slowly growing body of work on the stylistics of drama. It would be easy to criticize this book for being a fairly workaday application of some basic stylistic and pragmatic frameworks to the analysis of dramatic texts, were it not for the rigour with which Mandala analyses her data. In this respect, the book is an exemplar of the stylistic method and should serve as a model for both students and professional academics of what doing objective analysis really means. Although the basic premise of the book is not in itself strikingly original (the notion that techniques from conversation analysis and pragmatics may be applied in the analysis of fictional dialogue is, after all, something that Deirdre Burton was demonstrating in 1980), where Mandala does add something new is in her admirably thorough consideration of how such stylistic analysis can augment literary-critical approaches to the texts she analyses—by either supporting or undermining them. In terms of its coverage of stylistic frameworks, this is a slim volume, which would have benefited from added consideration of more recent advances in stylistics and pragmatics; for example, Mandala's approach to linguistic politeness focuses almost exclusively on the Stephen Brown and Penelope Levinson model [1987] which, given its pre-eminence within pragmatics, is perfectly reasonable. Nonetheless, considerable advances have been made in recent years in the study of impoliteness, which has itself had an effect on the way in which the Brown and Levinson model should be viewed. Consideration of this factor would have improved the book substantially. Despite this shortcoming, however, let me reiterate that this book is an excellent exemplification of the rigorous application of analytical frameworks to a text, and for this reason I recommend it strongly.</p>
<p>Other work on the stylistics of drama in 2007 can be found scattered widely across a number of books and journals. Derek Bousfield's analysis of impoliteness in <italic>1 Henry IV</italic> (in Lambrou and Stockwell, eds., pp. 209–20) is a case in point regarding the advances in pragmatics alluded to in the previous paragraph. In the same volume (pp. 232–43), Beatrix Busse provides an admirably thorough analysis of address forms, metaphor and foregrounding in <italic>The Reign of King Edward III</italic> while Craig Hamilton takes a cognitive approach to explaining why Arthur Miller's <italic>The Crucible</italic> is often interpreted as a parable (pp. 221–31). Mandala herself further demonstrates her interest in applying sociolinguistic principles in the analysis of drama, by investigating the use and function of the -<italic>y</italic> suffix in characters’ dialogue in the television series <italic>Buffy the Vampire Slayer</italic> (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 53–73). Mandala makes use of social network theory to suggest that the morphological ending in question is a marker of in-group identity for a core few of the main characters. She also suggests that the application of sociolinguistic models in the analysis of drama needs to take account not just of the realism of dramatic talk, but also ‘thematically motivated divergence’ from dramatic norms (p. 66).</p>
<p>In genre-based stylistics, of course, drama tends to be the poor relation to prose and poetry, and so it is encouraging that so much work was produced in this area in 2007. It is also the case that work on the stylistics of drama can be found outside the mainstream journals, if one knows where to look. As an example, Jeremy Munday's excellent study, <italic>Style and Ideology in Translation: Latin American Writing in English</italic>, contains a number of sections dealing specifically with film drama. The book is an extremely thorough investigation of stylistic issues in translating Latin American writers, and its appeal should go beyond those interested specifically in translation studies, precisely because it is so focused on what might be seen as a core principle of stylistics—the notion of style arising from motivated choice. Chapter 7 of the book, ‘Style in Audiovisual Translation’, is well worth the attention of those scholars currently working on multimodal issues in stylistics.</p>
<p>Of work in non-literary stylistics, Lesley Jeffries's <italic>Textual Construction of the Female Body: A Critical Discourse Approach</italic> demonstrates well how stylistics can be used to engage with such issues as ideology and identity construction. Jeffries investigates the ways in which magazines for teenage girls project often unattainable conceptualizations of the female body, which have the potential to be extremely damaging for their target readers. Jeffries's findings are based on the qualitative analysis of a corpus of texts, and the book includes analysis of nominalization, transitivity patterns and pragmatic issues, among numerous other aspects. Jeffries also engages with recent work in cognitive stylistics, which is especially appropriate given her concern with the ways in which readers react to the texts she analyses. With regard to this aspect of the book, it could have been made clearer that texts <italic>project</italic> identities while it is readers who <italic>construct</italic> them, though the book as a whole is a model of the kind of rigour and replicability that we should strive for in all stylistics research. Indeed, the clarity with which Jeffries presents her methodology, analysis and results makes this a project that might easily be replicated using a corpus linguistic methodology, which would have the potential to provide quantitative support for Jeffries's findings.</p>
<p>In a similar vein, Louise Mullany's <italic>Gendered Discourse in the Professional Workplace</italic> is an extremely thorough study of how workplace inequalities can be exacerbated through gendered discourses. Mullany takes an ethnographic approach to the issue and analyses a wide variety of data, from transcriptions of audio-recorded business meetings to written documents and notes on informal talk. Although sociolinguistic and discourse-analytic in nature, there is enough here concerning the matter of style for this book to be of interest to stylisticians, and it is particularly good to see linguistics generally being used for such a practical purpose.</p>
<p>Another work in non-literary stylistics deserving attention is Astrid Ensslin's <italic>Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions</italic>. Ensslin focuses specifically on literary hypertext, which she defines as ‘a specific form of literature that combines modern hypermedia with an at once “traditional” and innovative approach to reading’ (p. 2). She concludes that integrating such hypertexts into the UK National Curriculum may well have the effect of making literature more relevant to contemporary readers who are increasingly familiar with computer technology, though she adds the cautionary note that to do so would involve rethinking our concept of literature and literary competence. For readers with a particular interest in new media, it is also well worth seeking out David Machin and Theo van Leeuwen's <italic>Global Media Discourse: A Critical Introduction</italic>, a textbook focused on how to analyse the impact of globalization on the discourses of global media industries, incorporating both linguistic and multimodal analysis. The analysis of news discourse is also the focus of Martin Conboy's textbook, <italic>The Language of the News</italic> (reviewed in the previous section) while Martin Montgomery's <italic>The Discourse of Broadcast News: A Linguistic Approach</italic> deals with the same topic but with the increased detail to be expected of a monograph. Montgomery's book is groundbreaking in its integration of linguistic, multimodal and socio-cultural analytical techniques and deserves to be read widely.</p>
<p>Finally, with regard to non-literary work, it is important to mention Malcolm Coulthard and Alison Johnson's excellent <italic>An Introduction to Forensic Linguistics: Language in Evidence</italic>. Although it covers numerous aspects of linguistics (for example, morphology, syntax and phonology), it also includes significant coverage of stylistic issues and their importance to the practice of forensic linguistics. Coulthard and Johnson draw on their combined experience to provide a fascinating discussion of issues such as authorship attribution, register and idiolect and how these are often key in the forensic analysis of texts. In so doing, the authors discuss examples such as the plagiarism accusation brought against Dan Brown for his thriller <italic>The Da Vinci Code</italic> and the supposedly verbatim statement made by Derek Bentley following his arrest for the murder of a policeman. The book is an excellent exemplar of the practical value of language analysis of all kinds, and is highly recommended.</p>
<p>Turning now to the issue of cognition, the surge of interest in recent years in cognitive poetics means that this area of stylistics was amply represented in 2007. Joanna Gavins's <italic>Text World Theory: An Introduction</italic> provides an admirably clear and succinct introduction to Paul Werth's hugely influential theory concerning how readers construct fictional worlds. Although intended as a textbook, the book is not merely a simplified reformulation of Werth's work, but suggests substantial revisions to ‘Text World Theory’—such as the concept of world switches—in order to address defects in Werth's original concepts and to make it a more applicable theory analytically. One of the book's real strengths is its breadth of interesting analyses, which demonstrate well the value of Text World Theory. These are especially welcome, since without such exemplification there is a danger that new students may see Text World Theory as a simple descriptive account of the reading process which has little to say about the stylistic effects associated with the construction of fictional worlds. Gavins's book is an excellent counter to this danger.</p>
<p>For scholars of metaphor, 2007 was a bumper year. Two major publications were Gerard Steen's <italic>Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage</italic> and Andrew Goatley's <italic>Washing the Brain: Metaphor and Hidden Ideology</italic>. Steen's book is an admirably rigorous discussion of Cognitive Metaphor Theory and the evidence for the convergence of metaphor in language and thought. One of the most useful aspects of his book is the methodology that he outlines for the identification of conceptual metaphors, a process which will be of substantial value to stylisticians. This methodology is derived from the work of the Pragglejaz Group, an international association of metaphor scholars of which Steen is a member, and the methodology itself can also be found in the group's jointly authored publication ‘MIP: A Method for Identifying Metaphorically Used Words in Discourse’ (<italic>Met&Sym</italic> 22[2007] 1–39). Goatley's book is similarly impressive, and provides a wealth of examples of how conceptual metaphors can be culturally relative with significant consequences for the way in which we perceive our societies. Both books are highly recommended. Much shorter but no less rigorous is Jonathan Picken's <italic>Literature, Metaphor and the Language Learner</italic>. Picken's book is written primarily for L2 teachers who may want to include literature in their teaching. Picken provides much practical advice for such teachers, all of which is based on his own empirical research into readers’ responses to metaphor and literature in the foreign language classroom. The clarity of Picken's writing, however, means that the book should reach a wider readership than its primary intended one. In addition to this wealth of research into the nature of conceptual metaphors, 2007 saw the publication of Mark Johnson's <italic>The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding</italic>, which provides much food for thought concerning the nature of embodied meaning and how the body is able to convey meaning even before the development of self-conscious thought.</p>
<p>One area of stylistics that is growing significantly is that which has come to be known as corpus stylistics. Over recent years the application of corpus linguistic techniques in stylistic analysis has been shown to be of immense value, especially when it comes to the analysis of long texts such as novels. The year 2007 saw the publication of a number of extremely insightful articles about this developing methodology, though some of these are in specialist corpus linguistics publications which stylisticians may not necessarily stumble across. Nonetheless, I would urge all stylisticians to seek these out, since they exemplify the corpus stylistic approach and demonstrate well its value. Among these publications are Keiran O’Halloran's ‘The Subconscious in James Joyce's “Eveline”: A Corpus Stylistic Analysis which Chews on the “Fish Hook” ’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 227–44) and his ‘Corpus-Assisted Literary Evaluation’ (<italic>Corpora</italic> 2[2007] 33–63). In the first of these, O’Halloran treats Joyce's short story ‘Eveline’ as a corpus and uses various pieces of software to examine its linguistic properties. For instance, he investigates the keywords of the text and intrinsic parallelisms (for example the pronoun ‘her’ followed by a body-part noun). The analysis is centred around demonstrating that Stanley Fish's (in)famous criticisms of stylistics as arbitrary and circular are unfounded, since it is possible using a corpus linguistic methodology to identify patterns and foregrounded features in a text in an objective way. In his second article, O’Halloran takes a slightly different approach and, rather than treating the literary text as a corpus, he uses the Bank of English to investigate what constitutes the ‘normal’ language against which Fleur Adcock's poem ‘Street Song’ deviates. What makes O’Halloran's work particularly successful is his concern to connect his corpus-assisted approach to the cognitive theory of schemata and the notion of literary reading. Corpus stylistics is sometimes dismissed as a mechanistic approach that disregards the experience of readers, though this is not an accusation that could be levelled at O’Halloran.</p>
<p>Further corpus stylistic work is to be found in <italic>Language, People, Numbers: Corpus Linguistics and Society</italic>, a Festschrift for Michael Stubbs edited by Andrea Gerbig and Oliver Mason. Stubbs, of course, is well known for his work in corpus-assisted discourse analysis and stylistics, and appropriately, corpus stylistics is represented in this volume published to mark his sixtieth birthday. In his chapter, ‘The Novel Features of Text: Corpus Analysis and Stylistics’ (pp. 293–304), Henry Widdowson follows up Stubbs's own corpus stylistic analysis of Conrad's <italic>Heart of Darkness</italic> (<italic>L&L</italic>[2005] 5–24) by subjecting the novel to his own corpus-based analysis. Unlike O’Halloran, however, Widdowson believes that corpus stylistics is circular in method and hence open to the criticisms of Stanley Fish. This, he argues, is because corpus stylistics proceeds on the basis of interpretations and hunches about a text that are then followed up by, say, examining wordlists or concordances. Widdowson claims that <italic>Heart of Darkness</italic> ‘can only be subjectively interpreted’ and that because of this ‘what counts as evidence for interpretation can never be objectively determined’ (p. 303). It would be possible to argue against Widdowson's position by, for instance, considering the notion of literary competence and what counts as a sensible interpretation, but for the stylistician in a hurry, a quick fix solution to this thorny problem is simply to read Widdowson's chapter and follow it up by reading O’Halloran (<italic>L&L</italic> 16[2007] 227–44). Other chapters in Stubbs's Festschrift that include discussion of corpus stylistics and stylistic issues generally are Guy Cook's ‘Hocus Pocus or God's Truth: The Dual Identity of Michael Stubbs’ (pp. 305–27) and Wolfgang Kühlwein's ‘The Semiotic Pattering of Cædmon's Hymn as “Hypersign” ’ (pp. 99–128).</p>
<p>The year 2007 also saw the publication of <italic>Text, Discourse and Corpora: Theory and Analysis</italic> by Michael Hoey, Michaela Mahlberg, Michael Stubbs and Wolfgang Teubert. Naturally, given its authors, this is a book which contains significant insights into corpus stylistics. Mahlberg's own work on Dickens (<italic>Corpora</italic> 2[2007] 1–31; and in Lambrou and Stockwell, eds., pp. 19–31) is also well worth seeking out, exploring as it does the local textual functions of five-word clusters—in effect, a kind of parallelism. Elsewhere, articles on corpus stylistics can be found in the <italic>International Journal of Corpus Linguistics</italic>, wherein some of the most insightful are Paul Thompson and Alison Sealey's ‘Through Children's Eyes? Corpus Evidence of the Features of Children's Literature’ (<italic>IJCL</italic> 12[2007] 1–23) and Michael Toolan's ‘Trust and Text, Text as Trust’ (<italic>IJCL</italic> 12[2007] 269–88). The latter article is from a special issue entitled ‘Words, Grammar, Text: Revisiting the Work of John Sinclair’, published to mark Sinclair's untimely death. Sinclair, of course, remained interested in stylistics throughout his long career, and most of the articles in the issue are relevant—even if only indirectly—to stylistic analysis. Dan McIntyre's review article published in the following issue (<italic>IJCL</italic> 12[2007] 563–75) considers Sinclair's work in relation to stylistics specifically. Other noteworthy work from 2007 on corpus stylistics includes George L. Dillon's ‘The Genres Speak: Using Large Corpora to Profile Generic Registers’ (<italic>JLS</italic> 36[2007] 159–88), Rosamund Moon's ‘Words, Frequencies, and Texts (Particularly Conrad): A Stratified Approach’ (<italic>JLS</italic> 36[2007] 1–34), and Doug Biber's chapter, ‘Corpus-Based Analyses of Discourse: Dimensions of Variation in Conversation’ (in Bhatia, Flowerdew and Jones, eds., <italic>Advances in Discourse Studies</italic>, pp. 100–14).</p>
<p>I will end this review by mentioning some of the excellent textbooks that were produced in 2007, since these are the books that inspire new generations of scholars to produce the kind of work described elsewhere in this article. The third edition of the successful <italic>Working with Texts: A Core Introduction to Language Analysis</italic>, by Ronald Carter, Angela Goddard, Danutah Reah, Keith Sanger and Nikki Swift, includes significant coverage of stylistic issues, as does <italic>Redesigning English</italic>, edited by Sharon Goodman, David Graddol and Theresa Lillis, part of a series of introductory Open University books. Lesley Jeffries's chapter in this volume is the most obviously stylistic in nature, as may be apparent from its title: ‘What Makes Language into Art?’ (pp. 5–42). In it, Jeffries discusses such concepts as rhyme and alliteration, simile and metaphor, collocation and iconicity in poetry, and plot, dialogue and vernacular language in prose fiction and drama. Elsewhere in the book are other chapters dealing with familiar issues to the stylistician—for example, Alan Bell on ‘Text, Time and Technology in News English’ (pp. 79–112) and Collin Gardner on ‘English and New Media’ (pp. 205–42)—always in a clear and accessible manner. Lastly, Kim Ballard's second edition of <italic>The Frameworks of English</italic> provides a clear and thorough introduction to the formal aspects of language study that underpin all stylistic analysis. In short, the plethora of publications from 2007 demonstrate clearly that stylistics is in good health and moving beyond the unfairly narrow preconception that others often have of it as the study of the language of literature. It goes without saying that this review is no more than a snapshot of a fast-developing area. For a discussion of other related work in stylistics from 2007, readers are referred also to Peter Stockwell's review of ‘The Year's Work in Stylistics 2007’ (<italic>L&L</italic> 17[2008] 351–64).</p></sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list><title>Books Reviewed</title>
<ref id="B1"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Aarts</surname><given-names>Bas</given-names></name><name><surname>McMahon</surname><given-names>April</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Handbook of English Linguistics</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 806</fpage><comment>£99.99 ISBN 1 4051 1382 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B2"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Adger</surname><given-names>Carolyn Temple</given-names></name><name><surname>Wolfram</surname><given-names>Walt</given-names></name><name><surname>Christian</surname><given-names>Donna</given-names></name></person-group><source>Dialects in Schools, and Communities</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>Erlbaum</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 226</fpage><comment>hb £75 ISBN 9 7808 0584 3156, pb £21.99 ISBN 9 7808 0584 3163</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B3"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Aloni</surname><given-names>Maria</given-names></name><name><surname>Butler</surname><given-names>Alastair</given-names></name><name><surname>Dekker</surname><given-names>Paul</given-names></name></person-group><source>Questions in Dynamic Semantics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 344</fpage><comment>£73.95 ISBN 9 7800 8045 3477</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B4"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Anderson</surname><given-names>John M</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Grammar of Names</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 375</fpage><comment>£85 ISBN 9 7801 9929 7412</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B5"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Ansaldo</surname><given-names>Umberto</given-names></name><name><surname>Matthews</surname><given-names>Stephen</given-names></name><name><surname>Lim</surname><given-names>Lisa</given-names></name></person-group><source>Deconstructing Creole</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 290</fpage><comment>€115 ($173) ISBN 9 7890 2722 9854</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B6"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Armstrong</surname><given-names>David F</given-names></name><name><surname>E. Wilcox</surname><given-names>Sherman</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Gestural Origin of Language</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>168</fpage><comment>£23.99 ISBN 9 7801 9516 3483</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B7"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Aurnague</surname><given-names>Michel</given-names></name><name><surname>Hickmann</surname><given-names>Maya</given-names></name><name><surname>Vieu</surname><given-names>Laure</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Categorization of Spatial Entities in Language and Cognition</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 371</fpage><comment>€120 ($180) ISBN 9 7890 2722 3746</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B8"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baca</surname><given-names>Keith</given-names></name></person-group><source>Native American Place Names in Mississippi</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>UMP</publisher-name><fpage>xx + 143</fpage><comment>$50 ISBN 1 5780 6955 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B9"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ballard</surname><given-names>Kim</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Frameworks of English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 353</fpage><comment>pb £17.99 ISBN 9 7802 3001 3148</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B10"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bamberg</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name></person-group><source>Narrative: State of the Art Narrative</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><comment>pp. vi + 270. €95 ($143) ISBN 9 7890 2722 2367</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B11"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bamberg</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name><name><surname>De Fina</surname><given-names>Anna</given-names></name><name><surname>Schiffrin</surname><given-names>Deborah</given-names></name></person-group><source>Selves and Identities in Narrative and Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>x + 355</fpage><comment>€90 ($135) ISBN 9 7890 2722 6495</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B12"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Baptista</surname><given-names>Marlyse</given-names></name><name><surname>Guéron</surname><given-names>Jacqueline</given-names></name></person-group><source>Noun Phrases in Creole Languages: A Multi-Faceted Approach</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 493</fpage><comment>€125 ($188) ISBN 9 7890 2725 2531</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B13"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Barker</surname><given-names>Chris</given-names></name><name><surname>Jacobson</surname><given-names>Pauline</given-names></name></person-group><source>Direct Compositionality</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 439</fpage><comment>hb £75 ISBN 9 7801 9920 4373, pb £27.50 ISBN 9 7801 9920 4380</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B14"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bartels</surname><given-names>Anke</given-names></name><name><surname>Wiemann</surname><given-names>Dirk</given-names></name></person-group><source>Global Fragments: (Dis)Orientation in the New World Order</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>xx + 358</fpage><comment>€76 ($110) ISBN 9 7890 4202 1822</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B15"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bauer</surname><given-names>Laurie</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Linguistics Student's Handbook</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. ix + 387. hb £45.00, ISBN 978 0 7486 2758 5, pb £14.99, USBN 978 0 7486 2759 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B16"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baxter</surname><given-names>Judith</given-names></name></person-group><source>Positioning Gender in Discourse: A Feminist Methodology</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>215</fpage><comment>pb £16.99 ISBN 9 7802 3055 4320</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B17"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bayley</surname><given-names>Robert</given-names></name><name><surname>Lucas</surname><given-names>Ceil</given-names></name></person-group><source>Sociolinguistic Variation: Theories, Methods, and Applications</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 405</fpage><comment>hb £55 ISBN 9 7805 2187 1273, pb £19.99 ISBN 9 7805 2169 1819</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B18"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Beard</surname><given-names>Adrian</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language Change</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 114</fpage><comment>hb £45 ISBN 9 7804 1532 0559, pb £10.99 ISBN 9 7804 1532 0566</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B19"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bhatia</surname><given-names>Vijay K</given-names></name><name><surname>Flowerdew</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name><name><surname>Jones</surname><given-names>Rodney H</given-names></name></person-group><source>Advances in Discourse Studies</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 262</fpage><comment>pb £22.99 ISBN 9 7804 1539 8107</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B20"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Biber</surname><given-names>Douglas</given-names></name><name><surname>Connor</surname><given-names>Ulla</given-names></name><name><surname>Upton</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Discourse on the Move: Using Corpus Analysis to Describe Discourse Structure</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 289</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2722 3029</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B21"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Biggam</surname><given-names>Carole P</given-names></name><name><surname>Kay</surname><given-names>Christian J</given-names></name></person-group><source>Progress in Colour Studies, (vol 1: <italic>Language, and Culture</italic>.</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><comment>pp. xii + 223. €95 ISBN 9 7890 2723 2397. Also available as a set with C.P. Biggam and Nicola J. Pitchford, eds. <italic>Progress in Colour Studies</italic>, (vol 2: <italic>Psychological Aspects</italic>. Benjamins. [2006] pp. xiv + 237. €190 ISBN 9 7890 2723 2410</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B22"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Boeckx</surname><given-names>Cedric</given-names></name></person-group><source>Linguistic Minimalism: Origins, Concepts, Methods, and Aims</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 246</fpage><comment>hb £60 ISBN 9 7801 9929 7573, pb £18.99 ISBN 9 7801 9929 7580</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B23"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bolton</surname><given-names>Kingsley</given-names></name><name><surname>Kachru</surname><given-names>Braj B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Asian Englishes</source><year>2007</year><volume>1–5</volume><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><comment>pp. xxxiii + 396, v + 300, vii + 410, v + 449, vii + 515. £725 ($1, 450) ISBN 9 7804 1537 4866 (set)</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B24"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Borg</surname><given-names>Emma</given-names></name></person-group><source>Minimal Semantics</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 288</fpage><comment>£22 ISBN 9 7801 9920 6926</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B25"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Boškovic</surname><given-names>Željko</given-names></name><name><surname>Lasnik</surname><given-names>Howard</given-names></name></person-group><source>Minimalist Syntax: The Essential Readings</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 449</fpage><comment>hb £60 ISBN 0 6312 3303 2, pb £26.99 ISBN 0 6312 3304 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B26"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brewer</surname><given-names>Charlotte</given-names></name></person-group><source>Treasure-House of the Language: The Living OED</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>YaleUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 334</fpage><comment>£25 ISBN 9 7803 0012 4293</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B27"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Breznitz</surname><given-names>Zvia</given-names></name></person-group><source>Brain Research in Language</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name><fpage>282</fpage><comment>€106.95 ISBN 9 7803 8774 9792</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B28"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brinton</surname><given-names>Laurel J</given-names></name><name><surname>Arnovick</surname><given-names>Leslie K</given-names></name></person-group><source>The English Language: A Linguistic History</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><comment>pb £45.99 ISBN 9 7801 9542 2054</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B29"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Britain</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language in the British Isles</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 508</fpage><comment>hb £53 ($101) ISBN 9 7805 2179 1502, pb £19.99 ($37.99) ISBN 9 7805 2179 4886</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B30"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bublitz</surname><given-names>Wolfram</given-names></name><name><surname>Hübler</surname><given-names>Axel</given-names></name></person-group><source>Metapragmatics in Use</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 301</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2725 4092</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B31"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bührig</surname><given-names>Kristin</given-names></name><name><surname>D. ten Thije</surname><given-names>Jan</given-names></name></person-group><source>Beyond Misunderstanding</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 339</fpage><comment>€115 ($173) ISBN 9 7890 2725 3873</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B32"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bunt</surname><given-names>Harry</given-names></name><name><surname>Muskens</surname><given-names>Reinhard</given-names></name></person-group><source>Computing Meaning</source><year>2007</year><volume>3</volume><publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name><comment>pp. vi + 477. €149.75 ISBN 9 7814 0205 9568</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B33"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Butler</surname><given-names>Christopher</given-names></name><name><surname>Hidalgo Downing</surname><given-names>Raquel</given-names></name><name><surname>Lavid</surname><given-names>Julia</given-names></name></person-group><source>Functional Perspectives on Grammar and Discourse: In Honour of Angela Downing</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xxx + 481</fpage><comment>€125 ($188) ISBN 9 7890 2723 0959</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B34"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cameron</surname><given-names>Deborah</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Teacher's Guide to Grammar</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>176</fpage><comment>pb £10.99 ISBN 9 7801 9921 4488</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B35"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cappelen</surname><given-names>Herman</given-names></name><name><surname>Lepore</surname><given-names>Ernie</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language Turned on Itself: The Semantics and Pragmatics of Metalinguistic Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 169</fpage><comment>£19.99 ISBN 9 7801 9923 1195</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B36"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Carter</surname><given-names>Ronald</given-names></name><name><surname>Goddard</surname><given-names>Angela</given-names></name><name><surname>Reah</surname><given-names>Danutah</given-names></name><name><surname>Sanger</surname><given-names>Keith</given-names></name><name><surname>Swift</surname><given-names>Nikki</given-names></name></person-group><source>Working with Texts: A Core Introduction to Language Analysis</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xxii + 264</fpage><comment>pb £16.99 ISBN 9 7804 1541 4241</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B37"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chafe</surname><given-names>Wallace</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Importance of Not Being Earnest</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 167</fpage><comment>€99 ($149) ISBN 9 7890 2724 1528</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B38"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chandler</surname><given-names>Daniel</given-names></name></person-group><source>Semiotics: The Basics</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 307</fpage><comment>pb $17.95 ISBN 9 7804 1536 3754</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B39"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Conboy</surname><given-names>Martin</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Language of the News</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>x + 229</fpage><comment>pb £18.99 ISBN 9 7804 1537 2022</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B40"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Considine</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name><name><surname>Iamartino</surname><given-names>Giovanni</given-names></name></person-group><source>Words and Dictionaries from the British Isles in Historical Perspective</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Cambridge Scholars Publishing</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 225</fpage><comment>£34.99 ISBN 9 7818 4718 1688</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B41"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Coulthard</surname><given-names>Malcolm</given-names></name><name><surname>Johnson</surname><given-names>Alison</given-names></name></person-group><source>An Introduction to Forensic Linguistics: Language in Evidence</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 237</fpage><comment>pb £20.99 ISBN 9 7804 1532 0238</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B42"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Coupland</surname><given-names>Nikolas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Style: Language Variation, and Identity</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 209</fpage><comment>pb £17.99 ($34.99) ISBN 9 7805 2161 8144</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B43"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Culicover</surname><given-names>Peter W</given-names></name><name><surname>Jackendoff</surname><given-names>Ray</given-names></name></person-group><source>Simpler Syntax</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 589</fpage><comment>hb £84 ISBN 9 7801 9927 1085, pb £24.99 ISBN 9 7801 9927 1092</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B44"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Dehé</surname><given-names>Nicole</given-names></name><name><surname>Kavalova</surname><given-names>Yordanka</given-names></name></person-group><source>Parentheticals</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 314</fpage><comment>€115 ($173) ISBN 9 7890 2723 3707</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B45"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Denning</surname><given-names>Keith</given-names></name><name><surname>Kessler</surname><given-names>Brett</given-names></name><name><surname>Leben</surname><given-names>William R</given-names></name></person-group><source>English Vocabulary Elements</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>336</fpage><comment>pb £10.99 ISBN 9 7801 9516 8037</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B46"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dent</surname><given-names>Susie</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Language Report: English on the Move 2000 + 2007</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 166</fpage><comment>£10.99 ISBN 9 7801 9923 3885</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B47"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dessalles</surname><given-names>Jean-Louis</given-names></name></person-group><source>Why We Talk: The Evolutionary Origins of Language</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 395</fpage><comment>£37 ISBN 9 7801 9927 6233</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B48"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dimbleby</surname><given-names>Richard</given-names></name><name><surname>Burton</surname><given-names>Graeme</given-names></name></person-group><source>More Than Words: An Introduction to Communication</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 283</fpage><comment>pb $32.95 ISBN 9 7804 1530 3835</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B49"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Eguren</surname><given-names>Luis</given-names></name><name><surname>Fernández Soriano</surname><given-names>Olga</given-names></name></person-group><source>Coreference, Modality, and Focus</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 239</fpage><comment>€110 ($165) ISBN 9 7890 2723 3752</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B50"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Ehland</surname><given-names>Christoph</given-names></name></person-group><source>Thinking Northern: Textures of Identity in the North of England</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>448</fpage><comment>€90 ISBN 9 7890 4202 2812</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B51"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Enfield</surname><given-names>NJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Stivers</surname><given-names>Tanya</given-names></name></person-group><source>Person Reference in Interactions: Linguistics, Cultural, and Social Perspectives</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 358</fpage><comment>£55 ($105) ISBN 9 7805 2187 2454</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B52"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Englebretson</surname><given-names>Robert</given-names></name></person-group><source>Stancetaking in Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 323</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2725 4085</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B53"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ensslin</surname><given-names>Astrid</given-names></name></person-group><source>Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 197</fpage><comment>£65 ISBN 9 7808 2649 5587</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B54"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Evans</surname><given-names>Vyvyan</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><fpage>256</fpage><comment>pb £11.99 ISBN 9 7807 4862 2801</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B55"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Facchinetti</surname><given-names>Roberta</given-names></name></person-group><source>Corpus Linguistics 25 Years On</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>392</fpage><comment>€80 ISBN 9 7890 4202 1952</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B56"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Fanselow</surname><given-names>Gisbert</given-names></name><name><surname>Féry</surname><given-names>Caroline</given-names></name><name><surname>Vogel</surname><given-names>Ralf</given-names></name><name><surname>Schlesewsky</surname><given-names>Matthias</given-names></name></person-group><source>Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 405</fpage><comment>£80 ISBN 9 7801 9927 4796</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B57"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Fetzer</surname><given-names>Anita</given-names></name></person-group><source>Context and Appropriateness</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 265</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2725 4061</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B58"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fetzer</surname><given-names>Anita</given-names></name><name><surname>Lauerbac</surname><given-names>Gerda</given-names></name></person-group><source>Political Discourse in the Media: Cross-Cultural Perspectives</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 379</fpage><comment>€110 ($165) ISBN 9 7890 2725 4030</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B59"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fiengo</surname><given-names>Robert</given-names></name></person-group><source>Asking Questions: Using Meaningful Structures to Imply Ignorance</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 179</fpage><comment>£34 ISBN 9 7801 9920 8418</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B60"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fine</surname><given-names>Kit</given-names></name></person-group><source>Semantic Relationism</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 146</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 9 7814 0510 8430</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B61"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fischer</surname><given-names>Olga</given-names></name></person-group><source>Morphosyntactic Change: Functional and Formal Perspectives</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 378</fpage><comment>hb £60 ISBN 9 7801 9926 7040, pb £21.99 ISBN 9 7801 9926 7057</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B62"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Fitzpatrick</surname><given-names>Eileen</given-names></name></person-group><source>Corpus Linguistics Beyond the Word: Corpus Research from Phrase to Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 277</fpage><comment>€58 ISBN 9 7890 4202 1358</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B63"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Freeborn</surname><given-names>Dennis</given-names></name></person-group><source>From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variation across Time</source><year>2006</year><edition>3rd</edition><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xxiii + 446</fpage><comment>pb £20.99 ISBN 1 4039 9880 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B64"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Games</surname><given-names>Alex</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Balderdash, and Piffle</article-title><source>BBC Books</source><year>2007</year><fpage>240</fpage><comment>£12.99 ISBN 9 7818 4607 2352</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B65"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gaskell</surname><given-names>Gareth</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 600</fpage><comment>£52 ISBN 9 7801 9956 1797</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B66"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gavins</surname><given-names>Joanna</given-names></name></person-group><source>Text World Theory: An Introduction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 193</fpage><comment>pb £19.99 ISBN 9 7807 4862 3006</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B67"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Geeraerts</surname><given-names>Dirk</given-names></name><name><surname>Cuyckens</surname><given-names>Hubert</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>1,364</fpage><comment>£85 ISBN 9 7801 9514 3782</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B68"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Georgakopoulou</surname><given-names>Alexandra</given-names></name></person-group><source>Small Stories, Interaction and Identities</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 185</fpage><comment>€99 ($149) ISBN 9 7890 2722 6488</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B69"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gerbig</surname><given-names>Andrea</given-names></name><name><surname>Mason</surname><given-names>Oliver</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language, People, Numbers: Corpus Linguistics and Society</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>327</fpage><comment>€65 ISBN 9 7890 4202 3505</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B70"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gibbs</surname><given-names>Raymond</given-names></name><name><surname>Colston</surname><given-names>Herbert</given-names></name></person-group><source>Irony in Language and Thought: A Cognitive Science Reader</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Erlbaum</publisher-name><fpage>x + 607</fpage><comment>pb $34.95 ISBN 9 7808 0586 0627</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B71"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Goatley</surname><given-names>Andrew</given-names></name></person-group><source>Washing the Brain: Metaphor and Hidden Ideology</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 431</fpage><comment>pb €36 ISBN 9 7890 2722 7201</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B72"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gonzalez-Marquez</surname><given-names>Monica</given-names></name><name><surname>Mittelberg</surname><given-names>Irene</given-names></name><name><surname>Coulson</surname><given-names>Seana</given-names></name><name><surname>J. Spivey</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name></person-group><source>Methods in Cognitive Linguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xxviii + 452</fpage><comment>€130 ISBN 9 7890 2722 3715</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B73"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Goodman</surname><given-names>Sharon</given-names></name><name><surname>Graddol</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name><name><surname>Lillis</surname><given-names>Theresa</given-names></name></person-group><source>Redesigning English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>iii + 302</fpage><comment>pb £20.99 ISBN 9 7804 1537 6891</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B74"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gorji</surname><given-names>Mina</given-names></name></person-group><source>Rude Britannia</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 147</fpage><comment>pb £16.99 ISBN 9 7804 1538 2779</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B75"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gregoriou</surname><given-names>Christiana</given-names></name></person-group><source>Deviance in Contemporary Crime Fiction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>x + 178</fpage><comment>pb £18.99 ISBN 9 7802 3000 3392</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B76"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Greimann</surname><given-names>Dirk</given-names></name><name><surname>Siegwart</surname><given-names>Geo</given-names></name></person-group><source>Truth and Speech Acts</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 389</fpage><comment>£65 ISBN 9 7804 1540 6512</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B77"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Grein</surname><given-names>Marion</given-names></name><name><surname>Weigand</surname><given-names>Edda</given-names></name></person-group><source>Dialogue and Culture</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 262</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2721 0180</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B78"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Griffiths</surname><given-names>Patrick</given-names></name></person-group><source>An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 193</fpage><comment>hb £54 ISBN 9 7807 4861 6312, pb £15.99 ISBN 9 7807 4861 6329</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B79"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grygiel</surname><given-names>Marcin</given-names></name><name><surname>Kleparski</surname><given-names>Grzegorz A.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Main Trends in Historical Semantics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Wydawnictwo Uniwesytetu Rzeszowskiego</publisher-name><fpage>143</fpage><comment>pb 15 zloty ISBN 9 7883 7338 3128</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B80"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Haegeman</surname><given-names>Liliane</given-names></name></person-group><source>Thinking Syntactically: A Guide to Argumentation and Analysis</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 386</fpage><comment>pb £17.99 ISBN 1 4051 1853 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B81"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Halliday</surname><given-names>Michael AK</given-names></name><name><surname>Yallop</surname><given-names>Colin</given-names></name></person-group><source>Lexicology: A Short Introduction</source><year>2004</year><edition>1st edn</edition><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><comment>pp. vi + 117. £12.99 ISBN 9 7808 2649 4795</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B82"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harley</surname><given-names>Heidi</given-names></name></person-group><source>English Words: A Linguistic Introduction</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 296</fpage><comment>hb £55 ISBN 0 6312 3031 9, pb £17.99 ISBN 0 6312 3032 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B83"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hartmann</surname><given-names>Reinhard Rudolf Karl</given-names></name></person-group><source>Interlingual Lexicography: Selected Essays on Translation Equivalence, Contrastive Linguistics and the Bilingual Dictionary</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Niemeyer</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 246</fpage><comment>pb €96 ISBN 9 7834 8439 1338</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B84"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Haumann</surname><given-names>Dagmar</given-names></name></person-group><source>Adverb Licensing and Clause Structure in English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 438</fpage><comment>pb €125 ISBN 9 7890 2723 3691</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B85"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hedberg</surname><given-names>Nancy</given-names></name><name><surname>Zacharski</surname><given-names>Ron</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Grammar–Pragmatics Interface: Essays in Honor of Jeanette K. Gundel</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 343</fpage><comment>€110 ($165) ISBN 9 7890 2725 3989</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B86"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Heine</surname><given-names>Bernd</given-names></name><name><surname>Kuteva</surname><given-names>Tania</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Genesis of Grammar: A Reconstruction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>352</fpage><comment>£80 ISBN 9 7801 9922 7761</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B87"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hepburn</surname><given-names>Alexa</given-names></name><name><surname>Wiggins</surname><given-names>Sally</given-names></name></person-group><source>Discursive Research in Practice: New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 322</fpage><comment>pb $39.99 ISBN 9 7805 2161 4092</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B88"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hickey</surname><given-names>Raymond</given-names></name></person-group><source>Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xx + 524</fpage><comment>£60 ISBN 9 7805 2185 2999</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B89"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hidalgo</surname><given-names>Encarnación</given-names></name><name><surname>Quereda</surname><given-names>Luis</given-names></name><name><surname>Santana</surname><given-names>Juan</given-names></name></person-group><source>Corpora in the Foreign Language Classroom: Selected Papers from the Sixth International Conference on Teaching and Language Corpora (TaLC 6), University of Granada, Spain, 4–7 July, 2004</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 362</fpage><comment>€76 ($103) ISBN 9 0420 2142 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B90"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hinzen</surname><given-names>Wolfram</given-names></name></person-group><source>An Essay on Names and Truth</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 244</fpage><comment>hb £60 ISBN 9 7801 9927 4420, pb £20.99 ISBN 9 7801 9922 6528</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B91"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hodson</surname><given-names>Jane</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language and Revolution in Burke, Wollstonecraft, Paine and Godwin</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>x + 226</fpage><comment>£50 ISBN 9 7807 5465 4032</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B92"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hoey</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name><name><surname>Mahlberg</surname><given-names>Michaela</given-names></name><name><surname>Stubbs</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name><name><surname>Teubert</surname><given-names>Wolfgang</given-names></name></person-group><source>Text, Discourse and Corpora: Theory and Analysis</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><fpage>264</fpage><comment>pb £27.99 ISBN 9 7808 2649 1725</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B93"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hogg</surname><given-names>Richard M</given-names></name><name><surname>Denison</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name></person-group><source>A History of the English Language</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 495</fpage><comment>hb £80 ISBN 9 7805 2166 2277, pb £23.99 ISBN 9 7805 2171 7991</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B94"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Holm</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name><name><surname>L. Patrick</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Comparative Creole Syntax: Parallel Outlines of 18 Creole Grammars</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Battlebridge</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 404</fpage><comment>£24.99 ($45.95) ISBN 9 7819 0329 2013</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B95"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Holt</surname><given-names>Elizabeth</given-names></name><name><surname>Clift</surname><given-names>Rebecca</given-names></name></person-group><source>Reporting Talk: Reported Speech in Interaction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 287</fpage><comment>£60 ($110) ISBN 9 7805 2182 4835</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B96"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hoover</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name><name><surname>Lattig</surname><given-names>Sharon</given-names></name></person-group><source>Stylistics: Prospect and Retrospect</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>xxi + 212</fpage><comment>pb €47 ISBN 9 7890 4202 3307</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B97"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hough</surname><given-names>Carole</given-names></name><name><surname>Corbett</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name></person-group><source>Beginning Old English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 251</fpage><comment>hb £45 ISBN 1 4039 9349 1, pb £15.99 ISBN 1 4039 9350 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B98"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Howard</surname><given-names>Martin</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language Issues in Canada: Multidisciplinary Perspectives</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Cambridge Scholars</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 217</fpage><comment>£34.99 ISBN 9 7818 4718 2036</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B99"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hübler</surname><given-names>Axel</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Nonverbal Shift in Early Modern Conversation</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 278</fpage><comment>€115 ($173) ISBN 9 7890 2725 3972</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B100"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hudson</surname><given-names>Richard</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language Networks: The New Word Grammar</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xii +</fpage><comment>275. hb £70 ISBN 9 7801 9926 7309, pb £21.99 ISBN 9 7801 9929 8389</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B101"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Humphrys</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name></person-group><source>Beyond Words: How Language Reveals the Way We Live Now</source><publisher-name>H&S</publisher-name><comment>[2007; 1st edn. 2006] pp. 240. pb £7.99 ISBN 9 7803 4092 3764</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B102"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hundt</surname><given-names>Marianne</given-names></name></person-group><source>English Mediopassive Constructions: A Cognitive, Corpus-Based Study of their Origin, Spread, and Current Status</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 222</fpage><comment>€50 ($68) ISBN 9 0420 2127 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B103"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Hundt</surname><given-names>Marianne</given-names></name><name><surname>Nesselhauf</surname><given-names>Nadja</given-names></name><name><surname>Biewer</surname><given-names>Carolin</given-names></name></person-group><source>Corpus Linguistics and the Web</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 305</fpage><comment>€65 ($94) ISBN 9 0420 2128 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B104"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hurford</surname><given-names>James R</given-names></name><name><surname>Heasley</surname><given-names>Brendan</given-names></name><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>Michael B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Semantics: A Coursebook</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 350</fpage><comment>pb £17.99 ($32.99) ISBN 9 7805 2167 1873</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B105"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hutchby</surname><given-names>Ian</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Discourse of Child Counselling</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 144</fpage><comment>€95 ($143) ISBN 9 7890 2721 8599</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B106"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ingram</surname><given-names>John CL</given-names></name></person-group><source>Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and its Disorders</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxi + 442</fpage><comment>pb £25.99 ISBN 9 7805 2179 6408</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B107"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Jeffries</surname><given-names>Lesley</given-names></name></person-group><source>Textual Construction of the Female Body: A Critical Discourse Approach</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 212</fpage><comment>£48 ISBN 9 7803 3391 4519</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B108"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Jeffries</surname><given-names>Lesley</given-names></name><name><surname>McIntyre</surname><given-names>Dan</given-names></name><name><surname>Bousfield</surname><given-names>Derek</given-names></name></person-group><source>Stylistics and Social Cognition</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 277</fpage><comment>pb €60 ISBN 9 7890 4202 3123</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B109"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Johnson</surname><given-names>Mark</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>UChicP</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 308</fpage><comment>pb £13 ISBN 9 7802 2640 1935</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B110"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Kaplan</surname><given-names>Robert B</given-names></name><name><surname>Baldauf</surname><given-names>Richard B</given-names><suffix>Jr</suffix></name></person-group><source>Language Planning and Policy in Africa, vol 2: Algeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Tunisia</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MlM</publisher-name><comment>pp. v + 307. £39.95 ($79.95) ISBN 9 7818 4769 0111</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B111"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Katamba</surname><given-names>Francis</given-names></name><name><surname>Stonham</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name></person-group><source>Morphology</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 382</fpage><comment>hb £55 ISBN 1 4039 1643 8, pb £19.99 ISBN 1 4039 1644 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B112"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kaunisto</surname><given-names>Mark</given-names></name></person-group><source>Variation and Change in the Lexicon: A Corpus-Based Analysis of Adjectives in English Ending in -ic and -ical</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>x + 364</fpage><comment>€75 ISBN 9 7890 4202 2331</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B113"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kayne</surname><given-names>Richard S</given-names></name></person-group><source>Movement and Silence Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 376</fpage><comment>pb £23.99 ISBN 9 7801 9517 9170</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B114"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kouega</surname><given-names>Jean-Paul</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Dictionary of Cameroon English Usage</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Lang</publisher-name><fpage>202</fpage><comment>€48.70 ($75.95) ISBN 9 7830 3911 0278</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B115"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kövecses</surname><given-names>Zoltán</given-names></name></person-group><source>Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation</source><edition>2nd edn</edition><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><comment>[2007; 1st edn. 2005] pp. xv + 314. pb £17.99 ISBN 9 7805 2169 6128</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B116"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Kraft</surname><given-names>Bettina</given-names></name><name><surname>Geluykens</surname><given-names>Ronald</given-names></name></person-group><source>Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and Interlanguage English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>LINCOM</publisher-name><fpage>260</fpage><comment>pb €73.20 ($107.60) ISBN 9 7838 9586 7767</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B117"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lambrou</surname><given-names>Marina</given-names></name><name><surname>Stockwell</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Contemporary Stylistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 287</fpage><comment>£85 ISBN 9 7808 2649 3859</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B118"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Leech</surname><given-names>Geoffrey</given-names></name><name><surname>Short</surname><given-names>Mick</given-names></name></person-group><source>Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>Pearson Education</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 404</fpage><comment>pb £19.99 ISBN 9 7805 8278 4093</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B119"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Leitner</surname><given-names>Gerhard</given-names></name><name><surname>G. Malcolm</surname><given-names>Ian</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Habitat of Australia's Aboriginal Languages: Past, Present and Future</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 385</fpage><comment>€98 ($137) ISBN 9 7831 1019 0793</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B120"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Lenker</surname><given-names>Ursula</given-names></name><name><surname>Meurman-Solin</surname><given-names>Anneli</given-names></name></person-group><source>Connectives in the History of English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 318</fpage><comment>€115 ISBN 9 7890 2724 7988</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B121"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Llamas</surname><given-names>Carmen</given-names></name><name><surname>Mullany</surname><given-names>Louise</given-names></name><name><surname>Stockwell</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xix + 271</fpage><comment>hb £55 ($110) ISBN 9 7804 1533 8493, pb £14.99 ($26.95) ISBN 9 7804 1533 8509</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B122"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Machin</surname><given-names>David</given-names></name><name><surname>van Leeuwen</surname><given-names>Theo</given-names></name></person-group><source>Global Media Discourse: A Critical Introduction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 188</fpage><comment>pb £18.99 ISBN 9 7804 1535 9467</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B123"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mandala</surname><given-names>Susan</given-names></name></person-group><source>Twentieth-Century Drama Dialogue as Ordinary Talk: Speaking Between the Lines</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 138</fpage><comment>pb £45 ISBN 9 7807 5465 1055</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B124"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Matthews</surname><given-names>Peter H</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>464</fpage><comment>pb. £10.99 ISBN 9 7801 9920 2720</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B125"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>McColl Millar</surname><given-names>Robert</given-names></name></person-group><source>Northern and Insular Scots</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 178</fpage><comment>hb £50 ISBN 9 7807 4862 3467, pb £16.99 ISBN 9 7807 4862 3174</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B126"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Meyer</surname><given-names>Antje</given-names></name><name><surname>Wheeldon</surname><given-names>Linda</given-names></name><name><surname>Krott</surname><given-names>Andrea</given-names></name></person-group><source>Automaticity and Control in Language Processing</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Psychology Press</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 304</fpage><comment>£49.95 ISBN 9 7818 4169 6508</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B127"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>Alexander</given-names></name></person-group><source>Philosophy of Language</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd</edition><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 416</fpage><comment>pb $31.95 ISBN 9 7804 1534 9819</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B128"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>DGary</given-names></name></person-group><source>Latin Suffixal Derivatives in English and their Indo-European Ancestry</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxxvi + 386</fpage><comment>£55 ISBN 9 7801 9928 5051</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B129"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Miyoshi</surname><given-names>Kusujiro</given-names></name></person-group><source>Johnson's and Webster's Verbal Examples: With Special Reference to Exemplifying Usage in Dictionary Entries</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Niemeyer</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 222</fpage><comment>pb €84.95 ISBN 9 7834 8439 1321</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B130"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Montgomery</surname><given-names>Martin</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Discourse of Broadcast News: A Linguistic Approach</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 246</fpage><comment>pb £24.99 ISBN 9 7804 1535 8729</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B131"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Morrish</surname><given-names>Liz</given-names></name><name><surname>Sauntson</surname><given-names>Helen</given-names></name></person-group><source>New Perspectives on Language and Sexual Identity</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 223</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 9 7814 0393 7964</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B132"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Mukherji</surname><given-names>Nirmalangshu</given-names></name><name><surname>Bibudhendra Narayan</surname><given-names>Patnaik</given-names></name><name><surname>Kant Agnihotri</surname><given-names>Rama</given-names></name></person-group><source>Noam Chomsky: The Architecture of Language</source><year>2000</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>106</fpage><comment>pb £4.99 ISBN 9 7801 9568 4469</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B133"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mullany</surname><given-names>Louise</given-names></name></person-group><source>Gendered Discourse in the Professional Workplace</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 236</fpage><comment>£53 ISBN 9 7814 0398 6207</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B134"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mund</surname><given-names>Jeremy</given-names></name></person-group><source>Style and Ideology in Translation: Latin American Writing in English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 261</fpage><comment>£70 ISBN 9 7804 1536 1040</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B135"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Nikolaeva</surname><given-names>Irina</given-names></name></person-group><source>Finiteness: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 537</fpage><comment>pb £27.50 ISBN 9 7801 9921 3740</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B136"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Penke</surname><given-names>Martina</given-names></name><name><surname>Rosenbach</surname><given-names>Annette</given-names></name></person-group><source>What Counts as Evidence in Linguistics: The Case of Innateness</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 297</fpage><comment>€95 ISBN 9 7890 2722 2374</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B137"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pennycook</surname><given-names>Alastair</given-names></name></person-group><source>Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 189</fpage><comment>hb £70 ($125) ISBN 9 7804 1537 4804, pb £19.99 ($35.95) ISBN 9 7804 1537 4972</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B138"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Pérez-Guerra</surname><given-names>Javier</given-names></name><name><surname>González-Álvarez</surname><given-names>Dolores</given-names></name><name><surname>L Bueno-Alonso</surname><given-names>Jorge</given-names></name><name><surname>Rama-Martínez</surname><given-names>Esperanza</given-names></name></person-group><source>‘Of Varying Language and Opposing Creed': New Insights into Late Modern English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Lang</publisher-name><fpage>455</fpage><comment>pb €66.80 (£50.10, $103.95) ISBN 9 7830 3910 7889</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B139"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Peters</surname><given-names>Pam</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Cambridge Guide to English Usage</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>620</fpage><comment>£28 ISBN 9 7805 2162 1816</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B140"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Picken</surname><given-names>Jonathan</given-names></name></person-group><source>Literature, Metaphor and the Language Learner</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 174</fpage><comment>£48 ISBN 9 7802 3050 6954</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B141"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Pietarinen</surname><given-names>Ahti-Veikko</given-names></name></person-group><source>Game Theory and Linguistic Meaning</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 246</fpage><comment>£74.95 ISBN 9 7800 8044 7155</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B142"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pinker</surname><given-names>Steven</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Penguin</publisher-name><fpage>512</fpage><comment>pb £9.99 ISBN 9 7801 4101 5477</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B143"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Plag</surname><given-names>Ingo</given-names></name><name><surname>Braun</surname><given-names>Maria</given-names></name><name><surname>Lappe</surname><given-names>Sabine</given-names></name><name><surname>Schramm</surname><given-names>Mareile</given-names></name></person-group><source>Introduction to English Linguistics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>246</fpage><comment>pb €19.95 ISBN 9 7831 1018 9698</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B144"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Pöchhacker</surname><given-names>Franz</given-names></name><name><surname>Shlesinger</surname><given-names>Miriam</given-names></name></person-group><source>Healthcare Interpreting</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 155</fpage><comment>€80 ($120) ISBN 9 7890 2722 2398</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B145"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Radden</surname><given-names>Günter</given-names></name><name><surname>Dirven</surname><given-names>René</given-names></name></person-group><source>Cognitive English Grammar</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 374</fpage><comment>hb €110 ISBN 9 7890 2721 9039, pb €33 ISBN 9 7890 2721 9046</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B146"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Radden</surname><given-names>Günther</given-names></name><name><surname>Köpcke</surname><given-names>Klaus-Michael</given-names></name><name><surname>Berg</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name><name><surname>Siemund</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Aspects of Meaning Construction</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>x + 287</fpage><comment>€110 ($132) ISBN 9 7890 2723 2427</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B147"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Ramchand</surname><given-names>Gillian</given-names></name><name><surname>Reiss</surname><given-names>Charles</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Interfaces</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 640</fpage><comment>£95 ISBN 9 7801 9924 7455</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B148"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Randall</surname><given-names>Mick</given-names></name></person-group><source>Memory, Psychology and Second Language Learning</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>x + 220</fpage><comment>hb €105 ISBN 9 7890 2721 9770, pb €36 ISBN 9 7890 2721 9787</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B149"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rasinger</surname><given-names>Sebastian M</given-names></name></person-group><source>Bengali-English in East London: A Study in Urban Multilingualism</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Lang</publisher-name><fpage>270</fpage><comment>€47.60 ($73.95) ISBN 9 7830 3911 0360</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B150"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Rehbein</surname><given-names>Jochen</given-names></name><name><surname>Hohenstein</surname><given-names>Christiane</given-names></name><name><surname>Pietsch</surname><given-names>Lukas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Connectivity in Grammar and Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 465</fpage><comment>€80 ($120) ISBN 9 7890 2721 9251</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B151"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Reich</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name><name><surname>Sullivan</surname><given-names>William J</given-names></name><name><surname>Lommel</surname><given-names>Arle R</given-names></name><name><surname>Griffen</surname><given-names>Toby</given-names></name></person-group><source>LACUS Forum 33: Variation</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Houston. LACUS</publisher-name></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B152"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ritchie</surname><given-names>LDavid</given-names></name></person-group><source>Context and Connection in Metaphor</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 248</fpage><comment>£50 ISBN 9 7814 0399 7661</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B153"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Roberts</surname><given-names>Ian</given-names></name></person-group><source>Diachronic Syntax</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 508</fpage><comment>hb £75 ISBN 9 7801 9928 3668, pb £26.99 ISBN 9 7801 9925 3982</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B154"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sauerland</surname><given-names>Uli</given-names></name><name><surname>Stateva</surname><given-names>Penka</given-names></name></person-group><source>Presupposition and Implicature in Compositional Semantics</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 285</fpage><comment>£55 ISBN 9 7802 3000 5334</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B155"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Saul</surname><given-names>Jennifer</given-names></name></person-group><source>Simple Sentences, Substitution, and Intuitions</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 176</fpage><comment>£32 ISBN 9 7801 9921 9155</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B156"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Saussure</surname><given-names>Louis de</given-names></name><name><surname>Moeschler</surname><given-names>Jacques</given-names></name><name><surname>Puskás</surname><given-names>Genoveva</given-names></name></person-group><source>Recent Advances in the Syntax and Semantics of Tense, Aspect and Modality</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>253</fpage><comment>€98 ISBN 9 7831 1019 5255</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B157"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schegloff</surname><given-names>Emmanuel</given-names></name></person-group><source>Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis</source><year>2007</year><volume>1</volume><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><comment>pp. xvi + 300. pb $38.99 ISBN 9 7805 2153 2792</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B158"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Schmitter</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Sprachtheorien der Neuzeit III/2: Sprachbeschreibung und Sprachunterrricht</source><year>2007</year><volume>2</volume><publisher-name>Narr</publisher-name><comment>pp. 434. € 84 ISBN 3 8233 5010 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B159"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schneider</surname><given-names>Edgar W</given-names></name></person-group><source>Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 367</fpage><comment>hb £60 ($115) ISBN 9 7805 2183 1406, pb £21.99 ($39.99) ISBN 9 7805 2153 9012</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B160"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Schwarz-Friesel</surname><given-names>Monika</given-names></name><name><surname>Consten</surname><given-names>Manfred</given-names></name><name><surname>Knees</surname><given-names>Mareile</given-names></name></person-group><source>Anaphors in Text: Cognitive, Formal and Applied Approaches to Anaphoric Reference</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 282</fpage><comment>€110 ($165) ISBN 9 7890 2723 0966</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B161"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Sharifan</surname><given-names>Farzad</given-names></name><name><surname>Palmer</surname><given-names>Gary B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Applied Cultural Linguistics: Implications for Second Language Learning and Intercultural Communication</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 175</fpage><comment>€95 ($143) ISBN 9 7890 2723 8948</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B162"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Sica</surname><given-names>Giandomenico</given-names></name></person-group><source>Open Problems in Linguistics and Lexicography</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Polimetrica</publisher-name><fpage>372</fpage><comment>pb €30 ISBN 9 7888 7699 0519. Also available free as an Open Access Publication: ISBN 9 7888 7699 0564</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B163"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Skandera</surname><given-names>Paul</given-names></name></person-group><source>Phraseology and Culture in English</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 505</fpage><comment>€98 ($137) ISBN 9 7831 1019 0878</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B164"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Smit</surname><given-names>Ute</given-names></name><name><surname>Dollinger</surname><given-names>Stefan</given-names></name><name><surname>Hüttner</surname><given-names>Julia</given-names></name><name><surname>Lutzky</surname><given-names>Ursula</given-names></name><name><surname>Kaltenböck</surname><given-names>Gunther</given-names></name></person-group><source>Tracing English through Time: Explorations in Language Variation</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Braumüller</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 416</fpage><comment>pb. €32.90 ISBN 9 7837 0031 6138</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B165"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Snyder</surname><given-names>William</given-names></name></person-group><source>Child Language: The Parametric Approach</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>224</fpage><comment>pb £19.99 ISBN 9 7801 9929 6705</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B166"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Späth</surname><given-names>Andreas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Interfaces and Interface Conditions</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 377</fpage><comment>€98 ISBN 9 7831 1019 5477</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B167"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stanley</surname><given-names>Jason</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language in Context: Selected Essays</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 264</fpage><comment>hb £58 ISBN 9 7801 9922 5927, pb £19.99 ISBN 9 7801 9922 5934</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B168"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Steen</surname><given-names>Gerard</given-names></name></person-group><source>Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 430</fpage><comment>€110 ISBN 9 7890 2723 8979</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B169"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Swan</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name></person-group><source>Practical English Usage</source><year>2005</year><edition>3rd</edition><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxx + 658</fpage><comment>£29.85 ISBN 9 7801 9442 0990</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B170"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Taiwo</surname><given-names>Rotimi</given-names></name><name><surname>Odebunmi</surname><given-names>Akin</given-names></name><name><surname>Adetunji</surname><given-names>Akin</given-names></name></person-group><source>Perspectives on Media Discourse</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>LINCOM</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 325</fpage><comment>€69.20 ($96.88) ISBN 9 7838 9586 4759</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B171"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tenbrink</surname><given-names>Thora</given-names></name></person-group><source>Space, Time and the Use of Language: An Investigation of Relationships</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 345</fpage><comment>€88 ISBN 9 7831 1019 5200</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B172"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Teubert</surname><given-names>Wolfgang</given-names></name></person-group><source>Text Corpora and Multilingual Lexicography</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 159</fpage><comment>€80, $120 ISBN 9 7890 2722 2381</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B173"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Trask</surname><given-names>RL</given-names></name></person-group><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Stockwell</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts</source><year>2007</year><edition>2nd edn</edition><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><comment>pp. xxi + 367. pb $26.95 ISBN 0 4154 1359 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B174"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Tsui</surname><given-names>Amy BM</given-names></name><name><surname>Tollefson</surname><given-names>James W</given-names></name></person-group><source>Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Erlbaum</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 283</fpage><comment>hb £75 ($115) ISBN 9 7808 0585 6934, pb £22.99 ($36.50) ISBN 9 7808 0585 6941</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B175"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Turell</surname><given-names>MTeresa</given-names></name><name><surname>Spassova</surname><given-names>Maria</given-names></name><name><surname>Cicres</surname><given-names>Jordi</given-names></name></person-group><source>Second European IAFL Conference on Forensic Linguistic / Language, and the Law</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada</publisher-name><fpage>358</fpage><comment>ISBN 8 4967 4228 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B176"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Van Langendonck</surname><given-names>Willy</given-names></name></person-group><source>Theory and Typology of Proper Names</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>MGruyter</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 378</fpage><comment>$137 ISBN 9 7831 1019 0861</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B177"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Van Peer</surname><given-names>Willie</given-names></name><name><surname>Hakemulder</surname><given-names>Jèmeljan</given-names></name><name><surname>Zyngier</surname><given-names>Sonia</given-names></name></person-group><source>Muses and Measures: Empirical Research Methods for the Humanities</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Cambridge Scholars Press</publisher-name><fpage>xx + 366</fpage><comment>hb price £39.99 ISBN 9 7818 4718 1701</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B178"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Vega Moreno</surname><given-names>Rosa</given-names></name></person-group><source>Creativity, and Convention: The Pragmatics of Everyday Figurative Speech</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 249</fpage><comment>€105 ($158) ISBN 9 7890 2725 3996</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B179"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Watts</surname><given-names>Victor</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Place-Names of County Durham</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>EPNS</publisher-name><fpage>xxv + 284</fpage><comment>$29.99 ISBN 9 7809 0488 9734</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B180"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Wilson</surname><given-names>Andrew</given-names></name><name><surname>Archer</surname><given-names>Dawn</given-names></name><name><surname>Rayson</surname><given-names>Paul</given-names></name></person-group><source>Corpus Linguistics around the World</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 233</fpage><comment>€55 ($69) ISBN 9 7890 4201 8365</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B181"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>van der Wurff</surname><given-names>Wim</given-names></name></person-group><source>Imperative Clauses in Generative Grammar</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 352</fpage><comment>€120 ISBN 9 7890 2723 3677</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B182"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Yong</surname><given-names>Heming</given-names></name><name><surname>Peng</surname><given-names>Jing</given-names></name></person-group><source>Bilingual Lexicography from a Communicative Perspective</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>Benjamins</publisher-name><fpage>x + 229</fpage><comment>€99 ISBN 9 7890 2722 3333</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B183"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zuo</surname><given-names>Yan</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Golden Silence: A Pragmatic Study on Silence in Dyadic English Conversation</source><year>2007</year><publisher-name>LINCOM</publisher-name><fpage>v + 187</fpage><comment>pb ISBN 3 8958 6676 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref></ref-list></back>
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