XIVModern Literature
Identifieur interne : 000B09 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000B08; suivant : 000B10XIVModern Literature
Auteurs : Nick Bentley ; John Brannigan ; Matthew Creasy ; Rebecca D Onté ; Anne Fogarty ; Andrew Harrison ; Chris Hopkins ; Justin Quinn ; Andrew Radford ; Lisa Shahriari ; Aleks SierzSource :
- Year's Work in English Studies [ 0084-4144 ] ; 2007.
Abstract
This chapter has eight sections: 1. General; 2. Pre-1945 Fiction; 3. Post-1945 Fiction; 4. Pre-1950 Drama; 5. Post-1950 Drama; 6. Pre-1950 Poetry; 7. Post-1950 Poetry; 8. Irish Poetry. Sections 1 and 7 are by John Brannigan; section 2(a) is by Andrew Radford; section 2(b) is by Chris Hopkins; section 2(c) is by Anne Fogarty; section 2(d) is by Andrew Harrison; section 2(e) is by Lisa Shahriari; section 3 is by Nick Bentley; section 4 is by Rebecca D’Monté; section 5 is by Aleks Sierz; section 6 is by Matthew Creasy; section 8 is by Justin Quinn.
Url:
DOI: 10.1093/ywes/mam014
Links to Exploration step
ISTEX:404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08Le document en format XML
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uniqKey="Hopkins C" first="Chris" last="Hopkins">Chris Hopkins</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Sheffield Hallam University</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Quinn, Justin" sort="Quinn, Justin" uniqKey="Quinn J" first="Justin" last="Quinn">Justin Quinn</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Charles University, Prague</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Radford, Andrew" sort="Radford, Andrew" uniqKey="Radford A" first="Andrew" last="Radford">Andrew Radford</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Glasgow</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Shahriari, Lisa" sort="Shahriari, Lisa" uniqKey="Shahriari L" first="Lisa" last="Shahriari">Lisa Shahriari</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Essex</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Sierz, Aleks" sort="Sierz, Aleks" uniqKey="Sierz A" first="Aleks" 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Passos</json:string><json:string>Iraq and Israel</json:string><json:string>Manchester University</json:string><json:string>Open University</json:string><json:string>Vatican Council, Greene</json:string><json:string>National Theatre</json:string></orgName><orgName_funder></orgName_funder><orgName_provider></orgName_provider><persName><json:string>X. Dalrymple</json:string><json:string>Ruth Frehner</json:string><json:string>Daniel Hipp</json:string><json:string>John Fowles</json:string><json:string>Fiona Becket</json:string><json:string>Daniel Martin</json:string><json:string>Stephen Dillane</json:string><json:string>Kathryn Simpson</json:string><json:string>Stevie Smith</json:string><json:string>Lesley Storm</json:string><json:string>Sarah Hall</json:string><json:string>Badenhausen</json:string><json:string>George McCartney</json:string><json:string>Oscar Wilde</json:string><json:string>Dylan Remembered</json:string><json:string>Day Anthology</json:string><json:string>Lawrence</json:string><json:string>A. Norman</json:string><json:string>Patrick Deane</json:string><json:string>Percy Spalding</json:string><json:string>Eileen Williams-Wanquet</json:string><json:string>Paul de Man</json:string><json:string>Arnold Bennett</json:string><json:string>Roberta Barker</json:string><json:string>Colin MacInnes</json:string><json:string>John Wain</json:string><json:string>Trinity College</json:string><json:string>Enid Blyton</json:string><json:string>T.E. Hulme</json:string><json:string>Neil Mann</json:string><json:string>Mark Kinkead-Weekes</json:string><json:string>Jane Moody</json:string><json:string>Corcoran</json:string><json:string>Rainey</json:string><json:string>Bruno</json:string><json:string>Siegfried Sassoon</json:string><json:string>Constance Garnett</json:string><json:string>Dalloway</json:string><json:string>Michael Bell</json:string><json:string>Sholem Asch</json:string><json:string>Henry James</json:string><json:string>Lalla Rookh</json:string><json:string>Maggie B. Gale</json:string><json:string>Colleen Jaurretche</json:string><json:string>Fritz Senn</json:string><json:string>Storm Jameson</json:string><json:string>Jeffrey Wainwright</json:string><json:string>Trevor Griffiths</json:string><json:string>John Hargrave</json:string><json:string>Thelma Holt</json:string><json:string>Varun Begley</json:string><json:string>James Joyce</json:string><json:string>Keith Cushman</json:string><json:string>Henri Gaudier</json:string><json:string>Christine Reynier</json:string><json:string>Ina Rozant</json:string><json:string>Patricia E. Johnson</json:string><json:string>Maria Tymoczko</json:string><json:string>Randall Jarrell</json:string><json:string>Louise E. Wright</json:string><json:string>Ira B. Publishers</json:string><json:string>Helen Goethals</json:string><json:string>Newman</json:string><json:string>James Ross</json:string><json:string>Harold Peters</json:string><json:string>J. Macarthur</json:string><json:string>Wesley A. Kort</json:string><json:string>Gordon Bowker</json:string><json:string>Carlos Williams</json:string><json:string>Real World</json:string><json:string>Oliver Mellors</json:string><json:string>Charles Elton</json:string><json:string>German Poetry</json:string><json:string>Christopher Innes</json:string><json:string>Lynne Hapgood</json:string><json:string>Brian Maidment</json:string><json:string>Lawrence Society</json:string><json:string>Ethel M. Dell</json:string><json:string>Byron CamineroSantangelo</json:string><json:string>Rankin Russell</json:string><json:string>J.B. 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Ingersoll</json:string><json:string>Neil Corcoran</json:string><json:string>Mikko Keskinen</json:string><json:string>Julian Bell</json:string><json:string>Michael Hartnett</json:string><json:string>Edward P. Modernism</json:string><json:string>Gabrielle McIntire</json:string><json:string>Joseph Conrad</json:string><json:string>Jonathan Lloyd</json:string><json:string>Guy Cuthbertson</json:string><json:string>Langston</json:string><json:string>Vera Brittain</json:string><json:string>Thomas Postlewait</json:string><json:string>Wendy Pollard</json:string><json:string>Bill Naismith</json:string><json:string>Wyndham Lewis</json:string><json:string>Simon Lee</json:string><json:string>Christopher Reed</json:string><json:string>Vivien Eliot</json:string><json:string>Ottoline</json:string><json:string>Mario Curreli</json:string><json:string>Donald Davie</json:string><json:string>X. Jaffe</json:string><json:string>William</json:string><json:string>Richard J. Hand</json:string><json:string>P.N. Furbank</json:string><json:string>Alan Ayckbourn</json:string><json:string>Stanley Eveling</json:string><json:string>Sharon Monteith</json:string><json:string>Leslie White</json:string><json:string>Rebecca Solomon</json:string><json:string>A. Place</json:string><json:string>Tom Stoppard</json:string><json:string>Claire Dowie</json:string><json:string>Alain Blayac</json:string><json:string>David Ian</json:string><json:string>Thomas Pinney</json:string><json:string>Steve Nicholson</json:string><json:string>Richard Badenhausen</json:string><json:string>James E. Miller</json:string><json:string>Jacques Derrida</json:string><json:string>Francis Stuart</json:string><json:string>Wyndham</json:string><json:string>Karen V. Kukil</json:string><json:string>Rene Giraud</json:string><json:string>Douglas Coupland</json:string><json:string>Dalrymple</json:string><json:string>Land</json:string><json:string>Jackson Pollock</json:string><json:string>Peter Sacks</json:string><json:string>Mary Shine</json:string><json:string>Day Lewis</json:string><json:string>Max Egremont</json:string><json:string>Liberty Lane</json:string><json:string>Michael Redgrave</json:string><json:string>London Letter</json:string><json:string>Laura Doan</json:string><json:string>Richard Davenport-Hines</json:string><json:string>Theodore L. 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Owen</json:string><json:string>Hugh Kenner</json:string><json:string>Eltis</json:string><json:string>Pollard</json:string><json:string>An Anthology</json:string><json:string>Hannah Brooks-Motl</json:string><json:string>Edward Said</json:string><json:string>John Zilcosky</json:string><json:string>David Greig</json:string><json:string>Thomas Mark</json:string><json:string>Kate O’Brien</json:string><json:string>Ben Jonson</json:string><json:string>Lindsay Duncan</json:string><json:string>Helen Corke</json:string><json:string>Gertrude Lawrence</json:string><json:string>Sarah Haslam</json:string><json:string>Sophie Nield</json:string><json:string>Joseph Wiesenfarth</json:string><json:string>David Trotter</json:string><json:string>Anja Muller</json:string><json:string>Aaron Kelly</json:string></persName><placeName><json:string>Saint Sebastian</json:string><json:string>New Political</json:string><json:string>Atrocity</json:string><json:string>County Kerry</json:string><json:string>Birmingham</json:string><json:string>Paris</json:string><json:string>Nuremberg</json:string><json:string>Columbia</json:string><json:string>Germany</json:string><json:string>Greece</json:string><json:string>United States</json:string><json:string>Mexico</json:string><json:string>Windsor</json:string><json:string>Felicity</json:string><json:string>UK</json:string><json:string>Scotland</json:string><json:string>Edinburgh</json:string><json:string>Alexandria</json:string><json:string>Martin</json:string><json:string>London</json:string><json:string>American</json:string><json:string>Boston</json:string><json:string>Algeria</json:string><json:string>Kawashima</json:string><json:string>India</json:string><json:string>Vence</json:string><json:string>Austin</json:string><json:string>China</json:string><json:string>Europe</json:string><json:string>The Narrow Bridge</json:string><json:string>Jerusalem</json:string><json:string>America</json:string><json:string>South Africa</json:string><json:string>British Empire</json:string><json:string>Liverpool</json:string><json:string>Manchester</json:string><json:string>Berkeley</json:string><json:string>The City</json:string><json:string>Lisbon</json:string><json:string>Dublin</json:string><json:string>Amsterdam</json:string><json:string>Britain</json:string><json:string>Vladimir</json:string><json:string>Yorkshire</json:string><json:string>United Kingdom</json:string><json:string>St Michael</json:string><json:string>York</json:string><json:string>Bombay</json:string><json:string>Galway</json:string><json:string>St. Petersburg</json:string><json:string>Hollywood</json:string><json:string>Florence</json:string><json:string>Lausanne</json:string><json:string>St Enodoc</json:string><json:string>France</json:string><json:string>Iceland</json:string><json:string>Copenhagen</json:string><json:string>Cambridge</json:string><json:string>Shropshire</json:string><json:string>Italy</json:string><json:string>Spain</json:string><json:string>Unreal City</json:string><json:string>Orlando</json:string><json:string>Zurich</json:string><json:string>Chester</json:string><json:string>Fucking</json:string><json:string>Morpethshire</json:string><json:string>Warwick</json:string><json:string>Chekhov</json:string></placeName><ref_url></ref_url><ref_bibl><json:string>[1958]</json:string><json:string>[1986]</json:string><json:string>[1929]</json:string><json:string>[1992]</json:string><json:string>[1968]</json:string><json:string>[1930]</json:string><json:string>Fiction and Culture 1880</json:string><json:string>Genre and Politics 1926</json:string><json:string>[1829]</json:string><json:string>[1991]</json:string><json:string>[1956]</json:string><json:string>Landscape and Literature, 1840</json:string><json:string>[2006]</json:string><json:string>[1817]</json:string><json:string>[2001]</json:string><json:string>[1944]</json:string><json:string>April and July 1917</json:string><json:string>[1909]</json:string><json:string>Kolocotroni et al.</json:string><json:string>Literature and Landscape 1840</json:string><json:string>[1994]</json:string><json:string>[1959]</json:string><json:string>[2000]</json:string><json:string>American Poet, 1888</json:string><json:string>[1908]</json:string><json:string>[1982]</json:string></ref_bibl><bibl></bibl></unitex></namedEntities><ark><json:string>ark:/67375/HXZ-GB6J966K-W</json:string></ark><categories><wos></wos><scienceMetrix></scienceMetrix><scopus><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Literature and Literary Theory</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>3 - Linguistics and Language</json:string><json:string>1 - Social Sciences</json:string><json:string>2 - Arts and Humanities</json:string><json:string>3 - Language and Linguistics</json:string></scopus><inist><json:string>sciences appliquees, technologies et medecines</json:string><json:string>sciences biologiques et medicales</json:string><json:string>sciences medicales</json:string><json:string>pathologie osteoarticulaire</json:string></inist></categories><publicationDate>2007</publicationDate><copyrightDate>2007</copyrightDate><doi><json:string>10.1093/ywes/mam014</json:string></doi><id>404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08</id><score>1</score><fulltext><json:item><extension>pdf</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>application/pdf</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/fulltext/pdf</uri></json:item><json:item><extension>zip</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/zip</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/fulltext/zip</uri></json:item><istex:fulltextTEI uri="https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/fulltext/tei"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title level="a">XIVModern Literature</title></titleStmt><publicationStmt><authority>ISTEX</authority><publisher scheme="https://publisher-list.data.istex.fr">Oxford University Press</publisher><availability><licence><p>© The English Association; all rights reserved</p></licence><p scheme="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-GTWS0RDP-M">oup</p></availability><date>2007</date></publicationStmt><notesStmt><note type="research-article" scheme="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</note><note type="journal" scheme="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</note></notesStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct type="inbook"><analytic><title level="a">XIVModern Literature</title><author xml:id="author-0000"><persName><forename type="first">Nick</forename><surname>Bentley</surname></persName><affiliation>Keele University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0001"><persName><forename type="first">John</forename><surname>Brannigan</surname></persName><affiliation>University College, Dublin</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0002"><persName><forename type="first">Matthew</forename><surname>Creasy</surname></persName><affiliation>University of St. Andrews</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0003"><persName><forename type="first">Rebecca</forename><surname>D’Monté</surname></persName><affiliation>University of the west of England, Bristol</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0004"><persName><forename type="first">Anne</forename><surname>Fogarty</surname></persName><affiliation>University College, Dublin</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0005"><persName><forename type="first">Andrew</forename><surname>Harrison</surname></persName><affiliation>Technische Universitaet Darmstadt, Germany</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0006"><persName><forename type="first">Chris</forename><surname>Hopkins</surname></persName><affiliation>Sheffield Hallam University</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0007"><persName><forename type="first">Justin</forename><surname>Quinn</surname></persName><affiliation>Charles University, Prague</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0008"><persName><forename type="first">Andrew</forename><surname>Radford</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Glasgow</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0009"><persName><forename type="first">Lisa</forename><surname>Shahriari</surname></persName><affiliation>University of Essex</affiliation></author><author xml:id="author-0010"><persName><forename type="first">Aleks</forename><surname>Sierz</surname></persName><affiliation>Rose Bruford College</affiliation></author><idno type="istex">404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08</idno><idno type="ark">ark:/67375/HXZ-GB6J966K-W</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1093/ywes/mam014</idno></analytic><monogr><title level="j">Year's Work in English Studies</title><idno type="pISSN">0084-4144</idno><idno type="eISSN">1471-6801</idno><idno type="publisher-id">ywes</idno><idno type="PublisherID-hwp">ywes</idno><imprint><publisher>Oxford University Press</publisher><date type="published" when="2007"></date><biblScope unit="volume">86</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">1</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="780">780</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="886">886</biblScope></imprint></monogr></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><creation><date>2007</date></creation><abstract><p>This chapter has eight sections: 1. General; 2. Pre-1945 Fiction; 3. Post-1945 Fiction; 4. Pre-1950 Drama; 5. Post-1950 Drama; 6. Pre-1950 Poetry; 7. Post-1950 Poetry; 8. Irish Poetry. Sections 1 and 7 are by John Brannigan; section 2(a) is by Andrew Radford; section 2(b) is by Chris Hopkins; section 2(c) is by Anne Fogarty; section 2(d) is by Andrew Harrison; section 2(e) is by Lisa Shahriari; section 3 is by Nick Bentley; section 4 is by Rebecca D’Monté; section 5 is by Aleks Sierz; section 6 is by Matthew Creasy; section 8 is by Justin Quinn.</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="Journal Subject"><list><head></head><item><term>Articles</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2007">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus oup, element #text not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article">
<front>
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<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">ywes</journal-id>
<journal-title>Year's Work in English Studies</journal-title>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0084-4144</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1471-6801</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ywes/mam014</article-id>
<article-categories>
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<subject>Articles</subject>
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</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>XIV<break></break>Modern Literature</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Bentley</surname><given-names>Nick</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Keele University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Brannigan</surname><given-names>John</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University College, Dublin</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Creasy</surname><given-names>Matthew</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of St. Andrews</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>D’Monté</surname><given-names>Rebecca</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of the west of England, Bristol</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Fogarty</surname><given-names>Anne</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University College, Dublin</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Harrison</surname><given-names>Andrew</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Technische Universitaet Darmstadt, Germany</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Hopkins</surname><given-names>Chris</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Sheffield Hallam University</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Quinn</surname><given-names>Justin</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Charles University, Prague</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Radford</surname><given-names>Andrew</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Glasgow</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Shahriari</surname><given-names>Lisa</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>University of Essex</aff>
</contrib-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sierz</surname><given-names>Aleks</given-names></name>
</contrib>
<aff>Rose Bruford College</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub">
<year>2007</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>86</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>780</fpage>
<lpage>886</lpage>
<copyright-statement>© The English Association; all rights reserved</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2007</copyright-year>
<abstract><p>This chapter has eight sections: <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">1</xref>. General; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2">2</xref>. Pre-1945 Fiction; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">3</xref>. Post-1945 Fiction; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC4">4</xref>. Pre-1950 Drama; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC5">5</xref>. Post-1950 Drama; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC6">6</xref>. Pre-1950 Poetry; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">7</xref>. Post-1950 Poetry; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC8">8</xref>. Irish Poetry. <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC1">Sections 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC7">7</xref> are by John Brannigan; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.1">section 2(a)</xref> is by Andrew Radford; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.2">section 2(b)</xref> is by Chris Hopkins; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.3">section 2(c)</xref> is by Anne Fogarty; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.4">section 2(d)</xref> is by Andrew Harrison; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.5">section 2(e)</xref> is by Lisa Shahriari; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC3">section 3</xref> is by Nick Bentley; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC4">section 4</xref> is by Rebecca D’Monté; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC5">section 5</xref> is by Aleks Sierz; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC6">section 6</xref> is by Matthew Creasy; <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC8">section 8</xref> is by Justin Quinn.</p></abstract>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="SEC1"><title>1. General</title>
<p>One of the most important books published this year in twentieth-century literary studies is <italic>A History of Twentieth-Century British Women's Poetry</italic>, an impressively wide-ranging and authoritative survey, by Jane Dowson and Alice Entwistle. The authors provide a balanced and informative overview of women's poetry through the century, with detailed, astute readings of the work of some of the most notable poets, including Edith Sitwell, Vita Sackville-West, Stevie Smith, Veronica Forrest-Thomson, Carol Ann Duffy, and Eavan Boland. It also includes a helpful chronology, and equally useful bibliography of poetic and critical works. The consistent and pragmatic focus of the book is the relationship between women poets and a sense of poetic tradition. Partly, the authors are concerned to lay a critical foundation in this volume (and hence some of the explanations of poetic reputations and historical background can seem pedestrian, but are necessarily so), but this is often juxtaposed with a striking capacity for bold, concise, and effective statements. In order to satisfy the needs of a survey volume, the inevitable cost is the brevity of the accounts of the work of some authors. I hungered for more on Kathleen Raine, Elizabeth Jennings, Sheila Wingfield, and Ruth Pitter, for example, but credit must be given in the first place to Dowson and Entwistle for reviving interest in a large number of neglected poets, and for setting their work within obvious yet uncharted contexts. In the post-war period in particular, the authors rightly focus attention away from the legacy of Sylvia Plath, whose reputation now tends to dominate the story of women's poetry in the 1950s and 1960s, and to ‘centralise the more understated but deeply equivocal figure of Stevie Smith’ (p. 107). Smith, indeed, is the only poet to enjoy a chapter to herself. Other chapters are faultless in giving attention to specific contexts and tendencies, from the early chapter on lyrical androgyny, to the post-war chapters on ‘the paradox of home’, to later chapters on ‘identity and place’, and postmodernism. None of the chapter topics will come as a surprise, which ought to show us that this important volume was work waiting to be done. Dowson and Entwistle have done it, and their findings—that women poets have excelled at the dramatic monologue, and experimented irreverently with lyric forms, for example—will be the basis for many future critical discussions about women and poetry in the twentieth century.</p>
<p>The <italic>Encyclopedia of British Women's Writing, 1900–1950</italic>, edited by Faye Hammill, Esme Miskimmin, and Ashlie Sponenberg, is also required reading for anyone interested in women's writing in the twentieth century. The encyclopedia, like Dowson and Entwistle's volume reviewed above, also aims to cover the groundwork in the study of women's writing, in this case by providing reliable entries on the publications, background, and historical context of both well-known and neglected women authors. The volume also provides entries of a more general kind, such as entries on censorship, little magazines, abortion, the <italic>Titanic</italic>, and a range of other important contextual items. Some of these are perhaps of questionable value, and could easily be looked up elsewhere, but nevertheless the entries provided are consistently informative, reliable, and succeed in pointing out significant angles for those interested in women's writing. As for the entries on women authors themselves, these are invaluable. There are succinct, instructive entries on all the best-known authors—Virginia Woolf, Rosamund Lehmann, Agatha Christie, Enid Blyton, Elizabeth Bowen, Elizabeth Taylor, Vera Brittain, Storm Jameson, Barbara Cartland, Ivy Compton-Burnett, Nancy Cunard, and Jean Rhys, as well as on popular but now largely forgotten or neglected authors, such as Ethel M. Dell and Ruby M. Ayres. However, it is for the dozens and dozens of authors whose names are never mentioned in literary histories of the period, and whose writings and lives are glimpsed tantalizingly in these entries, that this encyclopedia will prove most useful as a starting point for new research into the neglected stories of women's writing during the period. To discover the extraordinary productivity of women writers of this time, and to recover the centrality of women writers to modern literary culture, read this book from cover to cover.</p>
<p>The kind of research which might be given a boost by such an encyclopedia is best exemplified in Catherine Clay's innovative study, <italic>British Women Writers, 1914–1945: Professional Work and Friendship</italic>. Clay centres her book on a network of friends involved in the feminist weekly periodical, <italic>Time and Tide</italic>, which at one point in the 1930s competed seriously with the <italic>New Statesman</italic> as the leading weekly periodical. She is less interested in the achievements of <italic>Time and Tide</italic>, however, than in the ways in which a number of significant women writers and feminist intellectuals of the time—Stella Benson, Vera Brittain, Winifred Holtby, Storm Jameson, Naomi Mitchison, and Lady Rhondda chief among them—understood and practised relationships between work, friendship, and love. Clay builds usefully upon recent work published by Diana Wallace, Jane Dowson, and Laura Doan, and examines two interconnecting threads running through the lives and writings of her subjects: the significance all of them attached to professional work, and the ‘trace of lesbian desire’ evident in their letters, diaries, and other writings. The work all undertaken to varying degrees for the periodical is shown to serve various functions, sometimes at the expense of personal relationships, sometimes despite personal rivalries, and sometimes as an integral part of intimate friendships and sexual relationships. Clay describes her work as constituting several ‘biographies of friendship’, an innovative and rewarding approach which succeeds in casting new light on the social and professional networks of women writers of the inter-war period, and which highlights the immense importance of ‘webs’ of personal and professional friendships in this optimistic era of feminist literature. These webs, a key figure for Clay, are illustrated well in the introduction to the book, with a diagram of the interrelations between the women discussed, and maps of their meeting places for work and pleasure. Clay concentrates her efforts on close readings of the correspondence between these women; their literary writings are less central to the book. More could certainly be written on the literary output of several of these women, but what Clay has shown in this volume, through their correspondence, is the nature of their working and personal relationships with each other, and the very literate ways in which their friendships were produced and constituted.</p>
<p><italic>Twentieth-Century Epic Novels</italic>, by Theodore L. Steinberg, seeks to examine what shape the epic takes in the twentieth-century novel, cutting through both the idea that the existence of epic literature has been questionable since Milton, and the tendency in contemporary culture to use the word epic to describe everything from a big-budget film to a long and arduous motorway journey. With patience, Steinberg sets out to define the term ‘epic’ more clearly, devoting considerable space to arriving at a definition which links the <italic>Iliad</italic>, <italic>Paradise Lost</italic>, and his twentieth-century examples. Steinberg shifts the definition of the epic to something more precise than the usual vague notions of length, the presence of heroic deeds, and patriotic mythmaking, arguing instead that the epic tends to tell the story of an individual's relationship to history at ‘a pivotal moment in the history of a nation or a people utilizing a wide—or cosmic—perspective’ (p. 190), and that epic texts are usually as critical of war and nation as glorifications of them. Of Steinberg's chosen examples, Durrell's <italic>Alexandria Quartet</italic>, Olivia Manning's <italic>Fortunes of War</italic>, and Paul Scott's <italic>The Raj Quartet</italic> will be well known to most readers, if not widely read. Sholem Asch's <italic>Three Cities</italic> and Edward Whittemore's <italic>Jerusalem Quartet</italic> are the neglected texts rescued from oblivion (although as Asch wrote in Yiddish, and Steinberg complains about poor translations, the extent to which Asch can be resurrected for most readers of this book is questionable). The great advantage of the book is its wide historical view of the genre. Steinberg's background in medieval studies is clearly invaluable in enabling a detailed survey of the epic from ancient to modern times, although he is also interested in the influence of Tolstoy, T.S. Eliot, and other modern writers on the shape of the genre. The book lacks a conclusion, however, and the punchy summaries of what makes each text considered an exemplary instance of twentieth-century epic do not make up for this lack.</p>
<p>The Open University and Routledge have published the three-volume textbook series for the Open University course, A300: <italic>Twentieth-Century Literature: Texts and Debates</italic>. It consists of <italic>Aestheticism and Modernism</italic>, edited by Richard Danson Brown and Suman Gupta, <italic>The Popular and the Canonical</italic>, edited by David Johnson (regrettably not received for review), and <italic>A Twentieth-Century Literature Reader</italic>, edited by Suman Gupta and David Johnson. The series aims to appeal to a wider readership than the students taking the course, but given the difficulties of settling on any list of core texts for twentieth-century literature, it is unlikely to achieve this aim through other university courses. The texts chosen include Chekhov's <italic>The Cherry Orchard</italic>, Mansfield's short stories, Gibbon's <italic>Sunset Song</italic>, Eliot's <italic>Prufrock</italic>, Woolf 's <italic>Orlando</italic>, Brecht's <italic>Life of Galileo</italic>, du Maurier's <italic>Rebecca</italic>, poetry by Owen, Auden, Okigbo, O’Hara, Ginsberg, and Heaney, Beckett's <italic>Waiting for Godot</italic>, Puig's <italic>Kiss of the Spider Woman</italic>, Dick's <italic>Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</italic>, Gurnah's <italic>Paradise</italic>, and Barker's <italic>The Ghost Road</italic>. Even according to the themes and topics the authors have set up for the course, I would probably have chosen a different text or author in each case, and this is the problem with any book which aims to serve as a twentieth-century literature course text. The authors have also chosen extracts for the reader, and written their sections, ‘in relation to specific texts, and the debates surrounding those texts’, which makes it difficult even to suggest these volumes as ‘recommended background reading’. The series is likely, for all that, to satisfy the needs of the Open University course. The textbooks are written in admirably lucid prose, with an encouraging balance of directive commentary and probing questions. The major issues in twentieth-century literary debates are addressed in some fashion or other, whether this is the diverse and contested meanings of modernism, or the equally diverse and contested relationship between ‘popular’ and ‘canonical’ literature. The gender imbalance is striking (no women poets or dramatists), and gender issues are more muted than one would expect for a study of the twentieth century. There is a concern, however, to prevent the series from being entirely dominated by ‘Western’ authors, and Okigbo, Puig, and Gurnah are drafted to achieve a more diverse geopolitical outlook. This is a useful corrective to the usual Anglocentric bias of twentieth-century literary studies, just as the inclusion of Chekhov and Brecht are important indications of European texts and contexts, but one wonders what this diversity within a small selection of authors can possibly come to mean as a collection. An unfair question, perhaps, again given the diversity of twentieth-century literary studies, and the editors do have their focus firmly on the broader sense of the period, but inevitably this comes at the cost of a rather fragmentary and eclectic selection.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2"><title>2. Pre-1945 Fiction</title>
<sec id="SEC2.1"><title>(a) British Fiction, 1900–1930</title>
<p>In 2005 commentators continued to chart the intersections and interpenetrations between ‘Edwardian’ and ‘modernist’ British fiction, showing how issues of value, nagging anxieties about civilization, gender relations and imperial destiny resonate through many texts of the period. There has been a welcome and recent resurgence of interest in Ford Madox Ford's oeuvre, asking what is its status among contemporary theoreticians or intellectual historians, and is it deemed a compelling resource for the present. Also notable is the excellence of research dedicated to overlooked British women writers, especially those whose fiction strives to reclaim, consolidate, and enshrine the countryside as a locus of memory, evoking a specifically historicized English past to countermand what are seen as moribund metropolitan standards. Jed Esty's <italic>A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England</italic>, Jane Garrity's <italic>Step-daughters of England</italic> and Wesley A. Kort's <italic>Place and Space in Modern Fiction</italic> have all played a pivotal role in addressing how novels from this period worry over and police the boundaries of a concept of ‘Englishness’ reliant upon passionate regional affiliation or atavistic immersion in the rhythms of a rustic hinterland.</p>
<p>Lawrence Rainey acknowledges in his trenchant introduction to <italic>Modernism: An Anthology</italic> that the task of distilling the essence of this period is all the more challenging because the term ‘modernism’ has been extended to cover disparate yet cognate fields, acquiring different chronologies and shadings of meaning as it moves from philosophy to architecture to music and cultural critique. Rainey contends that modernism's rigorous interrogation of the cultural repertoire, which permanently modified the relations of the arts with society at large, may owe much to its equivocal status as an institution that was half withdrawn from, yet half nestled within, the larger apparatus of cultural production.</p>
<p>Rainey's book claims to be the most wide-ranging anthology of Anglo-American modernism ever published, showing how the modern movement has undergone such a remarkable extension in the range of materials it can cover in English. The twenty-three Anglo-American writers chosen by Rainey should all be familiar, and while the selection opens conventionally enough with the ‘Men of 1914’, it emerges that women writers outnumber men in this anthology. Each of the texts is printed in full and Rainey's bibliography is useful. Rainey's volume avoids the aesthetic genealogies that view the genesis of international modernism in the decadent 1890s or in symbolism. Instead the anthology opens with Marinetti's 1909 Futurist Manifesto as part of an endeavour to illustrate a constellation of Anglo-American modernists convergent upon a small nucleus of publishing institutions. This reviewer was heartened by the inclusion of Ford Madox Ford's essay ‘On Impressionism’ [1914] and the fiction ‘Pink Flannel’ [1919], ‘The Colonel's Shoes’ [1920] and ‘The Miracle’ [1928]. But there are also glaring absences, such as the poetry of so-called ‘non-modernists’ Thomas Hardy, Edward Thomas and Robert Graves, as well as the shorter fiction of Henry James, D.H. Lawrence, Joseph Conrad, Katherine Mansfield and E.M. Forster. It is worth stressing that Rainey's volume does include a judicious selection of stories by Dorothy Richardson, Jean Rhys and, especially, Mary Butts, whose dogmatic insistence that genuine art could be achieved only through a tenacious adherence to vivid local particulars was played out against, and keenly aware of, modernism's cosmopolitan brio.</p>
<p>Rainey's anthology may well become the standard textbook for modernism modules though he tends to downplay those refractory national traditions that also imbued modern writing, which are elucidated by Chris Baldick in <italic>The Modern Movement: 1910–1940</italic>, the tenth volume of the Oxford English Literary History. Baldick's scholarship is at least as dazzling as Rainey's, and his account of the modern movement offers gripping evidence that the turbulent period 1910–40 was in fact a great age of realism for English literature. Baldick's comprehensive study assesses the social, linguistic, and aesthetic background of the period, then groups his discussion of examples according to literary form—short stories, drama, poetry, and the novel. He scrutinizes the major figures—Joyce, Eliot, Woolf and Lawrence—but his other concern is to show the traditional literary culture out of which the modernist experiment emerged at the beginning of the last century. This involves consideration of Arnold Bennett, Somerset Maugham, and now almost-forgotten figures such as Dornford Yates.</p>
<p>Tim Armstrong's <italic>Modernism: A Cultural History</italic> demonstrates how British fiction published between 1900 and 1930 can be seen less as a movement in revolt from the modern world than a serious and sustained endeavour to grapple with and rejuvenate that world, through a ceaseless engagement with politics or bodies as well as with inherited style. Armstrong's book is, in this reviewer's opinion, one of the most perspicacious, inventive and well-grounded introductions to the subject. He is, like Rainey, preoccupied by the modern movement as a social reality, arguing that its interactions with the emerging worlds of consumerism, fashion and display were far more abstruse than is often assumed, an argument also refined by Aaron Jaffe in <italic>Modernism and the Culture of Celebrity</italic>, which questions once enshrined accounts of the antagonism between modernist elites and mass culture. Indeed, the ambiguity of modernism's institutional status may itself account for much of its perennial uncertainty concerning the nature of representation in art, its insistent pressure on the means by which fabrications, false copies and illusions are manufactured.</p>
<p>Daniel R. Schwarz's <italic>Reading the Modern British and Irish Novel 1890–1930</italic> forcibly reminds us that the abiding interest in writers such as Joseph Conrad and E.M. Forster underlines how the modern movement is a continuing and complex part of our present, and that consigning writers or artists to historical periods is often a fruitless exercise in archaeology. Schwarz takes account of recent developments in cultural studies, including postcolonial, feminist, gay and ecological perspectives, revealing how assessments of British fiction have altered in the face of the theoretical explosion since the early 1980s. Schwarz's project—especially in his nuanced engagements with <italic>Lord Jim</italic> and <italic>A Passage to India</italic>—is informed by a conviction that we must strive to comprehend the world of early twentieth-century British authors by responding to how they intervene in, transfigure and qualify the culture of which they are a part, and how they do so with an intense belief in the inextricable relationship between form and content.</p>
<p>That these scholars throw into sharp relief women writers who were once magisterially dismissed by traditional accounts of the modernist novel testifies to a radical redrawing of the map of British literary culture. Diana Wallace's <italic>The Woman's Historical Novel: British Women Writers, 1900–2000</italic> adopts a bold revisionist approach that compels us to assess contextually both the gendered evolution and formal classification of a genre so vulnerable to various degrees of scholarly effacement. Wallace is never simply uncritically affirmative towards the marginalized authors she redeems, and her book eloquently displaces assumptions of twentieth-century historical fiction as a middlebrow diversion restricted to the trite conventions of domestic romance.</p>
<p>Rochelle Rives, in ‘Problem Space: Mary Butts, Modernism, and the Etiquette of Placement’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:iv[2005] 607–27), examines Mary Butts as a writer whose work remains difficult to recuperate within any one modernist paradigm, and reveals how her presentation of ‘object life’ might contribute to critical thought. The few scholarly articles about Butts have generally focused on her omission from aesthetic modernism, yet her devotion to things situates her more solidly within a modernism that was obsessed with the dimensions and lives of objects. This modernism, Rives suggests, includes writers as diverse as Oscar Wilde, Wyndham Lewis, Virginia Woolf and Elizabeth Bowen. Rives concludes that in describing surfaces Butts's prose, instead of collapsing into a wild and irredeemable opacity, lovingly creates its own still-life, placing each object in reference to a composition of formal perfections.</p>
<p>Placement and cartography are central to Jennifer Poulos Nesbitt's <italic>Narrative Settlements: Geographies of British Women's Fiction Between the Wars</italic>, which resituates works by Winifred Holtby, Vita Sackville-West, Angela Thirkell and Sylvia Townsend Warner in light of postcolonial theories of the novel and the feminist geography delineated by key commentators such as Karen Piper in <italic>Cartographic Fictions</italic> [2002]. Nesbitt argues that renewed attention to setting provides a methodological base for a richer awareness of the aesthetic preoccupations of women writers of the inter-war years, exploring the tension between gender and national identity, and the role of literary work in perpetuating imperial ideologies. Nesbitt queries how new opportunities for women might undermine or alter concepts of national security reliant upon gendered views of the private and public spheres.</p>
<p>Lynne Hapgood's <italic>Margins of Desire: The Suburbs in Fiction and Culture 1880–1925</italic> is also concerned with British fictions that re-vision a national geography, though one which here implies ‘a framework for identifying what constitutes a suburban fiction’ (p. 5). Hapgood chronicles how, until the outbreak of war in 1914, London's outskirts continued to be redrawn as busy new communities colonized them, reinventing what was peripheral as integral. Hapgood makes explicit the relationship of the actual suburbs (the visual impact of the tangible) with the suburban sublime or imaginary (a visionary perception of meanings that can transcend the contingencies of quotidian reality). Hapgood offers an incisive reading of George Gissing, who expressed angry bafflement at hectic suburban expansion, in which human agency seemed an illusion, and where ceaseless flux failed to veil capitalism's predatory and parasitic appetites. But <italic>Margins of Desire</italic> also includes those novelists and cultural commentators who responded to the suburbs as a panorama of recuperative potential rather than as a cramped, joyless no-place, imaging it as an enchanted realm, even as a storehouse of the nation's energies. Edward Thomas and Arnold Bennett relished the task of defining the enigma of a new kind of topography that seemed single-mindedly intent on evading crisp definition. For these writers the suburbs possessed a forceful and boundless inscrutability, whose essence could only be comprehended through ‘a synthesis of a multiplicity of perceptions’ (p. 1). Hapgood succinctly demonstrates how the latent and undiscerned romantic possibilities of this environment generated original themes and genres in the contemporary novel.</p>
<p>Hapgood's <italic>Margins of Desire</italic> persuasively opens up a counter-culture to the modernist metropolitanism that is a main feature of Tinkler-Villani, ed., <italic>Babylon or New Jerusalem? Perceptions of the City in Literature</italic>. The title foregrounds one basic antithesis that is elaborated by Deborah Parsons's essay on Dorothy Richardson's <italic>Pilgrimage</italic>: it is the liberating vitality and capaciousness of the city, its historical centrality within the mechanics of a system, as well as the imprisoning marginality of one's existence within it, that creates bracing thought-adventures, rather than the numbing stasis which afflicts the stifled suburbanites in George Gissing's novels for instance. This collection helpfully revises the myriad unflattering or nightmarish portraits of the city offered by male modernists—the brooding shadowy milieu of Conrad's <italic>Secret Agent</italic>, the ‘Unreal City’ of Eliot's <italic>The Waste Land</italic> and the ‘satanic’ city crouching beneath an ‘infernal sky’ in Forster's <italic>Howards End</italic>.</p>
<p>Christina Britzolakis focuses on the cognitive and aesthetic mapping of urban modernity in ‘Pathologies of the Imperial Metropolis: Impressionism as Traumatic Afterimage in Conrad and Ford’ (<italic>JML</italic> 29:i[2005] 1–20). Britzolakis indicates that accounts of the metropolis have always relied heavily on notions of shock. The history of shock as a discursive formation of modernity, culminating in Freud's famous analysis in 1920 of the mechanisms of traumatic neurosis, is intertwined with notions of modernization itself as pathogenic. The Edwardian moment was characterized by signal interchange between what are now seen as ‘modernist’ and popular fictional forms. As collaborators, Conrad and Ford explored the various possibilities of contemporary mass-market genre fiction, such as Wellsian fantasy, travel fiction, invasion novels, political satire, espionage fiction, and the detective novel. Britzolakis investigates a few of these generic experiments, such as Ford's travel book <italic>The Soul of London</italic> [1905], the jointly authored scientific ‘romance’ <italic>The Inheritors</italic> [1901], and Conrad's spy story <italic>The Secret Agent</italic> [1907]. These texts are shown to respond in complex ways to a historically specific metropolitan experience of cognitive dissonance in the face of violently reconfigured relations among urban, national, and global space.</p>
<p>Britzolakis's discerning essay should be read alongside Haslam, ed., <italic>Ford Madox Ford and the City</italic>, the fourth volume in the International Ford Madox Ford Studies series. This collection assembles fourteen essays exploring Ford's representations of real and ideal cities, across the full range of his work, from his earliest verse, to his post-war prose and poetry of the 1920s and 1930s. Haslam's volume is divided into three sections, with the first rightly stressing Ford's changing views of London, with <italic>The Soul of London</italic> [1905] taking pride of place, which was his first major success. It was republished in 2003 in an edition of <italic>England and the English</italic>, also edited by Haslam. Over the last few years <italic>The Soul of London</italic> has emerged as one of Ford's most suggestive texts: seen both as an instance of literary Impressionism, and also as a foretaste of pre-war London modernism. Ford continued to write about London all his life, and about half of this volume is devoted to it. In addition, it covers not only the other major cities in which Ford lived—Paris and New York—but also the concept of the city, whether as a facilitator of the arts, or as an image of existential anguish or suppressed yearning.</p>
<p>Joseph Wiesenfarth's literary biography <italic>Ford Madox Ford and the Regiment of Women</italic> presents the modernist writer in a previously unexplored manner. Ford's memoirs give little indication that the women in his life were of any importance or, in fact, that they ever existed. Wiesenfarth traces Ford's relationships with four women—Violet Hunt, Jean Rhys, Stella Bowen, and Janice Biala—who established themselves as artists in their own right and depicted Ford in their works as markedly different from the ‘proper man’ he considered himself to be. Wiesenfarth's biography can be assessed alongside Annette Gilson's ‘Internalizing Mastery: Jean Rhys, Ford Madox Ford, and the Fiction of Autobiography’ (<italic>MFS</italic> 50:iii[2004] 632–56), which focuses on the effect Ford had on Jean Rhys's life as a writer and on the novels she produced.</p>
<p>If Sarah Haslam's <italic>Ford Madox Ford and the City</italic> considers ideas of absorption in the hectic rhythms of the modern metropolis, then Roger Ebbatson's <italic>An Imaginary England: Literature and Landscape 1840–1920</italic> chronicles a number of writers, including Richard Jefferies, Edward Thomas and Rupert Brooke, who variously fashioned an ideal of Englishness anchored in bucolic ‘border-spaces’. Ebbatson's study is rigorously theorized but always lucid and lively, as it indicates to what extent a sense of cultural rootedness is contested between 1840 and 1920 by the experiences of those on the social periphery, whether sexual, national or racial, resulting in a feeling of bitter exile even in the most self-consciously ‘English’ texts. In the face of gradual imperial and industrial decline, foreign and colonial cultures played a crucial part in transforming Englishness from a coherent body of values and experiences into a much more ambiguous and riddling concept in continuous conflict with factors on the geographical or psychological margins.</p>
<p>Contested ideologies of Englishness loomed large in readings of E.M. Forster's novels in 2005. The first part of Stuart Christie's <italic>Worlding Forster</italic> scrutinizes neo-Hellenism in Forster's Edwardian fictions and their deft manipulation of pastoral as a vehicle for representing homosexual identity in the generation after the Oscar Wilde trials. As a rewriting of Matthew Arnold's definition of Hellenism in <italic>Culture and Anarchy</italic> [1869], Forster's neo-Hellenism attempts to inscribe homosexual difference as a culturally dissonant value within the English pastoral novel, while at the same time embracing Arnold's vehement belief in the ennobling necessity of national culture. Christie's sixth chapter is especially strong in showing Forster's vexed attempt in <italic>Howards End</italic> at reconciling competing elements within Edwardian liberalism, which implies that the national basis of Englishness does not mix well with the imperial urge to assimilate cultural difference. Christie's project effectively subverts Forster's canonical credentials as P.N. Furbank's ‘last Englishman’, implying a bracing international focus that distances his oeuvre from its origins in a flippant and facile nationalist pastoral. At once complicit with imperialism and dissident of its official codes of propriety, Forster's sexuality marks his texts metaphorically as ‘a travelling difference’ (p. 8) that transgresses self-standing notions such as nation, homosexuality and exile.</p>
<p>Paul B. Armstrong's <italic>Play and the Politics of Reading: The Social Uses of Modernist Form</italic> also provides an incisive account of <italic>Howards End</italic>, this time as a text reflecting the transition from realism to a restless modernist experimentalism whose narrative strategies seek simultaneously to represent the world and to impishly debunk the means of representation itself. This doubleness makes for a text in which it is particularly important to ask how the issues raised by the events dramatized in the narrative (and often strategically left unanswered) are addressed by the formal structures of the narratives. Armstrong also traces how Conrad's <italic>Chance</italic> employs complex formal structures that invite readers to reconsider their assumptions and beliefs about social issues.</p>
<p>Gregory F. Tague's <italic>Character and Consciousness: George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, E.M. Forster, D. H. Lawrence</italic> applies philosophical approaches (such as the metaphysics of Schopenhauer, the phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty, and the hermeneutics of Gadamer) to major British authors, examining various levels of consciousness, from bodily, through metaphysical, to ethical. Tague is able to demonstrate, especially in his section on Forster, an evolution of increasing complexity in the manner in which novelists consider the place of the individual within the environment, the nature of this environment, and the criteria for refining a consciousness of oneself and the world that leads to ethical attitudes and behaviour.</p>
<p>Anindyo Roy's <italic>Civility and Empire: Literature and Culture in British India, 1822–1922</italic> offers a fresh perspective on Forster's fiction by scrutinizing the manner in which ‘civility’ emerged as the ethos of the British colonial state in the Indian subcontinent and as a key discursive area around which questions of citizenship, education, gender, race, labour and bureaucratic authority were negotiated. This book effectively balances overview and enquiry, contextual preamble and exegetical penetration. Roy's thought-provoking fourth chapter, entitled ‘Savage Pursuits’, focuses on Forster's short story ‘The Life to Come’, set in the tribal regions of central India. Written in 1922, ‘The Life to Come’ dealt with challenging subject matter—same-sex interracial relations between an Englishman and a tribal—which compelled Forster to withhold its publication during his lifetime. Roy also includes a chapter on Leonard Woolf 's fiction, written during his eight years as a colonial bureaucrat in the Senior Crown Colony of Ceylon between 1904 and 1911. During this period Woolf composed his novel <italic>The Wise Virgins</italic> [1914] and a novel and a collection of three short stories based on his experiences in Ceylon, <italic>The Village in the Jungle</italic> [1913] and <italic>Stories of the East</italic> [1915] respectively. Intensely autobiographical and preoccupied with troubling questions about the ‘real’ that Woolf had been posing all along in his correspondence written from Ceylon to Lytton Strachey (whose <italic>Letters</italic>, edited by Paul Levy, were also published in 2005) these fictions dramatize a struggle to identify a language whose conceptual and narrative categories about the ‘real’ can on the one side match the expectations of his metropolitan interlocutors, and on the other capture his increasingly fraught impressions of the colony.</p>
<p>Peter Jeffreys's <italic>Eastern Questions: Hellenism and Orientalism in the Writings of E.M. Forster and C.P. Cavafy</italic> is a historicist study addressed exclusively to Forster and Cavafy, though this book makes few concessions to the uninitiated. In the opening gambit Jeffreys makes a convincing case for reappraising some of the obscurer texts in Forster's canon, in particular his essays, and for dealing with Cavafy's unfinished poems. However the discussion could have been pitched at a wider scholarly audience, and there are questions raised by Forster's Hellenism that the argument does not sufficiently deal with: when and why was Forster in Alexandria? How did he come to know Cavafy, man and poet? What commonalities of education drew them together? This reviewer would have preferred much more considered analysis of the classical works Forster studied at Cambridge and why these texts held peculiar prestige in late Victorian England.</p>
<p>J.M. Rawa's <italic>The Imperial Quest and Modern Memory from Conrad to Greene</italic> makes a number of notable interventions, especially on Conrad's <italic>Heart of Darkness</italic> and Forster's <italic>A Passage to India</italic>. In <italic>Culture and Imperialism</italic> Edward Said queries, ‘How can one study other cultures and peoples from a libertarian, or a non-repressive and non-manipulative perspective?’ This is a question which Conrad and Forster grapple with and thematize in their novels, according to Rawa. While acknowledging the extent to which these novels are undeniably influenced by Western ways of looking at the world, Rawa also reveals how Forster delineates imperialist drives critically via bitter irony and stressing the promptings of individual conscience rather than adherence to stifling collective codes. Key essays on Forster include Leslie White, ‘Vital Disconnection in <italic>Howards End </italic>’ (<italic>TCL</italic> 51:i[2005] 43–63); Paul March Russell, ‘ “Imagine if you can”: Love, Time and the Impossibility of Utopia in E.M. Forster's “The Machine Stops” ’ (<italic>CS</italic> 17:i[2005] 56–71), and Richard Rankin Russell, ‘E.M. Forster's Leonard Bast: A Source for Virginia Woolf 's Septimus Smith’ (<italic>ELN</italic> 42:iii[2005] 52–67).</p>
<p>Stephen Ross's compelling study <italic>Conrad and Empire</italic> [2004] has energized debates in 2005 about a writer now perceived to be radically ambivalent about colonialism: was Conrad for or against European imperialism, and in his representation of non-European peoples was he even-handed or in fact deeply racist? This is a core concern that reverberates through Byron Caminero-Santangelo's <italic>African Fiction and Joseph Conrad: Reading Postcolonial Intertextuality</italic>, Regelind Farn's <italic>Colonial and Postcolonial Rewritings of ‘Heart of Darkness’: A Century of Dialogue with Joseph Conrad</italic> and Terry Collits's <italic>Postcolonial Conrad: Paradoxes of Empire</italic>. Collits not only offers innovative readings of Conrad's novels of imperialism but also maps and analyses the interpretative tradition they have generated. Collits begins by scrutinizing the reception of Conrad's works in terms of concepts of Englishness and reflects on a century of literary history, revealing how changing political, pedagogical and theoretical conditions have created an interpretative tradition of extraordinary and intimidating density, especially with regard to <italic>Victory</italic>.</p>
<p>Kaplan, Mallios and White, eds., <italic>Conrad in the Twenty-First Century: Contemporary Approaches and Perspectives</italic> asks ‘Why read Conrad now?’ (p. xvii). The volume's editors have gathered together pungent and provocative insights into the question of Conrad's relevance today. The foreword by J. Hillis Miller captures the tenor of the various essays and the interview with Edward Said offers vivid glimpses of Said's lifelong, often vexed but always admiring, engagement with Conrad's aesthetics. Faced with his own imminent death, Said sums up Conrad's work: ‘Conrad's fiction is a search for … ways of living in an impossible situation’ (p. 301). This reviewer found the second of this volume's five sections, entitled ‘Global Conrad’, especially incisive in its readings of <italic>The Secret Agent</italic>.</p>
<p>George Panichas's <italic>Joseph Conrad: His Moral Vision</italic> seeks to rekindle interest in Conrad's moral imagination, focusing on the consequences of moral darkness and moral warfare as he proceeds to uncover Conrad's basic ideas and meaning. Panichas argues that morality in Conrad's oeuvre is not reducible to an absolute category but must be apprehended in the form of both moral crises and the possibility of moral recovery enacted in their complexity and tensions. The centrepiece of the book is a scrupulous investigation of <italic>Nostromo</italic> [1904], whose verbal texture Panichas views as representative of Conrad's supreme vision of the human world and the human soul in disorder. The chapters, which are more like individual essays, are not structured according to strictly chronological or thematic principles of development. Rather they attempt to deepen and enlarge the reader's comprehension of Conrad's moral cosmos in its variegated components.</p>
<p>Stephen Donovan's <italic>Joseph Conrad and Popular Culture</italic> effectively opens up a new dimension to Conrad studies by treating his abiding fascination with the popular culture of his day. Drawing on original archival materials and embracing subjects as diverse as Bovril advertising, spirit photography, sea shanties, global tourism, and the new sport of speed-walking, it shows how Conrad's fiction comprises a sly and sophisticated response to early twentieth-century popular culture. Richard J. Hand's <italic>The Theatre of Joseph Conrad: Reconstructed Fictions</italic> is a meticulously researched and lucid account of Conrad's experiments as a dramatist. All the plays included here, such as <italic>Victory: A Drama</italic> and <italic>The Secret Agent</italic> are adaptations and represent a distinct and complex effort to investigate seriously the dramatic form.</p>
<p>Among the huge amount of scholarly articles produced on Conrad in 2005 the most original and startling approaches include Bev Sloane, ‘The Colony at the Heart of Empire: Domestic Space in <italic>The Secret Agent</italic>’ (<italic>Conradian</italic> 30:i[2005] 46–58); Kate McInturff, ‘ “The Heritage of Perception”: Nation and Deracination in Early Conrad Criticism’ (<italic>Conradiana</italic> 37:iii[2005] 275–92); Mario Curreli, ‘Invading Other People's Territory: <italic>The Inheritors</italic>’ (<italic>Conradiana</italic> 37:i–ii[2005] 79–100); Hugh Epstein, ‘<italic>The Rover</italic>: A Post-Skeptical Novel?’ (<italic>Conradiana</italic> 37:i–ii[2005] 101–18). Linda Dryden's ‘H.G. Wells and Joseph Conrad: A Literary Friendship’ (<italic>Wellsian</italic> 28[2005] 2–13) not only elaborates a fascinating link between two major writers of the period but also enriches a reading of Wells's <italic>Tono-Bungay</italic> [1909] and the Edwardian class system in Christine DeVine's <italic>Class in Turn-of-the-Century Novels of Gissing, James, Hardy and Wells</italic>.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2.2"><title>(b) British Fiction, 1930–1945</title>
<p>Two areas of interest which seem especially well represented in recent work are women's writing of the period and issues of geography and national identity, with much highly useful criticism springing from these foci both individually and in their intersections. There is also continuing interest in authors such as Greene, Orwell and Waugh and in male working-class writers.</p>
<p>David Bell, in ‘Women in a Man's World: Working-Class Fiction in the 1930s’ (<italic>Moderna Sprak</italic> 98:i[2004] 27–35), explores the representation of working-class women in male-authored working-class fiction of the period. He discusses Walter Brierley's <italic>Means Test Man</italic> [1935], Jack Jones's <italic>Black Parade</italic> [1935] and <italic>Bidden to the Feast</italic> [1938] and Lewis Jones's <italic>We Live</italic> [1939]. Bell's starting point comes from Janet Montefiore's observation in her book <italic>Men and Women Writers of the 1930s</italic> [1996] that ‘in Socialist writings of the 1930s working-class women were often portrayed as victims and that their bodily degradation … was exploited as a class signifier’ (p. 27). This observation itself stems largely from Orwell's representation of working-class women in <italic>The Road to Wigan Pier</italic> [1937]. Bell argues convincingly that, even though written by male authors, the three novels discussed in fact show women in much more active and varied roles than this, and use women not so much as signifiers of the passivity of the working-classes but as symbols of their potential for active agency even under the harshest conditions: ‘I … argue that women play a central role in forming the messages and bearing the ideologies of the novels in question … there is no consistent use of the female body as a class signifier in the sense of being a passive victim. On the contrary … as wives suffering from the psychological stresses caused in family relationships by unemployment and the means test; as astute household managers gradually improving the material quality of their lives and as political activists they all represent the working-class and thereby signify not its homogenous despair but its multifarious vitality’ (p. 34).</p>
<p>Gordon Bowker explores George Orwell's library, and through this his attitudes to books, book-collecting and bookshops, in a brief, interesting and in many ways scholarly (but unreferenced) article (<italic>NERMS</italic> 26:i[2005] 56–61). Bowker points out that for all Orwell's negative portrayal of bookshops and book-buyers in fiction (<italic>Keep the Aspidistra Flying</italic>), essays (‘Bookshop Memories’) and personal writings such as letters, there is nevertheless evidence of a life-long fascination with books as objects as well as intellectual, imaginative and moral resources. The accuracy of Orwell's several versions of the Hampstead bookshop where he worked in 1935 has been disputed: ‘People who knew Booklovers’ Corner regarded Orwell's depiction of it as a caricature’ (p. 57). However, he dated to that experience a claimed loss of interest in books as objects: ‘There was a time when I really did love books—loved the sight and smell and feel of them … The sweet smell of decaying paper appeals to me no longer. It is too closely associated in my mind with paranoiac customers and dead bluebottles’ (‘Bookshop Memories’). Nevertheless, as Bowker carefully discovers, Orwell at other times expressed continuing fascination with books in his writings: the article relates such comments to what we know of the books which Orwell owned during his lifetime and particularly to those he still had in his possession when he died. Bowker points out that Orwell was ‘an avid reader and prolific reviewer, and thousands of books passed through his hands’ (p. 57), but that he kept relatively few books, so that ‘like most readers who are book collectors, Orwell had two libraries—the vast incalculable one he kept stored in his mind and the more select one he kept on bookshelves at home’ (p. 57). In 1946, says Bowker, Orwell thought that his library consisted of around 900 books. By the time he died in 1949, his library had diminished to 523 books, many of which were influences on, or closely related to, his own writing. However, these included a number of items of distinct bibliographical interest, among which were ‘Dickens's works in fifteen volumes from various publishers, sixteen T.S. Eliot first editions … [and] first editions of Graham Greene's <italic>England Made Me</italic> and <italic>The Heart of the Matter</italic>; and of Evelyn Waugh's <italic>Put Out More Flags</italic>’ (p. 59). Bowker concludes that ‘Orwell was not a book collector in any specialist sense. His library represents the map of a great mind’ (p. 61). The article gives a useful sense of Orwell's attitudes to books in particular and more generally a sense of his characteristically ambivalent relationship with many aspects of high culture of which certain attitudes to books as material, consumable, exchangeable objects were, for him, representative.</p>
<p>Rob Breton writes about Orwell's attitudes to work and labour (concepts which are argued to have more or less distinct meanings and whose histories are here traced particularly from the Victorian period) in a study which looks at three authors: <italic>Gospels and Grit: Work and Labour in Carlyle, Conrad and Orwell</italic>. Each of the three authors is seen to have common interests arising from their status as ‘radically traditional thinkers reacting to modernity’ (p. 4). Breton argues that ‘the mixed values of Orwell's fiction are the result of a polarised … attitude towards moral and pragmatic interests, between Work and labour’ (p. 211).</p>
<p>In <italic>Waugh Without End: New Trends in Waugh Studies</italic>, Robert Murray Davis and Carlos Villar Flor present a useful volume of essays which developed from selected papers given at the Waugh Centenary conference held at La Rioja, Spain, in 2003. Contributors of the nineteen essays include several distinguished Waugh scholars (such as Donat Gallagher, George McCartney, Robert Murray Davis, Alain Blayac) and cover a wide range of material, topics and approaches. Thus there are essays on exile, providence, the English gentleman, Waugh on Orwell and Orwell on Waugh, Waugh and his audiences, Waugh as biographer, TV adaptations, and Waugh's attitude to Winston Churchill, among others. Robert Murray Davis, in his note ‘Greene and Waugh in Texas’ (<italic>Commonweal</italic> 131:xx[2004] 31), usefully records the exhibition at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Centre which drew on its large holdings of Waugh's ‘manuscripts, letters, and memorabilia (plus his forty-thousand volume library)’ and on ‘some forty linear feet of Greene's writings’ (p. 31). The exhibition marked (more or less, since they were born in 1903 and 1904 respectively) the centenaries of Waugh's and Greene's births and also displayed exchanges between the two Catholic writers. As well as the large amount of handwritten and printed material, the exhibition included publicity material associated with film versions of Greene's fiction, and a reconstruction of Waugh's study (if in a ‘sketchy fashion’), ‘represented by his desk and the paintings by Rebecca Solomon, <italic>The Virtuous Undergraduate</italic> and <italic>The Dissolute Undergraduate</italic>, from his extensive collection of nineteenth-century and twentieth-century genre paintings’ (p. 31). The exhibition also showed the bust of Waugh which he commissioned while a liaison officer to the Yugoslav partisans in 1944–5 in order to provide ‘a local sculptor with a way to survive’ (p. 31). Murray ends his note with some observations on the relationship of the two writers to the Catholic Church. Mark Bosco also writes on the role of Catholicism in Greene's writing in a substantial article, ‘From <italic>The Power and the Glory</italic> to <italic>The Honorary Consul</italic>: The Development of Graham Greene's Catholic Imagination’ (<italic>R&L</italic> 36:ii[2004] 51–74). The article discusses the two novels named in its title as exemplifying developments over time of Greene's imaginative engagement with Catholic thought and theology. The two novels (published in 1940 and 1973 respectively) are argued convincingly to draw on different tendencies in Catholic thought from before and after the Second Vatican Council [1965]: <italic>The Power and the Glory</italic> is ‘without doubt his novel that most closely resonates with the classical descriptions of the Catholic novel. Catholicism stands as a mythic and almost monologic voice, valorized in explicit ways in both style and structure. Though Greene's dialectical theological vision is present … there is a triumph of faith at the expense of the political world … [this] mirrors the theological discourse of his times. In his later novels, the mystic and monological voice of Catholicism is attenuated. Just as Catholicism attempted to speak more openly to the modern world at the Second Vatican Council, Greene's religious imagination reflects more dialogical and ambitious contours. <italic>The Honorary Consul</italic> embodies these concerns’ (p. 63).The article thus interestingly historicizes Greene's relationship to developments in (and public debates about) Catholic theology from the 1940s to the 1970s (including Greene's attraction to South American Liberation Theology). Bosco argues that Greene's writing does not fall into two categories ‘Catholic’ and ‘post-Catholic’ as some have argued, but that he is throughout his career engaged in a more or less critical dialogue with changing emphases in Catholic theology and social thought.</p>
<p>Adam Schwartz's <italic>The Third Spring: G.K. Chesterton, Graham Greene, Christopher Dawson and David Jones</italic> explores the attractions which Catholicism offered to a number of British writers in the first half of the twentieth century, and like Bosco's essay also offers some fruitful historicization of Catholic thought, this time in a particular national setting. The introduction gives a good account of the contexts in which these writers became Catholics, setting their individual discontents with secular modernism against the general indifference or hostility to religion of many British intellectuals. Each author is dealt with in separate chapters, which are informed by both detailed scholarship on their work and a general sense of the status of Catholicism in British culture in the period. Schwartz concludes that: ‘Under diverse conditions, and with differing degrees of rapidity and enthusiasm, all of them concluded that customary Catholic Christianity best upheld their convictions; and that only its Roman version … possessed the legitimate constitutional mechanisms to voice these countercultural contentions authoritatively and unswervingly’ (p. 377).</p>
<p>There is a chapter too on Greene in Wesley A. Kort's <italic>Place and Space in Modern Fiction</italic>. Kort suggests overall that ‘place and space have not had the kind of systematic and widespread attention in modernity that has been given to time and temporality (p. 1). Greene is argued to show signs of a shift in later modernism in which ‘the spatial language … draws more attention to the spiritual than to the physical aspects of place-relations’ (p. 89).</p>
<p>Jennifer Birkett discusses how images of France are used by two twentieth-century women writers to ‘rewrite the imaginations of their readers into fresh configurations and point their own national communities in fresh directions’ (pp. 15–28), in ‘Re-imagining Nations, Rewriting Lives: The Image of France in the Autofictions of Storm Jameson and Assia Djebar’ (<italic>RomS</italic> 23:i[2005]). The two writers were, as the article's abstract states, ‘working in radically different historical and political conditions’ (p. 15), but in each case there are clear parallels between rewriting their own lives and reimagining their nations—or, rather, national possibilities. Birkett focuses on Storm Jameson's <italic>The Journal of Mary Hervey Russell</italic> [1945] and Assiar Djebar's novel <italic>L’Amour, la fantasia</italic> [1985]. Storm Jameson's fictionalized journal (of most direct interest to this section of <italic>YWES</italic>) was written during 1943, ‘when English writers were rallying, at their Government's behest, to remake for a hostile English public the image of defeated France, in order to facilitate the regrouping of the Allied forces. The England Jameson addresses in her text is a nation that her previous writings lambasted for its moral collapse … The aim of the fictional journal is to model the recovery of a sense of community and national purpose through the exploration of how England, and the English, can be identified with the threatened values of European liberal and humanist culture, which, for Jameson, have their origin in the culture of France’ (p. 16). Djebar wrote her novel between 1982 and 1984 (having written her first novel in 1957, early in the Algerian war for independence from France). Just as Jameson seeks to shift England's sense of France, and hence of itself too, so Djebar seeks a ‘re-conceptualization of Algeria's relation to France’ (p. 16). Birkett argues interestingly that both of these women writers draw positively on aspects of French Enlightenment thought: ‘After so many decades in which the Enlightenment tradition has been so roundly and consistently denounced … it is instructive to discover the two women writers, in their different moments and locations, finding in the neglected materialist and revolutionary strand of that tradition their preferred instruments to reconfigure the connections of individual, community and the landscape of “national” identification’ (p. 27).</p>
<p>Several articles on Elizabeth Bowen (or including material on her) were published in 2004 and 2005. Brendan McNamee's note, ‘Some Post-Feminist Thoughts on Elizabeth Bowen's <italic>The Last September</italic>’ (<italic>NConL</italic> 35:ii[2005] 5–7), argues that feminist readings ‘occasionally obscure the aesthetic concerns of the writer by emphasising her gender’ (p. 8). In the case of <italic>The Last September</italic>, it is suggested that the character Lois Farquhar's isolated condition within the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy is a more important critical issue than ‘attempts to see her representing or rebelling against a female stereotype’ (p. 9). This argument might be more persuasive if any examples of feminist readings were cited which did argue this or did ignore the historical and cultural context of the novel or Bowen's deep concerns with her own Anglo-Irish origins. In fact, Eluned Summers-Bremmer makes close links between Bowen's representation of femininity and ‘the historical dynamics of Anglo-Irishness’ in her article ‘Heart(h) and Home: Elizabeth Bowen's Irishness’ (<italic>EI</italic> 29:ii[2004] 135–50). Summers-Bremmer opens the article by remarking that ‘it should not perhaps surprise us that some of the most enigmatic characters in Elizabeth Bowen's fiction are houses’ (p. 135). The article discusses the meanings of the house in Bowen's novel <italic>The Last September</italic> and in her early short story ‘The Working Party’, bringing out ways of reading the house as ‘spatially and temporally anomalous’ (p. 138). Summers-Bremmer sees the ‘Big House’, femininity and Anglo-Irishness in Bowen's work as each representing a sense of lack: they are haunted, full of simultaneous presence and absence, solidity and impermanence (of course, it could be remarked that other of Bowen's fictions—all of them, in fact—are equally obsessed with houses). Clair Wills includes discussion of Elizabeth Bowen in a meticulously researched and insightful article on ‘The Aesthetics of Irish Neutrality During the Second World War’ (<italic>Boundary</italic> 31:i[2004] 119–45). As well as Bowen, Wills discusses four other writers, Louis MacNeice, Kate O’Brien, Francis Stuart and Denis Johnston (the first mainly, of course, a poet, the remaining three all active as fiction writers among other things). Each of these four writers shows intense engagement with the issue of Irish neutrality during the Second World War, though taking up a range of different positions. Wills points out that ‘the issue of neutrality was intensified and took on something of the form of a personal crisis for many of the leading Irish writers of the time … by virtue of their wartime roles and location’ (p. 121).</p>
<p>MacNeice is often regarded as ‘straightforwardly hostile’ (p. 120), but Wills's reading of his 1942 poem ‘Neutrality’ and his 1941 ‘London Letter 3: War Aims; the New Political Alignment’ suggests a more nuanced sense on MacNeice's part of the histories which led to Irish neutrality. Bowen was commissioned by the British Ministry of Information to travel regularly to Ireland to report on public opinion in Eire towards neutrality and the war: she reported much Irish sympathy for Britain, but also did much carefully to explain Eire's stance to the Ministry of Information (and, hence she presumably hoped, to the English public). Kate O’Brien's novel of 1943, <italic>The Last of Summer</italic>, explores various views, with a mother declaring that ‘Danzig's a long way from Drumaninch’, while her son feels he must fight against fascism, but with the French army rather than the British (p. 121). Francis Stuart went to Germany at the beginning of the war and made a series of radio broadcasts from Berlin throughout the war. He maintained in his post-war autobiographical writing that he always remained neutral and that his purpose was to guard Irish neutrality from the threat of British imperialism—‘to combat the overwhelming diet of British propaganda on the airwaves’ (Wills's words, p. 125). Denis Johnston acted as a war correspondent with the British army from 1942 onwards, reporting on the Allied campaigns in Egypt, Italy, Holland and Germany. He published <italic>Nine Rivers From Jordan</italic>, an idiosyncratic and somewhat modernist narrative based on his experiences, in 1953. Wills argues persuasively for the depth of the impact that neutrality had for each of these writers both during and after the war: ‘This conflict between isolation and orientation towards Europe is played out not just in the writing but in the lives and identities of the writers themselves. A distinctive interplay takes place between the private sense of belonging and allegiance, and the compelling force of public issues that often results in a fracturing of the sense of self ’ (p. 121).</p>
<p>In addition to articles which discuss women's writing, there have been some especially good recent monographs on women's writing of the period. These include two outstanding books, by Diana Wallace and Neil Corcoran. In <italic>The Woman's Historical Novel: British Women Writers, 1900–2000</italic>, Wallace reconceptualizes the value and meaning of a group of texts, rescuing historical fiction by women from a set of assumptions about its ‘middlebrow’ nature and suggesting a varied range of positive possibilities for women writers and readers of this mode of writing. Chapters include ‘Entering into History: The Woman Citizen and the Historical Novel, 1900–1929’, ‘Histories of the Defeated: Writers Taking Sides in the 1930s’, ‘Writing the War and After: Wicked Ladies and Wayward Women in the 1940s’, ‘Hollow Men and Homosexual Heroes: Exploring Masculinity in the 1950s’, ‘The Return of the Repressed: Maternal Histories in the 1960s’, ‘Selling Women's History: Popular Historical Fiction in the 1970s’, ‘ “Herstory” to Postmodern Histories: History as Dissent in the 1980s’ and ‘Dialogues with the Dead: History and the Sense of an Ending, 1990–2000’. As the range of these chapters suggests, the book covers a great deal of material, and it does so with real command and nuance, drawing impressively on wide reading of both historical novels by women and their criticism and critical reception. Writers discussed range from Georgette Heyer to Mary Renault, taking in, among others, Margaret Irwin, Jean Plaidy, Naomi Mitchison, Sylvia Townsend Warner, Philippa Gregory, Pat Barker and Dorothy Dunnett. This is a major work which offers broad and deep insight into how we might understand the uses and meanings of historical fiction by (and for) women across the decades of the twentieth century.</p>
<p>Neil Corcoran's <italic>Elizabeth Bowen: The Enforced Return</italic> is also a significant contribution to the understanding of a major woman writer of the period and of her place in Anglo-Irish writing. Corcoran notes in his opening chapter the obsession with writing, reading and fiction in her novels and short stories, drawing on the fiction itself and on some of Bowen's own remarkable and strikingly individual critical and autobiographical writing (the two tending to overlap for reasons which Corcoran's study unfolds). Thus Corcoran explains the origins of the title of his book: ‘The phrase “the enforced return” is drawn from Bowen's essay “Out of a Book”, an essay on childhood reading. It is one of the several places in her non-fictional prose where she conveys an acute sense of how, for her, reading is inseparable from remembering. Discussing what she calls “the overlapping and haunting of life by fiction”, she says that “reduced to the minimum, to the what did happen, my life would be unrecognizable to me. Those layers of fictitious memory densify as they go deeper down. And this surely must be the case with everyone who reads deeply, ravenously, unthinkingly, sensuously, as a child”. We are given here another reason why acts of reading and writing figure so prominently in Bowen's work: in Elizabeth Bowen life itself is deeply, indeed inextricably, penetrated by text, what she calls “livingness” by writtenness. Given the presence of ghosts and hauntings of various kinds in her work, for Bowen to say that life is “haunt[ed] by fiction” is to say a great deal’ (pp. 8–9).</p>
<p>Corcoran's book explores with remarkable subtlety and insight the places, images, themes to which Bowen cannot help but return; the monograph is structured around three images: ‘Ireland’, ‘Children’ and ‘War’, the resonances of which will be recognized by readers of Bowen's extraordinary body of work (Corcoran's work has some similar starting points to Maud Ellmann's <italic>Elizabeth Bowen: The Shadow Across the Page</italic> [2003], but has a less psychoanalytic and more stylistic approach).</p>
<p>Valuable too are studies of Rosamond Lehmann and of a group of women writers—Winifred Holtby, Vita Sackville-West, Angela Thirkell, Sylvia Townsend Warner, Rebecca West and Virginia Woolf—seen in terms of their responses to gender and changing conceptions of English identity. Wendy Pollard's <italic>Rosamond Lehmann and her Critics: The Vagaries of Literary Reception</italic> is, indeed, ‘a model for future students of reader-reception’ (see Jenny Hartley's endorsement on the back cover). The book suggests fruitfully how to study both the broad and the particular ways in which reception works to fashion the reputation and understanding of an author's work over time. Pollard traces, through reviews of Lehmann's novels, the ways in which Lehmann's work was fitted into various cultural frameworks and hierarchies, but never really contained within a stable categorization (something which has been quite often remarked of Bowen's work too). Thus Pollard observes, in summing up Lehmann's reputation, ‘Asked late in life whether she felt that she had belonged to the Bloomsbury group, Lehmann replied: “I never felt I belonged to any group. I never felt I belonged anywhere” … I [Pollard] have attempted to show the truth of her observation. Lehmann's works transcended accepted academic categories and genres; they could never quite be identified as modernist or feminist, as straightforward melodrama or romances, as chronicles of war, or of social history, nor could they be confined to discrete levels of brow’ (p. 167). Pollard quite rightly stresses the importance of understanding the impact of marketing, reviewing and publishing practices, ‘the cultural and commercial fields in which Lehmann's writing was situated’ (see back cover).</p>
<p>Jennifer Poulos Nesbitt's <italic>Narrative Settlements: Geographies of British Women's Fiction Between the Wars</italic> examines some common ground between a diverse-seeming group of women writers, arguing that they all function within a common context of a particular cultural geography: ‘Imperialism relied on normative characterizations of women's bodies as representatives of the nation and its territory, and the combination of privilege and oppression experienced by women due to this cultural formation made them highly sensitive to its duplicity and its utility … Women's writing explores the ways that new opportunities for women might undermine or alter concepts of national security, reliant on gendered concepts of the private and public sphere. In novels focussing on settings that have a synecdochal relationship to England, the six authors in this study negotiate these assumptions’ (p. 4). The monograph draws productively on the insights of feminist geography (see pp. 9–13) to understand ways in which these women writers make different kinds of ‘narrative settlements’ with the possibilities and constraints of their inter-war geography, each in their own way ‘intervening, decidedly and deliberately, in conventions about setting that can have agency in determining whose stories have priority and validity’ (p. 9).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2.3"><title>(c) James Joyce</title>
<p>In contrast to the plethora of material produced to meet the Bloomsday centenary in 2004, publications on Joyce this year were more low-key, circumspect and markedly fewer in number. Despite this, the overriding spirit is not one of intellectual exhaustion. Rather, the select critical works that appeared in 2005 were characterized by their heterogeneity and their readiness to recontextualize Joyce's work. Their disparateness, moreover, masks some overarching features, in particular a willingness to read Joyce extraneous to purely literary contexts and while traversing several disciplinary boundaries. Thus Joyce's oeuvre was examined variously in the light of linguistics, Irish myth, classical scholarship and Aristotelian philosophy, while a signal collection of essays chose programmatically to discuss his writings across an assortment of conceptual and intellectual thresholds. Additionally, some issues of abiding concern to Joyce scholars were addressed. Key aspects of his biography continued to be explored, while the burgeoning interest in genetic studies and in the myriad complexities of Joyce's revisionary methods of writing was registered in essays that probed the composition history of his works.</p>
<p>The most rewarding Joycean monograph this year is undoubtedly Patrick O’Neill's <italic>Polyglot Joyce: Fictions of Translation</italic>. This is an exacting, informative and original study of Joyce in translation. O’Neill is concerned not only with documenting and tracking how the corpus of Joycean translations came into existence but also with considering how it might be viewed philosophically. He proposes that it should be seen not as a random catalogue of items but as a single polyglot macrotext. Hence, he is not interested in sounding the validity or accuracy of the various translations of Joyce. Rather, he reads them as a polyphonic network in which authority is dispersed and disseminated and is never confined either to the source or the target text. Joyce's oeuvre, in this radical view, anticipates and channels but is also in dialogue with its translations. In the early sections of his study, O’Neill maps out the variable histories of Joycean translation in several European and non-European languages. In so doing, he reveals the extent to which translation is embedded in peculiar cultural histories in different countries. Even though <italic>Dubliners</italic> is the most translated of Joyce's works, the eleven different Italian versions, for example, indicate a particular local investment in this text. In the later chapters of his investigation, O’Neill concentrates on what he terms the transtextual readings of a wide array of translations. Here, he perforce confines himself to the comparative analysis of individual sentences or short passages. His aim is to show that translation is predicated on difference and necessarily involves linguistic deviation and slippage as well as the effort faithfully to echo the original text. Further, he demonstrates that a transtextual reading reveals that the tacit semantic assumptions of the native speaker of English can often be erroneous or unfounded. Translation, in such an account of things, continues and harnesses the linguistic wordplay that is at the heart of the Joycean experiment. In rewriting Joyce, translators merely exploit the openness of his compositions, proving that they are not unyielding constructs but the products of a complex ongoing interplay between text and reader.</p>
<p>By contrast with O’Neill, George Cinclair Gibson is intent on unlocking highly delimited thematic dimensions and matrices in <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic>. In <italic>Wake Rites: The Ancient Irish Rituals of Finnegans Wake</italic>, he peruses the esoteric bedrock of Joyce's final text and makes the case that it is linked with the pre-Christian rituals of Teamhur Feis, a druidical festival which was held in the spring at Tara. The proceedings had their origin in the funeral and wake rites for a revered but fallen leader and were also associated with the vernal equinox and cycles of renewal. Gibson's aim is to extend the work carried out by Maria Tymoczko on Joyce's indebtedness to Celtic lore and mythology by demonstrating the degree to which Joyce embeds allusions to the Teamhur Feis in <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic> and transforms it into a vital and pervasive mythopoetic substructure. He painstakingly uncovers an extensive web of hidden connections with the mysterious religious rituals of this gathering. His arguments are persuasive to the extent that they illustrate Joyce's deep-seated interest in esoteric philosophy, in chthonic and hermetic figures and in the underlying patterns of mythic narratives. Certain tantalizing coincidences lend some substance to his thesis, such as the fact that the supreme deity, Eochu, worshipped in pagan Ireland may be alluded to in Joyce's HCE and that the rituals at Tara were carried out in an obscure, riddling, shamanistic language which had affinities with Joyce's invented Wakean language. However, by the same token, his insistence that the <italic>Wake</italic> can solely be understood through the optics of Teamhur Feis appears to foreclose on the interpretative possibilities of this inexhaustible text and to ignore its constant fusions and interanimation of semantic, linguistic and mythic contexts. The links with the specific rituals of this festival—which are themselves uncertain and problematic—seem on occasion haphazard and accidental rather than deliberate. Hence, the claim to have discovered the ‘real story’ of the <italic>Wake</italic> is overstated. However, the wealth of detail that Gibson musters and the passion and impressive learning that he brings to the task of teasing out the esoteric rituals and mythologies of pagan Ireland allow him successfully to illuminate manifold aspects of the <italic>Wake</italic> and to alert us once again to its vertiginous semantic depths.</p>
<p><italic>Beckett, Joyce and the Art of the Negative</italic>, edited by Colleen Jaurretche, contains several penetrating essays that consider the Joycean interaction with a metaphysics of negation. Keri Ames, in ‘Joyce's Aesthetic of the Double Negative and his Encounters with Homer's <italic>Odyssey</italic>’ (pp. 15–48), inventively uses the presiding theme of the volume to reflect on the limitations of source studies that persistently aver that Joyce was influenced only by a handful of translations of the <italic>Odyssey</italic>, usually that of Butcher and Lang. Instead, she argues that Joyce was not guided by a single authoritative text but rather that his interaction with Homer was dynamic, eclectic and far-ranging. As a consequence, she concludes that Joycean intertextuality does not set boundaries on our reading but rather invites us to pursue interconnections on multiple different levels. In ‘Joyce's Negative Esthetics’ (pp. 181–96), a revised version of a chapter in his magisterial monograph <italic>Joyce and the Politics of Egoism</italic>, Jean-Michel Rabaté reflects on the central paradoxes in Joycean aesthetics and contends that in his late work the writer takes on the role of saint, or what Lacanian theory dubs the ‘sinthome’, in order to confront the unspeakable and the void. Presence in <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic>, he argues, is hollowed in the face of negativity, but that nothingness still retains an irreducible element due to the heroicism of Joyce's heretical defiance. In ‘The Joyce of Impossibilities’ (pp. 197–211), Fritz Senn wittily and perceptively tracks the necessary moments of failure in all encounters with Joyce's texts. Paradoxically, the very impossibility of full understanding testifies to the endless vitality of Joyce's works and is the basis by which we read them partially, repeatedly and recursively. Nels Pearson, in ‘Death Sentences: Silence, Colonial Memory and the Voice of the Dead in <italic>Dubliners</italic>’ (pp. 141–70), probes the negativity associated with the silenced and occluded voices in Joyce's short stories and concludes that as well as representing a disturbing liminality they also form a site of potential agency as they resist inclusion in reigning discourses. In his acute investigation, Dirk Van Hulle, in ‘ “Nichtsnichtsundnichts”: Beckett's and Joyce's Transtextual Undoings’ (pp. 49–61), compares the way in which Joyce and Beckett variously draw on Fritz Mauthner's philosophy of linguistic scepticism and Schopenhauer's questioning of the human will. Even though Joycean abundance may appear to contrast with the Beckettian philosophy of subtraction, van Hulle argues that it remains uncertain whether the linguistic copiousness of <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic> was triggered by the assumption that there really was a <italic>Ding an sich</italic> to unveil or whether it acts as a mask for or deflection from an underlying nothingness. In sum, the nuanced and original essays in this collection succeed in outlining the philosophical underpinnings of Joyce's oeuvre and in encouraging readers to theorize and engage with its aesthetics in challenging ways.</p>
<p><italic>Joyce on the Threshold</italic>, edited by Anne Fogarty and Timothy Martin, is a lively and cohesive volume of essays that also sets out to unsettle assumptions about Joyce and to treat his preoccupation with marginality and scenes of disruption. Karen Lawrence, in ‘Bloom in Circulation’ (pp. 15–27), takes issue with commonplace assumptions about the <italic>flâneur</italic> as someone who is detached and situated at an ironic distance from his environment. She holds that the wanderings of Bloom, unlike those of the European <italic>flâneur</italic>, are motivated by a sense of nostalgia and not just of alienation. She persuasively argues that home in <italic>Ulysses</italic>, contrary to other modernist novels, is at once the place of desire and of loss. In their densely realized essays, ‘Infinity, the Terribly Burned Bruno, and <italic>Ulysses</italic>’ (pp. 28–41) and ‘Joyce, Yeats, and Kabbalah’ (pp. 60–87), Reed Way Dasenbrock and Heyward Ehrlich also resituate Joyce's work by considering how it reflects modern cosmological theory and kabbalistic philosophy. While Dasenbrock attributes Joyce's unorthodoxy to his invocation of the heretical ideas of Giordano Bruno, Ehrlich notes his continuing interest in mysticism and esoteric lore. Mary Lowe-Evans succeeds in producing a suggestive new reading of ‘The Dead’ by focusing attention on a seemingly minor figure. In ‘Freddy Malins: A Fool for Chrissake’ (pp. 42–59), she provocatively argues that Malins occupies the role of the holy fool and hence that he is assigned an explicitly carnivalesque function. Her original interpretation consequently recuperates this figure. Instead of being dismissed as a stage Irishman or a comic stereotype, he is linked by her with a disruptive wisdom that foreshadows the complex and much-disputed epiphany that Gabriel Conroy experiences at the end of the story. In a similarly incisive interpretation, Andrew Gibson, in ‘ “An Irish Bull in an English Chinashop”: “Oxen” and the Cultural Politics of the Anthology’ (pp. 91–109), argues that the many styles of this episode of <italic>Ulysses</italic> may be deemed not so much to parody the key works of English literature as to disrupt or adulterate them. By contaminating English texts with Irish voices, he claims, Joyce pointedly hibernicizes them. In turning them into an anti-anthology or incongruous hybrid he lends potent political force to his fiction. John Nash also dissects the cultural politics of <italic>Ulysses</italic> in ‘Reading Joyce in English’ (pp. 110–31) by compellingly demonstrating the degree to which Stephen's theories about Shakespeare in ‘Scylla and Charybdis’ interrogate and mock those of Edward Dowden, the professor of English literature at Trinity College Dublin.</p>
<p>Brian G. Caraher likewise pinpoints the subversive aspects of Joyce's Triestine journalism. In ‘Trieste, Dublin, Galway: Joyce, Journalism, 1912’ (pp. 132–50) he maintains that Joyce purposefully constructs a portrait of Galway that foregrounds its cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism in order to counter views of Ireland as sectarian and provincial. In a like-minded departure, P.J. Mathews scrutinizes the stories that Joyce published in the conservatively nationalist periodical, the <italic>Irish Homestead</italic>, edited by George Russell (AE). In his essay, entitled ‘ “A.E.I.O.U”: Joyce and the <italic>Irish Homestead </italic>’, Mathews reveals how Joyce's fiction enters subtly into dialogue with the ethos of this journal. In so doing, he scotches the view that the author's work should be seen as simply opposing the tenets of the Revival. His interpretations uncover how ‘The Sisters’ not alone critiques the corruption and venality of Irish society but also endorses the balanced accommodation of spiritual and material values advocated by Horace Plunkett's co-operative movement. In a further suggestive juxtaposition, Mathews contends that ‘Eveline’ may be interpreted as a realist rewriting of J.M. Synge's <italic>The Shadow of the Glen</italic> in an urban setting and as questioning the cult of female bourgeois domesticity espoused by the <italic>Irish Homestead</italic>. Catherine Driscoll, in ‘Felix Culpa: Sex, Sin, and Discourse in Joyce's Fiction’ (pp. 171–99), likewise sees Joyce as engaging with the new disciplinary regimes of sexuality that centred on the young girl through producing ambivalent figures split between sexual precociousness and virginal purity, such as Gerty McDowell in <italic>Ulysses</italic> and Issy in <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic>.</p>
<p>Katharina Hagena, in ‘Towers of Babble and of Silence’ (pp. 187–99), examines the leitmotif of the tower and adeptly demonstrates how Joyce exploits its multiple and variant associations with wisdom, the Fall, rebellion and defiance. In ‘Text as Architecture: Putting Simulated Simultaneity in “Wandering Rocks” into Space’ (pp. 200–25) Ruth Frehner describes an artistic installation on glass panels with interconnecting wires, created in Zurich in 2004, that sought to track all of the simultaneous scenes and journeys in episode ten of <italic>Ulysses</italic>. Her winning conclusion is that transposition to another medium does not diminish the inherent complexity of Joyce's text. In visual form it is just as difficult to envisage all of the movement in this chapter. No one vantage point permits the viewer to encompass everything. The final essays of this collection concentrate on matters of publication history. Paul K. Saint-Amour, in ‘Ride ’em Cowpoyride: Literary Property Metadiscourse in <italic>Ulysses</italic>’ (pp. 229–54), brilliantly demonstrates that <italic>Ulysses</italic> constantly comments on aspects of literary property and even travesties and directly flouts copyright law in ‘Oxen of the Sun’. Patrick O’Neill, in ‘Extending the Text: Textuality and Transtextuality’ (pp. 255–71), a version of a chapter in his subsequently published book, argues that translations may be seen as collectively extending the original text because the sum of their differences supplements the possible readings that it generates. Finally, William S. Brockman, in ‘Collecting Joyces’ (pp. 272–84), traces the history of leading Joyce archives in the United States and tracks how a curious mixture of happenstance, acquisitiveness and self-promotion by the initial vendors and collectors, such as John Quinn and Sylvia Beach, materially shaped our current view of modernism. In sum, this is a multifaceted and engaging collection that usefully unites many fresh and incisive Joycean studies.</p>
<p>The series of essays commissioned by the National Library of Ireland in 2004 was brought to completion this year. Destined for a general readership, they nonetheless provided a forum for serious and original scholarship. With customary clarity and exactitude, Hans Walter Gabler in <italic>The Rocky Road to Ulysses</italic> carefully teases out the early phases of Joyce's career as an author and then traces the way in which his successive works lead into each other. In addition, he nicely pinpoints how writing against a foil of intertexts became a lasting hallmark of his creative process. In her entertaining study, <italic>Suburban Tenor</italic>, Judith Harrington looks at the overarching role of music in Joyce's life and work. She selects key moments in all of the fictional texts in order to demonstrate how a knowledge of the musical allusions enriches our understanding of them. Sean Latham in <italic>Joyce's Modernism</italic> analyses the chief facets of this artistic movement. He notes that the desire to capture the density and facticity of experience in art is one of its major innovations but concludes that the most revolutionary aspect of Joyce's contribution to modernism is his development of a kaleidoscopic array of styles in <italic>Ulysses</italic> which supersedes his initial experimentation with stream of consciousness. The concentration of attention on the text as a constructed artefact is the most crucial aspect of Joycean modernism. The longest essay in this final series, <italic>The National Library in 1904 and Thereabouts</italic>, by Gerard Long, also assembles some of the most original insights as it assays a detailed and meticulous history of all the individuals involved in this national institution. Long winningly depicts the library as a centre of lively political, cultural and intellectual exchange and not as a place of stagnation as a cursory reading of Joyce might indicate. Patrick A. McCarthy, in <italic>Finnegans Wake</italic>, provides a revealing synoptic overview of Joyce's final fiction by concentrating on the symbolic role of the family in this text. Ira B. Nadel, in <italic>Publishers</italic>, cogently makes the case that Joyce's reputation was the result of three publishers B.W. Huebsch, Harriet Shaw Weaver and Sylvia Beach, who assiduously promoted his work and ensured that it became available in print form despite the difficulties involved. Finally, <italic>‘Allwisest Stagyrite’</italic> by Fran O’Rourke explores the connections between Joyce and Aristotle and convincingly demonstrates the lasting imprint of the Greek philosopher not only on the themes but also on the forms of his fiction.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2.4"><title>(d) D.H. Lawrence</title>
<p>It has been a productive year for D.H. Lawrence scholarship and criticism, with the publication of a new biography, a further volume in the standard Cambridge University Press Edition of the <italic>Works</italic>, two full-length monographs and a casebook of essays, together with specialist journals and several individual articles.</p>
<p>The new biography, John Worthen's <italic>D.H. Lawrence: The Life of an Outsider</italic>, draws on the considerable research undertaken by Worthen, Mark Kinkead-Weekes and David Ellis for the authoritative three-volume Cambridge life [1991–8], but the one-volume format enables the author to look outside the painstaking reconstruction of the writing life in order to grasp some of the larger themes in Lawrence's life and work. Worthen's focus on Lawrence as an outsider moves far beyond the customary understanding of his anti-establishment views, his brushes with the English authorities, and his status as an embattled exile from the country of his birth. We see how Lawrence's very vocation as author entailed a constant struggle between passionate involvement with various communities of individuals and a remarkable capacity for detachment. The essential self-containment and loneliness of the man and writer is stressed throughout the book, and we are made aware of his bouts of depression more fully than in any previous assessment, but Worthen also emphasizes the role of writing not only as a means of exploring possibilities but as a way of creating realities and of asserting a sense of community in the midst of isolation. Writing is shown to be not simply therapeutic, but essential to Lawrence's mental health (‘his only real means of being purposive was his writing’, p. 151). Lawrence's extraordinary creativity is explored in the context of this self-containment. His skill as a mimic is easily understood when one considers his natural ability at making the outside world over into fiction; it shows him getting an immediate purchase on the world, but it also shows the cruelty which such a move might entail. The book demolishes many of the cherished myths of Lawrence biography (the idea that his mother and father exemplified the middle and working classes respectively, and that Frieda was the aristocratic lady with whom he passionately eloped to Germany), but it replaces these myths with a fresh, clear and sympathetic understanding of the tensions which informed his writings.</p>
<p>The Cambridge Edition of Lawrence's <italic>Introductions and Reviews</italic>, edited by N.H. Reeve and John Worthen, brings together non-fictional writings which range across Lawrence's career, from his first review of Jethro Bithell's <italic>Contemporary German Poetry</italic>, published anonymously in the November 1911 issue of the <italic>English Review</italic>, to the unfinished review of Eric Gill's <italic>Art-Nonsense and Other Essays</italic>, which he wrote from his sickbed in the Ad Astra sanatorium in Vence, southern France, some time during the final month of his life. Among the reviews is an early notice of Thomas Mann's <italic>Der Tod in Venedig</italic>, and responses to William Carlos Williams's <italic>In the American Grain</italic>, and John Dos Passos's <italic>Manhattan Transfer</italic> (the latter in a piece which also discusses Carl Van Vechten's <italic>Nigger Heaven</italic>, Walter White's <italic>Flight</italic>, and <italic>In Our Time</italic> by Hemingway). The reviews of V.V. Rozanov's <italic>Solitaria</italic> and <italic>Fallen Leaves</italic> reveal Lawrence's capacity to respond to even the most challenging, eclectic texts with a liveliness which eschews scholarly complacency. The introductions are, with the exception of the ‘Memoir of Maurice Magnus’, likely to appeal more to Lawrence scholars than to general readers, though the piece which was written to accompany his friend S.S. Koteliansky's translation of Dostoyevsky's <italic>The Grand Inquisitor</italic> (from <italic>The Brothers Karamazov</italic>) is interestingly argumentative and in places characteristically crisp and incisive. Other interesting pieces include his foreword to Leo Shestov's <italic>All Things Are Possible</italic>, and ‘Chaos in Poetry’ (his introduction to Harry Crosby's <italic>Chariot of the Sun</italic>). The central place in the volume is undoubtedly occupied, however, by the sixty-one-page ‘Memoir of Maurice Magnus’, written in 1921–2. One can see why Lawrence thought this his finest piece of writing up to that time. It is his only lengthy piece of biographical prose and it records his changing impressions of Magnus, the down-at-heel American expat whom he first met in the company of Norman Douglas in Florence in 1919. The details of Lawrence's interactions with Magnus up to the time of Magnus's suicide on the island of Malta in November 1920 are set out in the editorial introduction, and in an appended article by Louise E. Wright (pp. 419–28); the tensions they uncovered in Lawrence make for some of his finest discursive prose, from a beautiful description of a walk around the Montecassino monastery (pp. 33–4) to Lawrence's final attempts to order his impressions of the dead man.</p>
<p>Moving from biography and a critical edition to literary criticism, Jeff Wallace's <italic>D.H. Lawrence, Science and the Posthuman</italic> offers an original and engaging reassessment of Lawrence's relation to contemporary science. Wallace comprehensively dismantles Lawrence's popular reputation as a late Romantic, Luddite proponent of a latter-day primitivism; Lawrence's focus on the body as a source of resistance to the dehumanizing aspects of modernity is shown to be far more equivocal than is commonly thought. The writings are seen to be implicated in contemporary debates with scientific, religious, philosophical and political positions which all question the boundaries between the human/organic and machine/inorganic, and even where Lawrence seems most intent on maintaining the contrast between these two qualities (in, for instance, <italic>Lady Chatterley's Lover</italic>) his writing reveals his readiness to recognize the continuities. Lawrence realizes the mechanical aspect in the redemptive human being (what he once termed the ‘non-human, in humanity’) and the extent of this recognition allows Wallace to reconfigure his discussion not only of Lawrence's attitude to science, but also of Lawrence's humanism. Where earlier critics tended to view Lawrence as a Romantic humanist, Wallace considers him a posthuman humanist; that is, Lawrence is shown to view human life as analogous to the machine, but not identical with it, and he is committed to exploring both the continuities and the differences with an ethical as well as a purely aesthetic interest. One of the many strengths of this study resides in its capacity to overturn the Romantic view of Lawrence without ascribing to him a purely posthuman mindset; Lawrence is opposed to the mechanizing tendencies in modernity, but he is also profoundly sceptical about old notions of the human.</p>
<p>This year's other critical monograph is Charles Burack's <italic>D.H. Lawrence's Language of Sacred Experience: The Transfiguration of the Reader</italic>. The book's central premise is that Lawrence's major novels all attempt to evoke sacred experiences in the reader, breaking down old beliefs and modes of being and replacing them with a new and integrated insight into a Lawrentian bodily consciousness. Burack opens his book with a close reading of Lawrence's last novel, <italic>Lady Chatterley's Lover</italic>, which he views as exemplary in the way it breaks down an old, conscious, intellectual attitude to life, replacing it with a revitalizing and holistic emphasis on non-verbal and unselfconscious desires and relationships. This pattern is then read back into several of Lawrence's earlier novels. In <italic>The Rainbow</italic>, the plot's trajectory in each of the three generations tends to reverse the process of spiritual transfiguration, moving from revitalization to disintegration, while <italic>Women in Love</italic> juxtaposes the mechanical discourses associated with Gerald Crich against the Yogic and theosophical language which appears to initiate Rupert Birkin and Ursula Brangwen into a quite different state of consciousness. The book ends with a consideration of <italic>The Plumed Serpent</italic>, which Burack considers a failure for its didacticism, its over-emphasis on dialogue, and its avoidance of psychological narration. While the reader-response approach to these texts is promising and the overarching thesis very interesting, the individual readings yield few new insights and the emphasis on Lawrence as a vatic figure is often underpinned by a simplistic biographical understanding of Lawrence's relation to his culture and contemporary historical events.</p>
<p>Moving to other criticism, Paul Strathern's <italic>D.H. Lawrence in 90 Minutes</italic> is one of a series of short introductory guides to canonical authors aimed at a general readership. The format does not easily lend itself to academic review, but even allowing for its modest brief this volume reproduces a dismaying number of lazy biographical clichés, delivered with a dry and suave knowingness. At one point we are told that ‘Lawrence was incorrigibly intense, and as such incapable of small talk’ (p. 29); elsewhere we learn that ‘when Lawrence was more relaxed, he was quite capable of being genuinely funny, at least on occasion’ (p. 69). The consistent lack of judgement sadly overshadows Strathern's obvious enthusiasm for his subject.</p>
<p><italic>D.H. Lawrence's ‘Sons and Lovers’: A Casebook</italic>, edited by John Worthen and Andrew Harrison, contains a comprehensive introduction to the novel, together with nine modern essays which draw on the longer 1992 Cambridge Edition of the novel. It also includes a transcription of Alfred Booth Kuttner's pioneering 1916 Freudian interpretation, which Lawrence himself read (and hated) when it was published for the first time in the <italic>Psychoanalytic Review</italic>. The essays are intended to reflect the full range of current approaches to the text, from studies of narrative structure to historical, psychoanalytic and gender-based analyses.</p>
<p>Mention should also be made of Keith Sagar's <italic>Literature and the Crime Against Nature</italic>, which contains a lengthy and insightful chapter on ‘Lawrence and the Resurrection of Pan’ (pp. 282–311). Sagar skilfully traces Lawrence's changing critique of industrialism, showing how his response to Nature evolved from Wordsworthian anthropomorphism and a straightforwardly pantheistic position to recognizing the religious interplay between Man and Nature in the Indian rituals of New Mexico and in the lost civilization of the Etruscans. Sagar's concentration on Lawrence's poetry, non-fictional writings and less well-known fictional works is refreshing and displays a firm grasp of the wider movements in his writing life.</p>
<p>Volume 31 of <italic>Études Lawrenciennes</italic> is devoted to discussions of ‘Strife and Violence in Lawrence's Work’, while volumes 32 and 33, ‘Across Borders’ and ‘Borderlines/Borderlands’, are both concerned with Lawrence and borders. Focusing on volume 31, essays by Keith Cushman, Michael Bell and Peter Preston demonstrate the variety of potential approaches to the topic of violence in Lawrence. In ‘Lawrence in Cornwall: The Battle of the Biographies’ (<italic>EL</italic> 31[2005] 7–23), Cushman looks at two different interpretations of an incident of marital violence between Lawrence and Frieda in May 1916, as reported in two letters written by their close neighbour in Cornwall, Katherine Mansfield. In <italic>D.H. Lawrence's Nightmare</italic> [1978], Paul Delany views the outburst as in some sense generated by Lawrence's ill health, and he sees it as consistent with Lawrence's wartime misanthropy and near-insanity; by contrast, Mark Kinkead-Weekes, in <italic>D.H. Lawrence: Triumph to Exile 1912–1922</italic> [1996], inserts some perspective by drawing attention to the intensity of Mansfield's reaction to the violence and the relish with which she constructs the events in the letters to S.S. Koteliansky and Ottoline Morrell, suggesting that the letters reveal as much about Mansfield as they do about Lawrence. These contrasting interpretations of the incident take us to the heart of two very different biographical methods and uses of evidence. In ‘Reflections on Violence: Writing and/as Violence in Lawrence’ (<italic>EL</italic> 31[2005] 49–65), Michael Bell considers the complex relation between realistic and symbolic or allegorical aspects of violence in Lawrence's fiction, demonstrating the modulations of tone in his work and how these modulations both provoke and subtly undermine ethical interpretations. Peter Preston's ‘Thundering Jupiter: Emotional and Textual Violence in <italic>Mr Noon</italic>’ (<italic>EL</italic> 31[2005] 169–86) extends the theme of violence beyond biographical and fictional incidents to consider instances of narrative disturbance and disruption in Lawrence's unfinished novel, and their relation to the portrayal of creative conflict and sexual consummation. Preston indicates the extent to which such conflict became central to Lawrence's aesthetic in the 1920s.</p>
<p>The 2004–5 issue of the <italic>Journal of the D.H. Lawrence Society</italic> includes essays by Christopher Pollnitz, Mark Kinkead-Weekes, Jonathan Long, Steve Taylor and Hilary Hillier. In ‘Homosexuality, Violence and Belonging in <italic>Kangaroo</italic>’ (<italic>JDHLS</italic> [2004/5] 7–31), Pollnitz provides a reading of <italic>Kangaroo</italic> in which the intensity of the male bonding is seen to reflect the kinds of feeling generated among Australian servicemen during the Great War. Mark Kinkead-Weekes considers the relation between fact and fiction in ‘A Biographer Looks at <italic>Mr Noon</italic>’ (<italic>JDHLS</italic> [2004/5] 32–50), while in ‘Helen Corke's <italic>Neutral Ground</italic> and D.H. Lawrence's <italic>The Trespasser</italic>: The Fascination of the Siegmund Story’ (<italic>JDHLS</italic> [2004/5] 51–64) Jonathan Long compares Lawrence's second novel to the autobiographical account of the real-life events which inspired its composition. Steve Taylor's ‘D.H. Lawrence and the Fall’ (<italic>JDHLS</italic> [2004/5] 65–82) considers Lawrence's narrative of Man's fall from the pre-civilized state to modern times in the light of recent archaeological and anthropological evidence, while Hilary Hillier's ‘Matches and Mismatches: Patterns of THOU and YOU in <italic>The Merry-go-Round </italic>’ (<italic>JDHLS</italic> [2004/5] 83–102) pays detailed attention to the linguistic underpinnings of relationship dynamics in Lawrence's play.</p>
<p>Three more journal articles on Lawrence are worthy of note. Andrew Nash announces the discovery of readers’ reports and responses relating to one of Lawrence's lost philosophical works in ‘ “At the Gates”: New Commentaries on a Lost Text by D.H. Lawrence’ (<italic>RES</italic> 56[2005] 767–76). The documents, comprising reports by Frank Swinnerton and Geoffrey Whitworth and two responses by Percy Spalding, were found in the Chatto & Windus archives at the University of Reading. ‘At the Gates’ was written between April and July 1917, and Lawrence sent the manuscript to his agent, J.B. Pinker, who forwarded it to the publishing house on 23 September with a view to gauging their editorial reaction. As Nash points out, Lawrence's relationship with publishers in 1917 was at a low ebb after the suppression of <italic>The Rainbow</italic> in 1915 and his failure to find a publisher for <italic>Women in Love</italic> in 1916, and he felt justifiably pessimistic that anyone would want to publish a work of what he described as ‘pure metaphysics’. The readers’ responses, which Nash reproduces verbatim, actually tell us frustratingly little about the specific content of ‘At the Gates’ which we could not have deduced from reading the related essays entitled ‘The Reality of Peace’ and the 1915 essay ‘The Crown’. The remarkable thing is that, in spite of their predictable reservations concerning the essay's impenetrability, lack of commercial potential and worrying emphasis on ‘unnatural love’, both Swinnerton and Whitworth recommended publication. Swinnerton felt that Lawrence's name might benefit Chatto's list at a time when it was looking to modernize, while Whitworth felt that a small omission of offensive material might suffice to render it harmless. However, as senior partner in the firm, Percy Spalding expressed reservations about its value to the firm and some anxiety about its liability to offend. His initial response to the reports is decidedly defensive and resistant, and this tone is only reinforced in the second note, written after Spalding had attempted to read Lawrence's essay himself. Though we learn very little from these documents about the text of ‘At the Gates’, they do provide a fascinating insight into the way Lawrence's work was read and evaluated by a noteworthy publisher in the later war years.</p>
<p>Christopher Pollnitz's ‘The Censorship and Transmission of D.H. Lawrence's <italic>Pansies</italic>: The Home Office and the “Foul-Mouthed Fellow” ’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iii[2005] 44–71) considers the state censorship of Lawrence's 1929 poetry collection by the then Home Secretary, William Joynson-Hicks, and the impact this had on the revision and publication of the collection in three editions (the English trade edition of Martin Secker, Charles Lahr's privately published unexpurgated edition, and the Knopf American edition). As editor of the forthcoming Cambridge Edition of the <italic>Poems</italic>, Pollnitz carefully accounts for the transmission of the different texts through type-copies and carbon copies, considering the extent of the authorial control which Lawrence exercised at each stage. He decides that a ribbon copy of <italic>Pansies</italic> from a third typing, sent to Guy Aldred but never published by him, is the appropriate base-text from which to produce his critical edition, since this is ‘the last version over which Lawrence can be said to have had the <italic>potential</italic> for full control’ (p. 51).</p>
<p>Equally biographical, but far more speculative in its method, is David Bradshaw's ‘Red Trousers: <italic>Lady Chatterley's Lover</italic> and John Hargrave’ (<italic>EIC</italic> 55[2005] 352–73). Bradshaw reconsiders Oliver Mellors's infamous outburst from Lawrence's last novel, in which he calls for the regeneration of English manhood through the casting off of money values and the wearing of scarlet trousers and short white jackets in a spirit of insouciance; thus attired, men are to dance in groups and engage in traditional handicrafts such as woodcarving and embroidering. Bradshaw notes precedents for such sartorial revivalism in the writings of Carlyle and in the Italian Futurist manifestos, but he traces a very specific parallel in the work of John Gordon Hargrave, who founded (in 1920) the Kindred of the Kibbo Kift, an independent social movement originating in Baden-Powell's Boy Scout movement, but espousing a very idiosyncratic blend of woodcraft scouting with a social agenda which swerved rather erratically between egalitarianism and totalitarianism, taking in tribal culture, idealistic economic theories and a reactionary masculinism along the way. Lawrence's point of contact with the Kibbo Kift was Rolf Gardiner, who was heavily involved with the movement during the 1920s. Gardiner sent Lawrence a copy of Hargrave's first novel, <italic>Harbottle</italic>, in 1924, and he also forwarded Hargrave's <italic>The Confession of the Kibbo Kift</italic> to Lawrence in January 1928. Lawrence loathed the novel, but was rather more receptive towards the <italic>Confession</italic>. Bradshaw's handling of his material displays a delightful relish for absurdity which offsets the brittleness of his attempt to establish a direct line of influence from Hargrave to Mellors. The essay provides a powerful insight into the radical movement for social reform among certain English intellectuals in the wake of the Great War, but he surely overstates his case in claiming that ‘Mellors is a Kinsman in all but name’ (p. 370).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC2.5"><title>(e) Virginia Woolf</title>
<p>In 2005, six books of biographical research on Virginia Woolf were published. Written with the ‘common reader’ in mind, Julia Briggs's <italic>Virginia Woolf: An Inner Life</italic> considers Woolf 's writing through her biographical and intellectual contexts. The chapters are chronological, focusing on the time surrounding the writing of Woolf 's major works. Briggs concludes each chapter with a section subtitled ‘The Aftermath’ outlining the text's critical reception, referencing remarks of her friends and her own response to the reception of her work. One of the outstanding features of this book is the elegant prose in which it is written. In the epilogue, Briggs notes that Woolf 's life is too often read in terms of her death. While the epilogue must deal with Woolf 's suicide, Briggs casts this not as the action of a mad woman writer but rather puts it in the context of other prominent intellectuals who committed suicide during the Second World War: Mark Gertler, Simone Weil and Walter Benjamin amongst others. Briggs makes Woolf 's writing the centre of her biography rather than focusing on her death or mental health.</p>
<p>Woolf 's death is central to Sybil Oldfield's <italic>Afterwords: Letters on the Death of Virginia Woolf</italic>, which publishes the condolence letters that Leonard received. These show a Virginia Woolf very much loved by a wide circle of people countering the popular image of her as an out-of-touch aesthete. Oldfield provides explanatory notes to help the reader identify and place the letter-writers, and in places she ingeniously counterpoints the condolence letter with something that Woolf had written about its author. For example, Lyn Newman writes: ‘But I am still fanatically optimistic; I can't believe that people will be so stupid as to tolerate the intolerable for even one generation’ (p. 128). Virginia Woolf writes: ‘I doubt that she [Lyn] immensely enjoys anything’ (p. 129). Oldfield's editing has fashioned a narrative out of these letters, at times giving Woolf the last word.</p>
<p>Woolf 's death and its portrayal receive attention in Hermione Lee's <italic>Body Parts: Essays on Life-Writing</italic>, which has two chapters specifically on Virginia Woolf—’Virginia Woolf 's Nose’, and ‘On Being Ill’—with Woolf serving as a touchstone throughout. Lee considers how a person's life becomes a narrative in the transformation of life into biography. ‘Virginia Woolf 's Nose’ addresses the response of some Woolf scholars to the film <italic>The Hours</italic> and its depiction of Woolf 's suicide. ‘On Being Ill’ served in a slightly altered form as the introduction to the Paris Press publication of Woolf 's <italic>On Being Ill</italic>. Discussing Lee's chapter in this context creates some confusion in designation that is mirrored by the publishing history of Woolf 's essay; the Hogarth Press published it as a hand-printed book in 1930 following its publication in 1926 in the <italic>New Criterion</italic>. Writing about Woolf 's <italic>On Being Ill</italic> in a book about the art of biography seems out of place at first but it fits well with Lee's chapter ‘Reading in Bed’. Woolf 's <italic>On Being Ill</italic> considers reading while in a state that escapes communication to another—illness. The ill reader, like one who reads in bed, is a solitary reader akin to the biographer who sifts through the fragments of a life to create narrative. When ill, it is impossible to communicate to another the complete experience of illness. Likewise, no biographer is able to communicate the totality of another's self or experience.</p>
<p>Vanessa Curtis's <italic>The Hidden Houses of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell</italic> focuses on the period before Virginia married Leonard. While the ‘hidden houses’ are mostly places rented by the Stephen family for summer and Easter holidays, the houses themselves have interesting histories, and the importance of one such holiday home—Talland House, in fact far from hidden—asserts itself in her novels. I quite agree with Curtis's assertion at the beginning of the book that these houses and the Stephens’ experience in them have been overlooked. It was enlightening to spend more time reading about the Stephen family holidays than is usually possible in biographies of Woolf. Curtis makes a compelling case for tying Woolf 's memories of these holidays to her fiction. The current state of the houses is particularly interesting.</p>
<p>Sarah Hall's <italic>Before Leonard: Virginia Woolf 's Unsuitable Suitors</italic> continues the biographical trend this year. As the title suggests, <italic>Before Leonard</italic> details Woolf 's male suitors before her marriage to Leonard. The narrative of each individual man's life is interesting, particularly the lives of men not central to the Bloomsbury group: Hilton Young, Walter Lamb and Walter Headlam. The links Hall tries to make to Woolf 's writing read in places as a bit tangential—as if she is trying to suggest a relevance between insignificant suitors and Woolf 's oeuvre. Jeffrey Meyers considers after Leonard rather than before in his chapter on the Woolfs in <italic>Married to Genius</italic>. Unfortunately, a factual mistake and a strange, unconvincing reading of <italic>Night and Day</italic> flaw the chapter. As Meyers's title suggests, he looks at the marriages of several couples of which one partner was a genius. Other marriages considered include those of Conrad, Tolstoy, Joyce, Hemingway, Lawrence, Mansfield, Shaw and Fitzgerald. Meyers's factual mistake is in claiming that George Duckworth molested Virginia Woolf frequently both as a child and later as a young woman. In ‘A Sketch of the Past’, Woolf writes of being sexually interfered with as a child by Gerald Duckworth, and by George Duckworth when she was a young woman. Meyers's strange reading of <italic>Night and Day</italic> suggests Virginia based William Rodney on Leonard. William Rodney's character is more often and convincingly thought to be based on Lytton Strachey with Leonard seen to be a model for Ralph Denham. Indeed, Julia Briggs's chapter on <italic>Night and Day</italic> in <italic>Virginia Woolf: An Inner Life</italic> gives a particularly convincing reading of Leonard as a model for Ralph Denham. Unfortunately, Meyers does not offer convincing textual evidence for his position, instead relying on tenuous biographical psychologizing: ‘<italic>Night and Day</italic> was Virginia's only novel about Leonard; and her rejection of him in art helped her to accept him in life’ (p. 120).</p>
<p>Looking more broadly at Woolf, Michael Whitworth's <italic>Virginia Woolf</italic> is part of the Oxford World's Classics Authors in Context series, and as such the book offers meticulously researched chapters on Woolf 's historical and cultural context. Topics covered include Woolf 's life, the literary scene, philosophical questions, individuals and the state, science and medicine, and contemporary adaptations of Woolf 's work. The breadth of this book makes it an effective tool for those beginning to study Woolf, and remains interesting for more experienced Woolf scholars. In the individual chapters, Whitworth notes the change in perception of certain areas of Woolf studies and the perception of Woolf as a writer and historical figure. Particularly interesting, and something this book has in common with others published this year, is Whitworth's consideration of biography as narrative and how this informs not only how Woolf is written about but also how she writes about work and women's lives in <italic>Night and Day</italic>. Lawrence Rainey's <italic>Modernism: An Anthology</italic> is another erudite and effective study tool. The book is a substantial volume of primary texts with the work of major British and American modernists interrupted by ‘Continental Interludes’ including the work of Marinetti, Breton, Duchamp, Man Ray, Leiris, Benjamin and Adorno amongst others. The introduction is engaging, written simply and with humour. It gives a brief history to the critical view of the notion of modernism. Woolf and Joyce are given more space than any of the other writers. The section on Woolf reprints <italic>Between the Acts</italic> in full. The section also includes: ‘Modern Fiction’, ‘Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown’, ‘The Narrow Bridge of Art’, and ‘The Leaning Tower’.</p>
<p>Ruth Gruber's <italic>Virginia Woolf: The Will to Create as a Woman</italic> is the first Ph.D. thesis written on Woolf, which Gruber wrote in one year for a German university in 1931. The book contains historical documents including previously unpublished correspondence between Gruber and Woolf, and then from page 55 is a facsimile of the 1935 publication of the thesis. The thesis is bookended by Gruber's memoir, including her extraordinary work during the Second World War and her meeting with Virginia Woolf. The thesis itself draws on Nietzschean ideas about the ‘will to power’, and conflates the notions of sex and gender throughout. Gruber's book reads as more theoretically naive than Winifred Holtby's contemporaneous <italic>Virginia Woolf</italic> [1932]. What remains significant about Gruber's thesis is that it is the first of its kind.</p>
<p>In <italic>Virginia Woolf 's Experiment in Genre and Politics 1926–1931: Visioning and Versioning ‘The Waves’</italic>, Justyna Kostkowska provides an intensive analysis of the differences between the manuscript and final versions of <italic>The Waves</italic>, and considers other texts that Woolf wrote between 1926 and 1931, including <italic>A Room of One's Own</italic> and <italic>Orlando</italic>. Kostkowska's text is strongly informed by psychoanalytic and postmodern theory. Although she makes the claim ‘to avoid what I have termed a narrowly “specialized” treatment of Woolf to mirror our own concerns’, and stresses the need to ‘consider her position in the full complexity of its historical context’, any discussion of Woolf 's historical context is relegated to the last chapter of the book, with the bulk of it engaged in a psychoanalytically informed reading (p. 6). The section ‘Metaphors of Female Creativity in <italic>Orlando</italic>’ exemplifies the relegation of the historical to the theoretical. Kostkowska writes: ‘The lesbian is conveyed through the elaborate metaphor of sex change and of the coexistence of two sexes within one person’ (p. 108). The idea that the lesbian is conveyed by ‘the coexistence of two sexes in one person’ assumes a great deal about the nature of sexuality, identity, and desire; these assumptions have a history that is relevant to Woolf and to Kostkowska's discussion, but this history is overlooked. Instead Kostkowska draws on mainly French feminist theory—specifically that of Hélène Cixous—to construct her argument, the final paragraph of the section making brief reference to the Radclyffe Hall obscenity trial.</p>
<p>Roberta Rubenstein and Theodore Dalrymple both consider the legacy of Virginia Woolf 's writing and politics. Roberta Rubenstein's chapter ‘The Feminist Novel in the Wake of Virginia Woolf ’ (in Shaffer, ed., <italic>A Companion to the British and Irish Novel 1945–2000</italic>) charts the history of the feminist novel in British women's writing. Organized into decades beginning with the 1950s, Rubenstein notes that Woolf 's influence on the feminist novel has grown out of her non-fiction—particularly <italic>A Room of One's Own</italic> and <italic>Three Guineas</italic>—rather than from her formal experimentation. Theodore Dalrymple's chapter on Woolf in <italic>Our Culture, What's Left of It: The Mandarins and the Masses</italic> prints an extended version of his 2002 <italic>Guardian</italic> article ‘Blame it on Bloomsbury’. The longer version is more scathing towards Woolf and how he believes she has ruined British culture. Dalrymple's criticism would be more effective if he managed to get his facts right in the chapter. He claims that in <italic>Three Guineas</italic> Woolf suggested a government subsidy for the daughters of educated men to do with what they liked. What Woolf actually argues for is a subsidy for mothers to recognize and support the work they do for the nation raising children. Ultimately, Dalrymple shows himself to be a rather inept reader of Woolf, which draws all the force from his argument.</p>
<p><italic>Modernism and the Architecture of Private Life</italic> by Victoria Rosner continues a consideration of the domestic interior seen last year in Christopher Reed's <italic>Bloomsbury Rooms</italic>. Rosner suggests that ‘British design reform constituted a spatial counterpart to the human reforms identified by Woolf ’ (p. 9). She pays particular attention to Woolf 's claims that a woman needs ‘a room of one's own’, identifying this as the desire for a study. The book highlights that the Victorian study was a masculine domain, and that the Victorian home did not offer the same degree of privacy to women. In making her argument that ‘design reform constituted a spatial counterpart to the human reforms identified by Woolf ’, Rosner includes floor plans both of the Stephens’ Hyde Park Gate home and of various manuals suggesting the ideal layout of a gentleman's home. The text argues that houses mould individuals and individuals mould houses, stressing both the importance of domestic interiors for individuals and their impact on the inter-disciplinary foundation of modernism. To make clear the connection between design and literature in Woolf, Rosner reminds us that ‘<italic>Night and Day</italic> shares this notion of a female urban modernism with a set of murals painted three years before its publication by members of the Omega Workshop in the Berkeley Street house of the art dealer Arthur Ruck’ (p. 151). The murals depicted women working, shopping, and travelling in the city. Thus the external world of urban modernity became part of the interior environment as well as creating images of women participating in the life of the city. Continuing the city motif, Robert Alter's <italic>Imagined Cities: Urban Experience and the Language of the Novel</italic> offers a reading of <italic>Mrs Dalloway</italic> in its chapter on Woolf. Alter sees <italic>Mrs Dalloway</italic> as moving beyond ‘the immediacy of sensory experience’ found in Flaubert's <italic>Sentimental Education</italic>, because the consciousness of Woolf 's characters ‘is so athletically metaphorical … what we see of the city is what the mind actively makes of it, or even how the mind transforms it’ (pp. 119–20).</p>
<p><italic>Woolf in the Real World: Selected Papers from the Thirteenth International Conference on Virginia Woolf</italic>, edited by Karen V. Kukil, contains thirty papers which formed part of the proceedings of the conference held at Smith College. The book is divided into three sections: ‘The Life of Virginia Woolf ’, ‘The Writings of Virginia Woolf ’, and ‘The Afterlife of Virginia Woolf ’. The papers cover a wide range of topics, including Woolf and politics, the Woolfs as publishers and Woolf 's life, with a definite tendency to consider her ongoing relevance both aesthetically and politically. Lyndall Gordon's ‘ “This loose, drifting material of life”: Virginia Woolf and Biography’ considers the composition of biography and how Woolf theorizes biography. In ‘Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell as Photographers: “The same pair of eyes, only different spectacles” ’, Maggie Humm, in a reading informed by Walter Benjamin and Jean-François Lyotard, discusses the impact of family photographs on the photographs Woolf and Bell later took. Julia Briggs's ‘ “Printing Hope”: Virginia Woolf, Hope Mirrlees, and the Iconic Imagery of <italic>Paris</italic>’ begins by discussing the history of the Hogarth Press printing of the poem and its attendant difficulties and is followed by a discussion of the poem's imagery. Michèle Barrett's ‘Virginia Woolf and Pacifism’ begins with a historically grounded analysis of Woolf 's claim that all her friends were conscientious objectors to the First World War by considering both the statistically typical conscientious objector and the impact of class difference on the Bloomsbury conscientious objectors’ experience. Barrett goes on to consider Woolf 's pacifism in psychoanalytic terms. In ‘Woolf 's Interrogation of Class in <italic>Night and Day</italic>’, Mary C. Madden offers a complex reading of Woolf on class as contingent not only on socioeconomic circumstances but also gender, sexuality, education, and illness. Erica L. Johnson's ‘Writing the Land: The Geography of National Identity in <italic>Orlando</italic>’ considers how Orlando's relationship to the land forms a continuity in his/her relationship to national identity that his/her gender calls into question. Joyce Avrech Berkman's ‘Doing the Splits: Outsider/Insider as Women's Historian and Feminist Activist’ highlights how as an academic she occupies the conflicted position of outsider and insider to Western culture using Woolf 's <italic>Three Guineas</italic> as a touchstone through which to read contemporary difficulties for professional women.</p>
<p>The articles in the <italic>Woolf Studies Annual</italic> were diverse and excellent. Melba Cuddy-Keane's ‘From Fan-Mail to Readers’ Letters: Location John Farrelly’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 3–32) considers the distinction between fan and reader personified by John Farrelly, who wrote admiring letters to Woolf when he began reading her at the age of 19. Cuddy-Keane seeks to demonstrate that ‘the border between common and professional readers is not fixed’ (p. 16). <italic>Woolf Studies Annual</italic> has published Farrelly's letters to Woolf and the condolence letter he wrote to Leonard, along with two of Farrelly's reviews. In ‘Modernist Transformations: Virginia Woolf, Cinderella, and the Legacy of Lady Ritchie’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 33–52), Ann Martin interrogates Woolf 's usage of allusions to Cinderella—most extensively in <italic>Orlando</italic>—and how her allusions, unlike Lady Ritchie's, sought to subvert, rather than work within, British patriarchy. Kathryn Simpson argues the significance of the gift economy as encoding lesbian desire in ‘The Paradox of the Gift: Gift-giving as a Disruptive Force in “Mrs. Dalloway in Bond Street” ’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 53–75). Simpson opposes the market economy of shopping to the gift economy while highlighting that Clarissa's shopping in Bond Street feminizes formerly masculine territory. In ‘Aesthetic Taste, Kitsch, and <italic>The Years</italic>’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 77–90), Ruth Hoberman considers how kitsch objects in <italic>The Years</italic> create a dialogue with Roger Fry's aesthetics and the gendered experience kitsch encodes. Helen Southwold's ‘ “Mixed Virginia”: Reconciling the “Stigma of Nationality” and the Sting of Nostalgia in Virginia Woolf 's Later Fiction’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 99–132) interrogates Woolf 's use of the foreigner to envisage an alternative patriotism free from jingoism and imperialism. Angela Frattarola's ‘Listening for “Found Sound” Samples in the Novels of Virginia Woolf ’ (<italic>WStA</italic> 11[2005] 133–159) argues for the significance of ‘found sound’ (recording sounds from the real world to use in music composition) as a representation of modern life and ultimately, as a way for Woolf to integrate the jarring sounds of war into art.</p>
<p>Christine Reynier has edited a volume of <italic>Cahiers Victoriens et Edouardiens</italic> entitled ‘Insights into the Legacy of Bloomsbury. With Unpublished Essays and Memoirs by Roger Fry, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf ’. In ‘Bloomsbury Art Theory: An Assessment’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 29–38), Anne-Pascale Bruneau considers Roger Fry's and Clive Bell's aesthetic theories and their ongoing impact on art criticism. Catherine Bernard's ‘Bloomsbury or the Art of Disinterestedness’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 39–51) interrogates the theory and practice of Roger Fry, Duncan Grant, and Vanessa Bell in order to illuminate the effect of Post-Impressionism on Britain. In ‘Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf: An Artist and a Critic’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 53–67) Liliane Louvel uses Vanessa Bell's discourse on painting and literature in <italic>Sketches in Pen and Ink</italic> to consider the experience of being both artist and critic. Floriane Reviron's ‘Bloomsbury and the Cinema: Practice and Theory of a New Form of Expression’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 69–91) considers Bloomsbury's values and the issues raised by the emerging technology of cinema. In ‘From <italic>A Room With a View</italic> to the Fascist Spectacle: Bloomsbury in Italy’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 93–107), Elena Gualtieri explores the experiences of Fry, Forster and Woolf in visiting Italy and their art tourism's impact on Woolf 's use of photographs to critique fascism. Catherin Lanone's ‘Art and the “Second Darkness” ’ considers E.M. Forster's relation to the Bloomsbury Group and his conception of its legacy in both aesthetic and political terms. In ‘The Fountain Pen and the Metronome: Bloomsbury Dancing, or Not’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 121–135), Caroline Marie considers the Bloomsbury Group's lack of attention to Lydia Lopkova's creativity, and the value of dance as an artistic medium. Christine Froula's ‘On French and British Freedoms: Early Bloomsbury and the Brothels of Modernism’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 137–156) counters Robert Scholes's contention that creating modernist art requires the experience of brothels that Woolf lacked by portraying the marriage market and the incestuous relations at Hyde Park Gate as ‘hidden brothels’ (p. 153). Christopher Reed's ‘Roger Fry: Art and Life’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 157–166) reprints two little-known texts by Fry, ‘Why I Am Happy and Why I Am Unhappy’ and ‘Mosquitoes’. Reed considers how Fry's formalist aesthetics were applied to his difficulties in life. S.P. Rosenbaum's ‘Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell: Memoirs of Julian’ (<italic>CVE</italic> 62[2005] 167–203) begins with the history of the two memoirs, and discusses the context of Julian's decision to go to Spain and the impact of his death on both women. The memoirs are printed in full along with three pieces of correspondence between Julian Bell and Virginia Woolf. Both memoirs are previously unpublished.</p>
<p>The journal articles that appeared this year continued the ongoing trend of political readings of Woolf. Jesse Wolfe's ‘The Sane Woman in the Attic: Sexuality and Self-Authorship in <italic>Mrs Dalloway</italic>’ (<italic>MFS</italic> 51:i[2005] 34–59) argues that <italic>Mrs Dalloway</italic> shares with Conrad and Freud an anti-foundational attitude coupled with a conservative view of family life. For Wolfe, the different aspects of Clarissa that she unifies into one self and her marriage to Richard Dalloway rather than a partnership with Sally Seton or Peter Walsh exemplify this split. Andrea Adolph's ‘Luncheon at “The Leaning Tower”: Consumption and Class in Virginia Woolf 's <italic>Between the Acts</italic>’ (<italic>WS</italic> 34[2005] 439–59) envisages Woolf 's understanding of class in both texts as divided along the lines of cultural capital that is access to education and public discourse and consumption not only as a shopper but particularly in relation to food. Anne E. Fernald's ‘A Feminist Public Sphere? Virginia Woolf 's Revisions of the Eighteenth Century’ (<italic>Feminist Studies</italic> 31:i[2005] 158–82) argues that Woolf responded to the eighteenth-century notion of the public sphere as based on the exclusion of women using Woolf 's transformation from an anonymous reviewer in the <italic>Times Literary Supplement</italic> to a confident writer signing her name to the letters she wrote to Desmond McCarthy in the <italic>New Statesman</italic> as an example.</p>
<p>In ‘Suffrage and Virginia Woolf: “The mass behind the single voice” ’ (<italic>RES</italic> 56[2005] 119–34), Sowon S. Park highlights how Woolf 's ambivalence towards the suffrage movement has been overlooked by critics. Park highlights the specificity of Woolf 's feminism allied with the non-militant suffragists rather than the suffragettes; her analysis of the characters Mary Datchet from <italic>Night and Day</italic> and Rose Pargiter from <italic>The Years</italic> explicates this distinction. Natana Kovacevic's ‘Beyond the Politics of Emancipation: Utopianism and Radical (Im)possibilities in Virginia Woolf ’ (<italic>LIT</italic> 16:iii[2005] 333–57) argues that Woolf imagines in <italic>Three Guineas</italic>, <italic>The Years</italic>, and <italic>Between the Acts</italic> a political struggle that avoids identity politics and creates ‘the possibility of a community without hierarchy’ (p. 334). Gabrielle McIntire's ‘Heteroglossia, Monologism, and Fascism: Bernard Reads <italic>The Waves</italic>’ (<italic>Narrative</italic>13:i[2005] 29–45) argues that <italic>The Waves</italic> has both heteroglossic and monologic elements. The heteroglossia comes in the form of the lack of narration and the experience of the thoughts of the characters; on the other hand, the characters are strikingly homogenous and do not attempt dialogue; rather, their thoughts, through which the novel is read, are monologues. McIntire ties this to fascism because ‘in fascism's rhetorical register, monologism reduces, squeezes, and narrows; it does violence to the plurality of speech types, modes, intentions’ (p. 34).</p>
<p>Daniel Sanjiv Roberts's ‘ “A nugget of pure truth”: Woolf 's Debt to De Quincey’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 52[2005] 94–5) outlines how Woolf 's phrase in <italic>A Room of One's Own</italic> ‘a nugget of pure truth’ is taken from De Quincey. John Shaw's ‘ “Luriana, Lurilee” Revisited I, “A Garden Song”: Leonard Woolf 's Manuscript Copy: The “Right Version” of the Poem?’ and ‘ “Luriana, Lurilee” Revisited II: More Poems by Charles Elton’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 52[2005] 89–94) highlight Virginia Woolf 's use of Elton's poem as an intertext for <italic>To the Lighthouse</italic>, and recount the varied publishing history of Charles Elton's poetry. In ‘Masochistic Modernisms: A Reading of Eliot and Woolf ’ (<italic>JML</italic> 2:iii[2005] 25–44), Eve Sorum extends Gilles Deleuze's theory of masochism to argue that Woolf 's and Eliot's modernist aesthetic requires suffering in order to create meaning. Sorum argues that the artist is created through suffering. In ‘Virginia Woolf and the Dance’ (<italic>Dance Chronicle</italic> 28:ii[2005] 169–200), Susan Jones highlights the significance of dance in Woolf 's oeuvre, exploring both her familiarity with contemporary dance and the way dance operates metaphorically in her writing. Theodore Leinwand's ‘Virginia Woolf Reads the Great William’ (<italic>YR</italic> 93:ii [2005] 101–22) analyses Woolf 's entries on Shakespeare in her reading notebooks. Leinwand emphasizes Woolf 's visceral response to Shakespeare, and her references to the sense of speed his writing evokes. Morag Shiach's ‘Modernism, the City and the “Domestic Interior” ’ (<italic>Home Cultures</italic> 2:iii[2005] 251–67) considers the significance of domestic interiors to modernism by considering the domestic interior in Woolf, Dorothy Richardson, and Ezra Pound. Shiach counters Woolf 's desire for a study to Ezra Pound's playing the sociable host while ‘construct[ing] the intellectual and cultural networks that would sustain … forms of modernist cultural innovation’ (p. 265). Her emphasis on the domestic interior is written against the emphasis in modernist studies on the role of the city and the <italic>flâneur</italic>. Elicia Clements's ‘Transforming Musical Sounds into Words: Narrative Method in Virginia Woolf 's <italic>The Waves</italic>’ (<italic>Narrative</italic> 13:ii[2005] 160–81) begins with a look at the music Woolf listened to while writing <italic>The Waves</italic>, identifying in particular Beethoven's Opus 130 and 133. Clements then demonstrates the similarities between Virginia Woolf and Beethoven by connecting their use of silence and formal experimentation.</p></sec></sec>
<sec id="SEC3"><title>3. Post-1945 Fiction</title>
<p>There has been a healthy range of work done this year in the post-1945 period, work that ranges from critical surveys to monographs and papers on individual authors such as J.G. Ballard, Irvine Welsh and Graham Swift, as well as collections of essays and source materials and a number of journal articles.</p>
<p>In the first of these categories is Alice Ferrebe's excellent book, <italic>Masculinity in Male-Authored Fiction, 1950–2000: Keeping It Up.</italic> This book covers a broad range of canonical and some less well known novels from the second half of the twentieth century. Her aim to focus on a study of the ‘white, middle-class, English, heterosexual, male fiction-making majority’ (p. 1) can appear limiting at first, but in fact results in a clearly focused analysis. Her methodology draws from gender theory directly and concentrates on the ‘function’ of masculinity in the novels she discusses, and particularly on the response in male fiction to second- and third-wave feminism. She is also keen to stress that she wants to move away from a feminist critique of male writing and that her approach is ‘diagnostic’ rather than ‘accusatory’. The book is arranged with a flexible balance between thematic concerns and a chronology based around the five decades from the 1950s to the end of the twentieth century. This allows her to move at times across the period, for example the first main chapter concentrates mainly on the best- known male writers of the 1950s—William Cooper, John Wain, Kingsley Amis, Alan Sillitoe and John Braine—as she sets up her argument on the way in which these writers address dominant models of masculinity as a way of offsetting the disconcerting changes in the class system in the years following the Second World War. The section on male attitudes to the emerging consumer society is especially well done. Less well known authors from this period are covered in separate chapters on the existential fiction of the period, for example, there is a sensitive reading of Nigel Dennis's <italic>Cards of Identity</italic>, and, in a chapter on nonconformity, there is an excellent reading of Colin MacInnes's engagement with dominant codes of masculinity and sexuality in his novel <italic>Absolute Beginners</italic>. The last two chapters concentrate on more contemporary male writing, with an interesting final section on the rise of ‘Ladlit’ in the 1980s and 1990s, focusing on novels by Nick Hornby, Tim Lott and Tony Parsons. It is certainly the case that Ferrebe feels more at home with the beginning and ending of her period and, apart from readings of John Berger's <italic>G</italic> and John Fowles's <italic>Daniel Martin</italic>, there is not much on 1970s fiction, but that may be a reflection of her subject matter.</p>
<p>The 1970s are the starting point of Peter Childs's introduction to and critical survey of the fiction of the last three decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, <italic>Contemporary Novelists: British Fiction Since 1970</italic>. Childs's book is more of an introduction to the field than a monograph and he does not restrict himself to a particular issue, preferring to focus on the dominant themes in each covered writer's fiction. What it does provide is interesting readings of twelve of the most important writers from the period in an engaging and accessible style. The twelve writers covered are: Martin Amis, Pat Barker, Julian Barnes, Angela Carter, Kazuo Ishiguro, Hanif Kureishi, Ian McEwan, Salman Rushdie, Zadie Smith, Graham Swift, Irvine Welsh and Jeanette Winterson—novelists that, as Childs says, ‘most often appear on contemporary fiction courses’ (p. 18). In the introduction to the book Childs talks about the impact of prominent ‘best young novelists’ lists of the period and the importance of the Booker prize, and in some ways the choice of authors serves to contribute to the development of a canon of contemporary British writers. The book rejects a chronological approach to the period, dealing with the authors alphabetically, and each author is given a chapter which is further subdivided into three sections: literary history, themes and key works, the latter of which includes close readings of two or three novels. Given the broad coverage, only two or three pages are given over to each novel, but Childs manages to include some insightful readings in a small space and, for this reviewer, these sections in each chapter are the most interesting. The chapters on Amis, Barker, McEwan and Smith are particularly well done. There is also a useful timeline, which helps to contextualize each writer within the period in which his or her novels appeared. As with many books of this kind, it leaves you wanting more, but as an introduction to the field it is a valuable contribution.</p>
<p>Unlike Childs, Jeanette King's <italic>The Victorian Woman in Contemporary Feminist Fiction</italic> is keen to identify a specific trend in recent British and (some) American novels. She partly sets out to investigate why the Victorian period has been so popular for contemporary feminist writers (although some of the writers she covers might not necessarily welcome the containing adjective). The first chapter provides a detailed and critical summary of Victorian constructions of gender which draws on writing from religious discourses and more broadly ‘cultural’ ideas from the late nineteenth-century analysis of reading gender difference through the biological sciences, early forms of psychoanalysis and evolutionary theory, as well as providing a background to the emergence of various ideas that challenged traditional ways of thinking about gender. This chapter is very well researched and is further supported by similar detailed analysis of non-literary Victorian texts in the subsequent chapters. One thing must be stressed about King's book: it is much more interested in the historical contexts informing the 1880s and 1890s than it is in the 1990s, the decade during which most of the novels she discusses were published. King's methodological approach is clearly a form of new historicism, but might better be described as ‘inter-historicist’ as its main extra-textual sources are taken from the period during which her primary texts are set rather than published. It would have been useful to have had more on the historical contexts at the end of the twentieth century that are informing this identifiable trend in contemporary women's fiction; however, that would have produced a very different book. The organization of the chapters following chronologically the Victorian decades in which the novels are set rather than published reveals something of the methodological focus King adopts. The analysis of the fiction concentrates mainly on British writers from the 1990s with sensitive readings of novels by Andrea Bennett, A.S. Byatt, Sarah Waters, Victoria Glendinning and Angela Carter, with the addition of works by two North American writers: Margaret Atwood and Toni Morrison. Again, the gender issues raised in the novels are read against relevant late Victorian writing and this provides a fascinating cross-historical analysis of each novel. On the whole, this book is of as much (if not more in some respects) interest to nineteenth-century literary scholars as it is to those based in contemporary fiction.</p>
<p>There have been three books that have come out this year as part of Manchester University Press's new Contemporary British Novelists series, which promises to be an excellent series for the future. Andrzej Gasiorek's <italic>J.G. Ballard</italic> provides a welcome monograph on one of the most important British writers of the post-Second World War period. It covers most of Ballard's fiction chronologically up to <italic>Millennium People</italic> [2003]. Gasiorek's aim is to address the polemical split in Ballardian criticism between those, such as Baudrillard, who see him as an emotionally null and morally ambivalent writer whose job it is to record contemporary life in all its banality and extremity, and those who see him as a profoundly moral writer who presents us with an image of the corrupt and debased nature of contemporary urban and overly technologized existence. Gasiorek regards both of these readings of Ballard as reductive and argues that his fiction weaves its way between these two possibilities. For Gasiorek, Ballard's fiction remains radically and provocatively ambiguous and overdetermined, and he argues that Ballard refuses either wholly to castigate or celebrate the postmodern and post-human condition. The analysis of individual novels is excellent and makes his overall thesis thoroughly convincing. His take on <italic>The Atrocity Exhibition</italic> and <italic>Crash</italic> are particularly well done, as are his readings of the later novels. Gasiorek also shows how Ballard has been influenced during different periods in his writing by Surrealism and Pop Art, and this provides a useful way to get an angle on Ballard for those who may be new to his more challenging and controversial work. It also shows how Ballard advanced the range and ambition of the science fiction genre from the 1960s onwards, focusing on his aim to develop the idea of ‘inner space fiction’ (along with Doris Lessing) and his emphasis that this popular genre should always have its eye on the present working through its evocation of the future. Along with Roger Luckhurst's 1997 book, Gasiorek's is the best monograph on Ballard to date. It manages to provide both a useful introduction and an advance to the critical debate on this central British writer of the contemporary period.</p>
<p>Aaron Kelly's contribution to the Contemporary British Novelists series, <italic>Irvine Welsh</italic>, deals with a writer from a very different literary and cultural background from Ballard. Irvine Welsh emerged in the 1990s as one of the main writers of a group that was keen to represent new cultural experiences that had often been ignored in British fiction. Throughout the book, Kelly is keen to emphasize Welsh's distance from what he calls the ‘bourgeois’ and ‘conventional’ British novel, although definitions of what these mean are never really pursued in the contemporary context. For Kelly, it is a series of markers of difference that makes Welsh's texts stand out. These include Welsh's working-class background, his Scottishness, and his association with subcultural and ‘drug-cultural’ groups, as well as flirtations with new forms of masculinity that see him engaged in recreational football hooliganism alongside writing for such non-PC publications as <italic>Loaded</italic> and the <italic>Sunday Telegraph</italic>. Kelly is hardly apologetic for some of the ideological inconsistencies of his subject, but he is keen to take issue with the way in which Welsh has been stereotyped by most critical responses to his work. Kelly relies quite heavily on reading Welsh's fiction against autobiographical details, although he is sensitive to the way in which Welsh's image has been constructed by the literary and popular media. The book is not, however, only reliant on author-centred criticism: Kelly is also keen to read Welsh against a series of cultural contexts that relate to class, nation, gender, ethnicity and political activism (and ambivalence). He also focuses closely on Welsh's experiments with form and language, making good use of Bakhtinian theory in the author's distinctive writing of non-standard English as a way of textually staking out positions of difference. The book covers Welsh's main novels from <italic>Trainspotting</italic> [1993] to <italic>Porno</italic> [2002] giving a chapter to each, and overall is an important contribution to a writer who is still relatively new on the scene.</p>
<p>The third of the books in the Manchester University Press series to come out this year is Daniel Lea's <italic>Graham Swift</italic>, which is, as Lea stresses, only the second monograph on an author who does not rest easily within the major trends of British fiction over the last thirty years. Lea emphasizes that although Swift has often been perceived as a postmodernist writer (and some of his best-known novels, such as <italic>Waterland</italic>, clearly have such tendencies), this is a reductive reading of the range of Swift's interests and themes. In an informative introduction, Lea provides a number of contexts in which Swift's fiction should be placed. He stresses that one of the main issues in the author's work is a concern with history, not only as a form of textual discourse, but also as personal, familial and collective experience. This is intricately bound up with issues of identity, and Lea emphasizes Swift's concerns to explore the sense of incompleteness felt by many of his protagonists. Formally, Lea stresses the connections with the Bildungsroman, but shows that Swift problematizes the genre by refusing tidy closure with most of his main characters unable or unwilling to be reintegrated back into a stable social setting. As Lea argues, Swift's narratives often rely on prevaricating strategies that circle around the main character's anxieties and fear of engaging with the painful heart of the matter. Narrative, in Swift's hands, is as much a ‘turning away from the alien and the uncanny as a defensive recourse’ (p. 2) as it is a revealing of self-knowledge. Lea also makes the point that Swift is intrigued with possible antidotes to the alienating aspects of modern society, and that his characters strive to rediscover some form of expedient secular faith in the face of a dissolution of traditional ethical systems and a debilitating solipsism. In this context, Lea makes excellent use of the Lacanian concept of the Real as a way of understanding Swift's interest in characters that strive to come to terms with the disparity between traditional signifying systems of the world and the individual's subjective experience of it. For Lea, Swift's characters do this through constructing personal narratives that attempt to re-engage with the social: ‘Brought face to face with the Real of the subjective world, individuals have little choice but to reconstruct stories (in the full knowledge of their constructedness) to defer the abjecting imperative of solipsistic dissolution’ (p. 12). This insightful reading of Swift is pursued through chapters that deal with his novels chronologically, from <italic>The Sweet Shop Owner</italic> [1980] to his most recent to date <italic>The Light of Day</italic> [2003], each of which is given a sensitive and thoughtful analysis, Swift emerges from Lea's book as a writer who can be reconnected with a much older tradition of British (or perhaps more accurately English) fiction despite the prevailing critical grouping of him with postmodernists such as Amis, Barnes, Byatt, McEwan, Rushdie and Winterson.</p>
<p>Speaking of Jeanette Winterson, Merja Makinen's book <italic>The Novels of Jeanette Winterson</italic>, in Palgrave's Reader's Guides to Essential Criticism series, also came out this year. This is a contribution to an excellent series for critical resources on individual writers and has been running for a number of years now (it was taken over by Palgrave from Icon Books some time ago), and there are now four or five books on contemporary British authors, with others promised for subsequent years. In keeping with the scope of the series, Mertinen's book provides a critical survey and commentary on the most important criticism on Winterson, and is an excellent guide for students as well as a useful resource for researchers and teachers. The balance of the book is somewhat dictated by the relative success (or at least critical importance) of each of the covered novels. There are, for example, two chapters given over to Winterson's most famous novel <italic>Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit</italic>: one on its status as a lesbian text and one on its postmodern characteristics; while only one chapter is given over to two of her other early novels. <italic>Boating for Beginners</italic> and <italic>The Passion</italic>. <italic>Sexing the Cherry</italic>, <italic>Written on the Body</italic>, and <italic>Art and Lies</italic> are given one chapter each, while the last main chapter is on her two most recent novels, <italic>Gut Symmetries</italic> and <italic>The Power Book</italic>. Obviously, there has been less time for these works to gain critical attention so the relative imbalance of coverage is an inevitable shortcoming of a book of this type; one that deals with an author who is still living and working. Where Makinen's book is strong is in the knowledgeable survey of, and engagement with, the various critical positions that have been taken on Winterson's fiction. The chapters on <italic>Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit</italic> and <italic>Sexing the Cherry</italic> are particularly well done. The discussion of the former as a lesbian text conveys the debates surrounding it and the criticism it received from a historical perspective, and one of the things that emerges from Mertinen's coverage is the importance of trends within literary theory generally over the past twenty years and how criticism of Winterson, in particular, reveals those trends. This chapter also offers an interesting account of how the television adaptation of the novel was received and critically assessed. It is, of course, Mertinen's remit to survey rather than offer new critical insights into the novels; however, her preferences do tend to emerge from the sensitive way in which she addresses the major criticism. This is alongside the generous and unbiased way in which she presents the arguments of others on their own merit. Overall, the book represents essential reading for students and scholars of a writer who has become canonical (as far as it is possible to speak of a canon of contemporary writing).</p>
<p>There have been two collections of essays in our period this year: one on Pat Barker and one (edited by the present reviewer) on British fiction of the 1990s. <italic>Critical Perspectives on Pat Barker</italic> is edited by Sharon Monteith, Margaretta Jolly, Nahem Yousaf and Ronald Paul and published by University of South Carolina Press (although each of the editors and most of the contributors are working in British or European universities). The volume includes a wide range of perspectives on Barker, from literary criticism to some pedagogical issues raised in teaching Barker's novels. It also includes Sarah Daniels's playtext adaptation of Barker's 1984 novel <italic>Blow Your House Down</italic>, which deserves special praise. In an informative introduction to the book as a whole, two of the editors, Yousaf and Monteith, discuss the historical range of Barker's fiction. They emphasize her interest in moments of trauma replayed through individual and collective memory. This is particularly shown in her engagement with the two major wars of the twentieth century, especially in the outstanding <italic>Regeneration</italic> trilogy set during the First World War. Yousaf and Monteith also focus on Barker's position as a feminist writer, emphasizing her concern with society's construction of masculinity as well as femininity. The rest of the book is divided into five parts. Part I, ‘Dialogue Under Pressure’, includes essays by John Brannigan and Sarah Brophy on <italic>Union Street</italic> and Ann Ardis on teaching <italic>Blow Your House Down</italic> as well as Sarah Daniels's adaptation. Part II, ‘Dialogue Under Pressure’, focuses on issues of language and dialogue in Barker's fiction, with essays by Carina Bartlett, Jenny Newman, Sharon Monteith and Pat Wheeler. Part III, ‘Men at War’, concentrates on the <italic>Regeneration</italic> trilogy, with essays by Ronald Paul and Karin E. Westman, and an interview with Barker by Sheryl Stevenson. Part IV, ‘The Talking Cure’, stays with the <italic>Regeneration</italic> trilogy, but tackles it from a psychoanalytic approach, with essays by Dennis Brown, Anne Whitehead and Sheryl Stevenson. The final part, ‘Regenerating the Wasteland’, provides an overview of Barker's fiction with studies of her more recent novels. Margaretta Jolly's ‘Toward a Masculine Maternal’ discusses Barker's engagement with moral issues around gender; Heather Nunn and Anita Biressi focus on <italic>Another World</italic>, Eluned Summers-Bremner discusses <italic>Border Crossing</italic> and <italic>Another World</italic>, and Monteith and Yousaf offer a reading of Barker's 2003 novel <italic>Double Vision</italic> (alongside several of her previous works), concentrating on Barker's photographic and painterly style. Taken as a whole, the book provides an essential collection for students and scholars working on Barker.</p>
<p><italic>British Fiction of the 1990s</italic> is a collection of essays on the writing that came out of the last decade of the twentieth century. There are four sections: ‘Millennial Anxieties’, ‘Identity at the <italic>Fin de Siècle</italic>’, ‘Historical Fictions’ and ‘Narrative Geographies’. The first section has essays by Fred Botting on Zadie Smith's <italic>White Teeth</italic> read against a number of other novels from the 1980s and 1990s by Martin Amis, Salman Rushdie and Julie Burchill (amongst others). Botting identifies the millennial issues at play in Smith's work and focuses on the connections the novel makes between multicultural contexts and genetic engineering. Andrjez Gasiorek writes on the themes of death and history in 1990s fiction with readings of novels by Jim Crace, Andrew O’Hagan and J.G. Ballard. Roger Luckhurst identifies the trend in recent contemporary British science fiction to produce a radical and critical political discourse in the face of a diminishing number of polemical positions in mainstream political activity. Pat Waugh discusses the relationship between science <italic>and</italic> fiction in recent writing, detailing the way in which the two cultures debate of the 1950s and 1960s has been transposed into the 1990s. The rest of the book includes essays on individual authors and novels: Sarah Henstra on Julian Barnes's <italic>England, England</italic>, Sonya Andermahr on Jeanette Winterson's <italic>The Power Book</italic>, Peter Childs on Ian McEwan, Helen Stoddart on A.L. Kennedy, Brian Maidment on Jane Rogers's <italic>Mr Wroe's Virgins</italic>, Lynda Prescott on Pat Barker, Fiona Becket on Beryl Bainbridge's <italic>Every Man for Himself</italic>, Julian Wolfreys on Iain Sinclair's <italic>Slow Chocolate Autopsy</italic>, Susan Book on Hanif Kureishi's <italic>The Buddha of Suburbia</italic> and Peter Brooker on Iain Sinclair.</p>
<p>There have been a number of journal articles published this year that are worthy of mention; however, space dictates that some of these be listed rather than reviewed. David Alderson's essay ‘ “Not everyone knows fuck all about Foucault”: Will Self 's <italic>Dorian</italic> and Post-Gay Culture’ (<italic>TPr</italic> 19:iii[2005] 59–84) is one of the first pieces of literary criticism on Self 's 2002 novel, and is an excellent critique of the novelist's engagement in debates around the ‘post-gay’ culture of the late twentieth century. Alderson argues convincingly that Self 's claim to ‘anonymity’ in respect of his engagement with gay issues is ideologically naive if not disingenuous. He also takes issue with Self 's portrayal of gay subcultures in the 1980s and 1990s as self-delusional as well as questioning the novel's provocative use of AIDS as a metaphor for the consequences of decadence. Alderson concludes by stressing that Self 's ‘writing provides new ways of defining the alterity of gay men even as he suggests that the ways in which they have defined themselves as different are delusional’ (pp. 326–7). Mikko Keskinen's ‘Single, Long-Playing and Compilation: Audio Formats and Amorousness in Nick Hornby's <italic>High Fidelity</italic>’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 47:i[2005] 3–21) provides an imaginative reading of Hornby's metaphorical linkage of different forms of pop music media with sexual relationships. James Acheson in his ‘Historia and Guilt: Graham Swift's <italic>Waterland </italic>’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 47:i[2005] 90–100) makes a further contribution to the debate on Swift's engagement with the process of interlinking collective and personal histories. Aaron S. Rosenfeld, in ‘Re-membering the Future: Doris Lessing's “Experiment in Autobiography” ’ (<italic>CS</italic> 17:i[2005] 40–55), explores Lessing's attempt to produce a type of fiction that might be called ‘future history’ in her 1974 novel <italic>The Memoirs of a Survivor</italic>. Two articles came out this year on Ian McEwan which serve to contribute to his increasing centrality within the canon of contemporary British fiction: Pilar Hidalgo, ‘Memory and Storytelling in Ian McEwan's <italic>Atonement</italic>’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 46:ii[2005] 46–91), and Earl G. Ingersoll, ‘City of Endings: Ian McEwan's <italic>Amsterdam</italic>’ (<italic>MQ</italic> 46:ii[2005] 123–38). Other articles to note are Nicole LaRose, ‘Reading <italic>The Information</italic> on Martin Amis's London’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 46:ii[2005] 160–76); Youssef Yacoubi ‘ “How much does it cost to tell the truth?”: Salman Rushdie and his Confessional Critics’ (<italic>Culture, Theory and Critique</italic> 46:ii[2005] 115–29), which focuses on <italic>The Satanic Verses</italic>; Patricia E. Johnson, ‘Embodying Losses in Pat Barker's <italic>Regeneration</italic> Trilogy’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 46:iv[2005] 307–19); Eileen Williams-Wanquet, ‘Marina Warner's <italic>Indigo</italic> as Ethical Deconstruction and Reconstruction’ (<italic>Crit</italic> 46:iii[2005] 267–82), which discusses Warner's use of intertextual references to Shakespeare and <italic>The Tempest</italic> in particular; and Lidan Lin's ‘Spatial Narrative and Postfeminist Fiction: Margaret Drabble's <italic>The Radiant Way</italic>’ (<italic>ES</italic> 86:i[2005] 51–70).</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC4"><title>4. Pre-1950 Drama</title>
<p>Last year's section on post-1950 drama included nine books on individual playwrights including Beckett, Friel, Hare, O’Casey and Orton. It is instructive that this is rarely an option for pre-1950 drama. Where, one wonders, are the corresponding monographs on Granville Barker, Galsworthy, Coward, and Priestley? Nevertheless, there was a rich crop of books and articles published in 2004. As well as books on specific periods, several clear motifs emerged: a concern with the nature of celebrity, or the creation of multiple personae; the links between French and English theatre; and an interest in popular theatrical forms.</p>
<p><italic>Auto/Biography and Identity: Women, Theatre and Performance</italic>, edited by the always fruitful partnership of Maggie B. Gale and Viv Gardner, contains some chapters that are relevant to this period. Second in the series Women, Theatre and Performance published by Manchester University Press, this collection is designed to show current research into women and theatre, and takes up issues to do with how autobiography is used to formulate questions about performance and identity. In particular, Gale and Gardner's introduction notes how current thinking suggests that theatre autobiographies revolve around an attempt to construct a group identity; instead, it is argued, sufficient attention must be paid to the way in which autobiographical writing is affected by prevailing social and cultural meanings. Divided into three sections, the first looks at autobiographical strategies, the second considers the professional/confessional self, and the third, which deals with contemporary theatre, is entitled ‘Auto/biography, Identity and Performance’.</p>
<p>In the first section, Viv Gardner's chapter, ‘The Three Nobodies: Autobiographical Strategies in the Work of Alma Ellerslie, Kitty Marion and Ina Rozant’ (pp. 10–38), looks at three provincial performers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century theatre. Rather than using well-known figures, Gardner deliberately focuses on the autobiographies of ‘ordinary’ jobbing actresses. She acknowledges the temptation to take at face value such memoirs, which have become ‘not only a commonplace but a necessary adjunct to the role of theatre in society’ (p. 11). Apart from the danger as a theatre historian to ‘romanticize’ the life, there is also a disjunction between the ‘real’ actress and the role that she plays; as Gardner notes, it is often the ‘performed, public self ’ that appears more real, while the inner self is the ‘nobody’ (p. 11). Thus, when writing an autobiography, it is the performed self that can take over. Again, given the changing social status of theatre at this time, it is equally the middle-class objectives that are being replicated, as much as an expression of Victorian and Edwardian femininity.</p>
<p>One other chapter in the next section is also relevant: Maggie B. Gale's ‘Lena Ashwell and Auto/Biographical Negotiations of the Professional Self ’ (pp. 99–125). Ashwell wrote a number of times on her career in theatre, as in <italic>Modern Troubadours</italic> [1922], <italic>The Stage</italic> [1929] and <italic>Myself a Player</italic> [1936], and Gale looks at how these have formed the creation of her professional identity in theatre history. Her career is well trodden: closely linked to the ‘New Woman’ in the 1890s and early twentieth century, she went on to take over management of the Kingsway Theatre and become involved in the suffrage movement, most notably in the Actresses’ Franchise League. Gale outlines much of this, stressing her position as unconventional and ‘exceptional’. In her autobiographical work, Ashwell deliberately constructs her identity as a professional and politically motivated woman, as she moves from being someone who exhibits a personal ambition as a female theatre worker to one who, like Kitty Marion, connects this with the larger socio-political shifts for women. No doubt <italic>The Cambridge Companion to the Actress</italic>, edited by Maggie B. Gale and John Stokes, and due to be published in 2007, will continue to explore some of these issues.</p>
<p>Gale also contributes an article to <italic>Theatre and Celebrity in Britain, 1660–2000</italic>, edited by the equally prolific Mary Luckhurst, with Jane Moody. This is on ‘The Many Masks of Clemence Dane’ (pp. 48–61), a dramatist whom Gale is, almost single-handedly, recuperating for theatre history. Born Winifred Ashton, she was a close friend of Noel Coward—some believe that he based Madame Arcati in <italic>Blithe Spirit</italic> [1941] on her—and wrote numerous works, including <italic>A Bill of Divorcement</italic> [1921], which contributed to a change in the divorce laws, as well as fictionalized versions of Elizabeth I in <italic>Will Shakespeare</italic> [1921], and the Brontë sisters in <italic>Wild Decembers</italic> [1933]. Moreover, she ran a theatrical salon from her flat at 20 Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, entertaining many of the famous names of the time in a career that spanned several decades. Gale is convincing in her suggestion that Dane deliberately used her pseudonym to create multiple personae, which varied according to the circumstances. Yet the argument that Dane provided a form of social commentary through her ‘theatrical celebrity’, while cultivating a voice of the people for her journalism, is never fully explored, perhaps due to the brevity of the piece.</p>
<p>In the same Luckhurst and Moody collection, there are two other articles of interest. Sos Eltis looks at the lives of Sarah Bernhardt, Lillie Langtry, Mrs Patrick Campbell, and Ellen Terry in ‘Private Lives and Public Spaces: Reputation, Celebrity and the Late Victorian Actress’ (pp. 169–88). The fashion for morally ambiguous female roles in the latter part of the Victorian age, and up to the First World War—Arthur Pinero's <italic>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</italic> [1893], Percy Fendall's <italic>Mrs Deering's Divorce</italic> [1900], J.M. Barrie's <italic>The Adored One</italic> [1913]—stimulated interest in the actresses’ public and private lives. Yet, as Eltis shows, these professionally successful and personally charismatic women carefully controlled information about themselves, through advertising, autobiographical writings, and critical articles. Once more, we learn how ‘an actress's off-stage persona could become an entity in itself, not her “veridical” self but a persona that usefully complemented her on-stage repertoire’ (p. 179).</p>
<p>The editors claim that Peter Holland's ‘ “Some of you may have seen him”: Laurence Olivier's Celebrity’ (pp. 214–32) shows the actor's wartime re-creations of Shakespearian roles as a form of patriotism. It even appears in a section entitled ‘Nation’. However, the article seems to be less to do with this than with Olivier's widespread fame in the years when he was married to Vivien Leigh and they were seen as ‘the royal family of theatre’ (p. 226), and with a deconstruction of his on- and off-stage sexuality, which was able to move fluidly between camp effeminacy and heightened masculinity. This ‘twinned being’ (p. 221) became encoded in his appearance in 1945–6 as Oedipus and as Mr Puff in Sheridan's <italic>The Critic</italic>, leading to a backstage nickname of ‘Oedipuff ’!</p>
<p>The relationship between the public and private selves of popular and influential actors is also taken up in two paperback reprints. In the <italic>British Journal of Psychiatry</italic> (186[2005] 267–8), Duncan McLean charges Michael Redgrave and John Gielgud with a borderline personality disorder, which includes ‘Narcissism, impulsivity, self-destructive behaviour, identity defusion’. This analysis was made after reading reviews of <italic>Secret Dreams: The Biography of Michael Redgrave</italic> by Alan Strachan, and <italic>Gielgud's Letters</italic>, edited by Richard Mangan, both reprinted in paperback during 2005. This is particularly true of Redgrave, who was often distant, even cold, with those around him. Drawing on personal letters, diaries and interviews with those from his personal and professional life, Mangan carefully constructs a portrait of a man whose façade was deliberately designed to hide the anguish he felt about his bisexuality. Married to the actress Rachel Kempson, and fathering Corin, Vanessa and Lynn, all accomplished actors in their own right, Redgrave sought a number of surrogate father-figures, such as Harold Clurman, co-founder with Lee Strasberg of the Group Theater in New York. A contemporary of Olivier, Redgrave's acting has not attracted as much critical debate. Nevertheless, as Mangan shows, here was an actor of great range, including <italic>King Lear</italic>, <italic>Uncle Vanya</italic>, <italic>The Family Reunion</italic>, and English and American war films of the 1940s and 1950s.</p>
<p><italic>Gielgud's Letters</italic> similarly give a real flavour of the actor's life and times, this time in the actor's own words. Deeply ensconced in the theatre industry—he was a great-nephew of Ellen Terry and quickly established himself as one of the leading actors of his generation—Gielgud shows how driven he was from the beginning, and the pressure he felt to constantly keep working. Everything came second to his career, even his notorious promiscuity, which shocked the nation in the 1950s when he was found guilty of importuning in a public toilet. The sense is given, through Michael Mangan's excellent editing of 500 letters, that Gielgud was a divided soul, one who—like Redgrave—found a dichotomy between his public and private selves. Nevertheless, it is Gielgud's vivid relating of his own rehearsals and first nights, and his insightful comments about plays, playwrights and his contemporary actors that is most compelling; for example, he writes to Dadie Rylands of Christopher Fry's <italic>The Lady's Not for Burning</italic> [1949] as expressing ‘a real understanding of the inexpressible, tongue-tied, cliché-dreading, desperate vitality of the generations of the two wars’ (p. 125).</p>
<p>Two publications make connections between French and English theatrical traditions. John Stokes's <italic>The French Actress and her English Audience</italic> is, like all his work, admirably researched, as he recounts actresses’ lives and stage roles from the early part of the nineteenth century until the advent of ‘kitchen sink’ drama in the 1950s. Here, though, lies one of book's weaknesses, for the style becomes rather stodgy when recounting facts about plays, characters, and productions. The fascination of the English for the actress across the Channel may have been captured by Sos Eltis when she shows how Sarah Bernhardt played up to her role as an ‘exotic outsider’ (p. 170), but in this book it never fully comes to fruition. Another concern is the title, which proves a little misleading. Stokes's view of the audience does not necessarily relate to the theatre-going public, but rather to how writers and artists of the time perceived the French actress. Thus, the ‘cover girl’, Gabrielle Réjane, is drawn by Aubrey Beardsley as a beautiful ‘grotesque’, and Harold Hobson rhapsodizes in print over Edwige Feuillère in the 1950s. This, in itself, is relevant and of great interest, particularly in terms of the interplay between the stage and different literary and artistic movements of the time, but the reader is led to expect something that is not delivered.</p>
<p>James Ross Moore provides a lively and intelligent biography of <italic>André Charlot: The Genius of Intimate Musical Revue</italic>. Published posthumously—Moore died in 2002—this memoir of the man and his life gives a decent account of how the musical revue evolved. Starting in Paris during the 1840s, where the variety show usually had to ‘review’ the events of the past year, Charlot brought it to London in 1912, where it helped launch the careers of Gertrude Lawrence, Noel Coward and Jack Buchanan, and then on to Broadway and Hollywood. While not strictly scholarly (the quotations are not referenced, for example), this is a highly readable book, which acts both as biography and theatre history of this popular dramatic form when it was at its height in the first half of the twentieth century. Through Moore's research, the influence of French revue upon both English and American forms is seen as irrefutable, and the life of a shadowy figure is brought to the forefront of British theatre history where it belongs.</p>
<p>Charlot is also mentioned in Gordon Williams's <italic>British Theatre in the Great War: A Revaluation</italic>. As the subtitle makes clear, this is a much-needed addition to theatre history. Mostly, this period is written about dismissively, either in terms of popular musicals such as <italic>Chu Chin Chow</italic>, which ran for an impressive 2,238 performances for five years from 1916, or solely in terms of the way in which the war is, or is not, addressed. Here Williams gives an admirable account of a variety of different theatrical forms, including revue, music hall, opera, pantomime, and classical drama. This is often insightful, particularly in the way that he eschews conventional boundaries of commercial/alternative stages by, for example, looking at the way in which the popular revue absorbed avant-garde influences from the Continent. By not concentrating only on the plays themselves Williams is able to provide a fully rounded picture of the theatre at this time. One wonders, however, whether the low-key publication of this book—it is by Continuum, with an unprepossessing cover, at least on my paperback edition—will mean that this book does not get the notice that it should. This would be a shame, for Williams aims to do for theatre of this period what Clive Barker and Maggie B. Gale did for the following period in their edited volume, <italic>British Theatre between the Wars, 1918–1939</italic> [2000].</p>
<p>John Earl's small book on <italic>British Theatres and Music Halls</italic> gives a potted history of this area from 1800 to the present day, focusing particularly on the heyday of music halls in the late Victorian period and early twentieth century. Although lavishly illustrated, the size of the book militates against any real analytical engagement, although there is a useful listing of theatres, organizations and architects at the end.</p>
<p><italic>The Theatre of Joseph Conrad: Reconstructed Fictions</italic>, by Richard J. Hand, is published at a time when interest in Conrad's drama is at its height. Much of this has been fuelled by Hand himself, but an edition of the plays will also shortly be brought out by Cambridge University Press, edited by Alison E. Wheatley and Neill R. Joy. Hand's monograph focuses upon four works, all adapted by Conrad from his fiction: the one-act <italic>One Day More</italic> [1905], <italic>Victory</italic> [1915], the two-act <italic>Laughing Anne</italic> [1920], unperformed during his lifetime, and <italic>The Secret Agent</italic> [1922]. As well as analysing the subject matter and production process of each play, Hand also engages with the various contexts, such as dramatic form (melodrama), society (the New Woman), and theatrical (the ‘star’ system). Interestingly, like Eltis, Stokes, and Moore, Hand investigates the theatrical cross-fertilization with France at this time, with his discussions of Symbolist drama and Grand Guignol, a subject which he has already written about in <italic>Grand-Guignol: The French Theatre of Horror</italic>. The author readily acknowledges at the beginning of his book that Conrad's plays were ‘an unfulfilled enterprise if not downright failure’ (p. 1), yet Hand goes on to show how these works eerily presaged some of the key figures in twentieth-century drama, such as O’Neill, Brecht, Beckett, and Pinter.</p>
<p>Two weighty and authoritative works have also recently been published. The first is <italic>The Cambridge History of British Theatre</italic>, volume 3: <italic>Since 1895</italic>, edited by Baz Kershaw. This is the last of a major three-volume enterprise, providing an overview of British theatre history through a collection of articles by leading figures in their field. It will undoubtedly prove itself an indispensable resource for all those involved in studying British theatre; it is more clearly written and structured, more incisive, and wider ranging than, say, the <italic>Revels History of Drama in English</italic>, now some thirty years old. The first part covers 1895–1946, the second part Scottish and Welsh theatres 1895–2002, and the third part 1940–2002. A useful chronology at the beginning places theatrical events within their political and social contexts. Introductory articles are particularly useful for students, and work efficiently with other books which ‘map out’ the period, such as Jean Chothia's <italic>English Drama of the Early Modern Period, 1890–1940</italic>. Here, though, the larger scope afforded by the <italic>Cambridge History</italic> allows certain areas to be explored in greater detail. For example, Thomas Postlewait, highly influential in his extrapolations of theatre historiography, here considers the interconnections between commercial and alternative stages, making the claim that West End theatre, up to the First World War, was ‘modern’ in being able to depict social themes, but it was not ‘modernist’. The Vedrenne–Barker seasons at the Court Theatre are explored, as are other experiments by small theatre companies. Viv Gardner looks at touring and early repertory theatre—Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool—and the changes wrought during the war and inter-war years. Sophie Nield's contribution usefully looks at popular theatre, in particular minstrel and pierrot shows, music hall, variety, and musicals. This charting of little-discussed theatre works (also flagged up in books such as <italic>Auto/Biography</italic> and <italic>André Charlot</italic>), alongside better-known material, allows for a greater understanding of the diversity of theatre during this period. The inclusion of indigenous theatre in Scotland and Wales furthers this aim. In the first part of the century, Jan McDonald tells us, Scottish theatre was largely non-professional, and national identity for the Highlands was depicted through historical representations, while for the central belt it was seen as largely realistic and working-class. Ioan Williams takes issue with assumptions that native Welsh drama only started appearing after the intervention of the Arts Council. Rather, its lineage is far more complex, involving the chapels of Nonconformist churches and universities as well as English and European influences.</p>
<p>The ubiquitous Maggie B. Gale and Baz Kershaw also strengthen this inclusive approach through their articles, which partly focus on English commercial theatre in the inter-war, war, and immediate post-war periods, as does Mick Wallis in his piece on political theatre. This latter work is especially strong in the way that it distinguishes between ‘aesthetic experimentation for its own sake, of progressive belief wedded [to] “conservative” forms, and [of] conservative ideology wedded to “progressive” forms’ (p. 167). Here, Wallis argues that the history of early twentieth-century political drama is far less cohesive than previously shown, and his method of discussing various examples individually, rather than as part of a linear whole, is the correct way to approach this subject. This volume of the <italic>Cambridge History</italic> also includes various case studies that provide a crucial insight into specific moments of theatre history: Christine Dymkowski writes about Cicely Hamilton's <italic>Diana of Dobson's</italic> [1908], Nadine Holdsworth examines Ena Lamont Stewart's <italic>Men Should Weep</italic> [1947], and Hazel Walford Davies looks at performances of the tale of Blodeuwedd. Steve Nicholson also discusses 1926 as a ‘critical year’, where Britain's struggle between the workers and the ruling classes, as played out in the General Strike and capitulation of the Trades Union Congress to Stanley Baldwin's government, was enacted within the theatrical institution as a whole. This crucial article places the drama of the 1920s in a new framework, thus illuminating numerous debates about theatre management, drama critics, mainstream repertoire, alternative theatre, censorship, and propaganda.</p>
<p>Nicholson has also published <italic>The Censorship of British Drama 1900–1952</italic>, volume 2: <italic>1933–1952</italic>. This has already proved a fascinating subject to authors. In the last few years alone we have seen the publication of Nicholas de Jongh's <italic>Politics, Prudery and Perversions: The Censoring of the English Stage</italic> [2000], Allen Travis's <italic>Bound and Gagged: A Secret History of Obscenity in Britain</italic> [2000], and Dominic Shellard, Steve Nicholson, and Miriam Handley's <italic>The Lord Chamberlain Regrets: British Stage Censorship, and Readers’ Reports from 1824 to 1968</italic> [2004]. Nicholson's three-volume work examines in fine detail the Lord Chamberlain's archives and the Royal Archive at Windsor Castle, and from these rich resources he is in the process of putting together a definitive history of censorship in twentieth-century British theatre. The latest volume considers mainly political and moral censorship in the run-up to the Second World War and in its aftermath. Political censorship focused on representations of Nazis, fascism, communism, and the monarchy. Moral censorship was often taken up with catching any references to homosexuality or incest—termed ‘perversion’ in common parlance—as well as repressing any form of nudity or ‘gratuitous’ comments about the body. There are missed opportunities: given the book's main focus upon the Lord Chamberlain's papers, there is inevitably no room to record plays which fall outside this but still present interesting comparisons. For example, there is a lengthy discussion about Mordaunt Shairp's <italic>The Green Bay Tree</italic>, which centres on a relationship between two men and which eventually ran for over 200 performances in 1933. This could have been placed alongside Dodie Smith's wildly popular <italic>Call it a Day</italic>, which, two years later, incorporated as part of its four contrasting ‘love stories’ a budding attraction between a teenage boy and his neighbour. As Smith mentions in one of her autobiographies, <italic>Look Back in Astonishment</italic> [1979], these scenes were written in the belief that the censor would not pass them because of the debate about Shairp's play, but both plays survived the blue pencil. Again, there is nothing on Daphne du Maurier's <italic>September Tide</italic> [1948], which depicts an ‘incestuous’ relationship between a middle-aged woman and her son-in-law, considered rather racy at the time, nor on Lesley Storm's <italic>Black Chiffon</italic> [1949], again representing an ‘unhealthy’ feeling that a mother has for her soon-to-be-married son. The latter part of Nicholson's book leaves the theatre still in the iron grip of the Lord Chamberlain's office, where the belief was still that the theatre was a powerful force that could corrupt and deprave society, and therefore the state had a duty to police stage representations of political and sexual morality. The eagerly anticipated final volume will focus on the effect of Conservative governments in the 1950s through to the abolition of stage censorship laws in 1968.</p>
<p>As an aside, Esther Beth Sullivan's article, ‘<italic>Vectia</italic>, Man-Made Censorship, and the Drama of Marie Stopes’ (<italic>Theatre Survey</italic> 46:i[2005] 79–102), provides a useful adjunct to Nicholson's earlier volume. Stopes, the notorious political activist and birth-control campaigner, wrote <italic>Our Ostriches</italic> for the Court Theatre in 1923. The Lord Chamberlain licensed this play about contraception (even attending a performance), while banning another of her plays, <italic>Vectia</italic> (originally called <italic>Married Love</italic>), which was submitted at the same time. Sullivan points out that this was one of only a handful of plays banned during the 1920s, a period of comparatively lax censorship, and uncovers Stopes's obfuscation and occasional mythologizing about her experiences of stage censorship. While Stopes claimed that <italic>Vectia</italic> was not allowed to be performed, even though it was about a couple struggling to have a baby it also centred on the difficult subject of sexuality and the need for greater access to education about this topic.</p>
<p>Finally, it was good to see a reprint of J.B. Priestley's <italic>The Art of the Dramatist and Other Writings on Theatre</italic>. First published in 1957, and here introduced by his son Tom, these essays draw on Priestley's years of experience as a playwright, producer and director. Here he lays out his belief that theatre was profoundly necessary to a healthy nation. Priestley's place in English theatrical history seems to have had somewhat of an overhaul since Stephen Daldry's production of <italic>An Inspector Calls</italic> in 1992, so his play is now seen as a timely and urgent call for social responsibility rather than a wordy thriller. Soon, surely, must come a book that reappraises his dramatic work, and well as that of other dramatists in the first half of the twentieth century.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC5"><title>5. Post-1950 Drama</title>
<p>Six books on individual playwrights tackle important figures such as Howard Barker, Samuel Beckett, Christopher Hampton, Harold Pinter and Tom Stoppard. There are also new books by playwrights Howard Barker and David Hare.</p>
<p>Jim Hunter's <italic>About Stoppard</italic> is part of an excellent series—which has already covered Beckett, Hare, Friel and O’Casey—and gives a clear and concise introduction to a constantly intriguing writer. The series offers a traditional account of, in the words of its subtitle, ‘the playwright and the work’, and includes interviews with both the playwrights and their interpreters. Hunter's volume opens with a nuanced account of how Stoppard's dislocated childhood affected his identity and his characteristic themes as a writer. There follows a section which discusses modernism, postmodernism and absurdism as the context for Stoppard's work, which is then fully appraised. Hunter is on familiar ground, having written two other books on Stoppard, but there is a lot of fresh material here. What is particularly refreshing is Hunter's own point of view—even when one disagrees with it. For example, he sees the necessity for Stoppard's audiences to be well educated as ‘a limitation’ (p. 42) and judges <italic>Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead</italic> [1966] to be simply ‘too long: stretches of the comic double act are dispensable, and for his own film in 1990 Stoppard cut the text by up to half ’ (p. 54). The book includes brief accounts of Stoppard's early radio plays, as well as of his only novel, and the revealing interviews include interpreters of his work such as directors Peter Wood, Trevor Nunn and Richard Eyre, as well as actors Stephen Dillane and Felicity Kendal. But the high point is the selection of interviews with the articulate Stoppard, who underlines the improvisational and craft aspect of writing for theatre—his 1988 lecture on the difference between text and theatre is exemplary. For example, talking about his version of Johann Nestroy's <italic>On the Razzle</italic> [1981], he shows how fire regulations at the National Theatre changed his original idea of having a flaming pudding at the end of the play into the more mundane birthday cake with candles (pp. 154–5). Doubtless, he jokes, academics will find a profound significance in this change. In truth, it was a typical theatre improvisation. In her interview, Kendal confirms that Stoppard rewrites all the time: the minute you decide that a certain scene is highly significant, ‘there will be a production three years later and he will cut the scene!’ (p. 252). Other selections challenge the received wisdom that Stoppard is not interested in politics, and particularly timely are his own analysis of Leninism and Stalinism (pp. 122–4) and his insistence on art's ‘moral sensibility’ (p. 125). His <italic>The Coast of Utopia</italic> [2002], concludes Nunn, is ‘a seminal treatise about revolutionary thought and revolution in practice’ (p. 213).</p>
<p>In the same series, <italic>About Pinter</italic> by Mark Batty is similarly thorough and easy to read. He not only looks at the plays but at Pinter's other creative work—from the controversial and often parodied poems to the superb screenplays. Batty begins by seeing Pinter, on the basis of a rather uncritical reading of a paragraph on Pinter's own website, as a writer committed to ‘the truth’ (p. 1). Instead of locating him within the parameters of any abstract philosophical system, he then shows how Pinter—a youth much influenced by modernist prose and poetry—benefited from the changing theatrical context in mid-1950s Britain. Batty's account of Pinter's career is very good—especially his emphasis on how Pinter alternated between writing plays and screenplays for film and television—and he handles the whole issue of Pinter's politics in a subtle and fair-minded way. As well as talking candidly to Pinter, who is occasionally eloquent as well as typically taciturn, Batty also features interviews with significant interpreters of his work, including Peter Hall, and actors Henry Woolf, Lindsay Duncan and Lia Williams. Having had access to Pinter's home studio, Batty makes good use of describing the symbolic paintings that hang there, the books that Pinter keeps to hand (including the cricketer's bible, <italic>Wisden</italic>), and—in the lavatory—the framed receipt of the entire week's box-office takings for <italic>The Birthday Party</italic> [1957], which notoriously flopped. Like the volume on Stoppard, Batty's book could have been a bit more critical—not all of Pinter's plays are equally good—and there's a feeling that readability has been purchased at the cost of complexity and profundity. Still, students will find both these books the clearest introductions to their subjects. Much less successful is Varun Begley's <italic>Harold Pinter and the Twilight of Modernism</italic>, which attempts to situate the playwright in the context of European modernism. Oddly enough, Begley fails to discuss the contours of modernism in any sustained way, and those writers that undoubtedly influenced Pinter—such as Joyce, Eliot and Kafka—are barely mentioned. Instead, what we get is a perfectly decent but brief and rather uninspiring account of the plays themselves.</p>
<p>By contrast, the fully revised edition of Charles Lamb's <italic>The Theatre of Howard Barker</italic>, originally published in 1997 as <italic>Howard Barker's Theatre of Seduction</italic>, is the best guide to the work of this difficult, and sometimes fractious, playwright. Basing his approach on the practical experience of directing and acting in Barker's work, Lamb develops his idea of ‘seduction’, in the context of Barker's idiosyncratic ideas about tragedy, as a theoretical key to unlock Barker's texts. In Lamb's view, ‘seduction’ ‘is more important to Barker's dramaturgy than alienation is to Brecht's’ (p. 42). In his discussion of this notion of ‘seduction’, Lamb introduces concepts from the work of Baudrillard, Derrida and Lacan and relates them in an illuminating and practical way to Barker's plays. This is quite difficult terrain, but then no one ever said that Barker's work was easy or populist. Aiming to make emotional sense of the rampantly disturbed and yet strangely poetic characters and of their interactions, Lamb situates Barker's work in the context of the hostile British theatre system before expounding the notion of ‘seduction’, and illustrating it with chapter-length studies of Barker's <italic>Judith</italic> and <italic>The Castle</italic> [both 1995]. Lamb rounds off the book by a look at recent Barker plays, such as <italic>He Stumbled</italic> [2000] and <italic>Brutopia</italic> [2002]. Also included are a 2003 interview with Barker and a list of his work. Barker himself is a useful guide to his own work, and his <italic>Death, the One and the Art of Theatre</italic> [2005] is a series of philosophical musings on the nature of tragedy, love and death. Entries vary from the provocatively brief—‘dying—an education?’ (p. 47)—to the more argumentative: ‘The art of theatre holds evidence in contempt. Its propositions require no proof, nor are they susceptible to the trivializing objections of empiricism’ (p. 46). This short but tantalizing and uncompromising book is clearly a must for anyone interested in Barker's theatrical project.</p>
<p>In 2005, despite widespread celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the first British production of <italic>Waiting for Godot</italic>, the Beckett industry produced comparatively few works dedicated to his drama. The most impressive tome is the paperback edition of Ruby Cohn's <italic>A Beckett Canon</italic>, first published in 2001. This guide to the entire works of Beckett, from short poems to full-length plays and novels, is both an erudite reference work and a pleasure to browse. Examining, for example, the holograph of <italic>Waiting for Godot</italic> (first published as <italic>En attendant Godot</italic> in 1952), Cohn says that: ‘Early in act 2 Beckett suddenly changed Levy's name to Estragon, but that name enters the dialogue only late in the script, in Vladimir's soliloquy’ (p. 177). Factual remarks such as these are followed by some acute observations: ‘In the friends’ delicate duets about dead voices Vladimir seeks new sounds, whereas Estragon stalwartly repeats his first metaphor’ (p. 181). Although less than half of the book is concerned with Beckett's drama, this is an exemplary work of scholarship, and full of fascinating insights. In this year's edition of <italic>Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui</italic>, edited by Marius Buning, there is a section about ‘Performing Beckett’, which includes chapters on <italic>Krapp's Last Tape</italic> [1958], <italic>Footfalls</italic> [1976] and <italic>Catastrophe</italic> [1982]: ‘The Resistance of Seeing in Beckett's Drama: Self-Perception and Becoming Imperceptible’ by Takeshi Kawashima (pp. 133–45), ‘Performance as Rehearsal: George Tabori's Staging of Beckett's <italic>Waiting for Godot</italic> and <italic>Endgame</italic>’ by Antje Diedrich (pp. 147–60) and ‘Directing or In-directing Beckett: Or What Is Wrong with <italic>Catastrophe</italic>'s Director?’ by Angela Moorjani (pp. 187–99). As ever, such chapters tend to focus on smaller and smaller aspects of Beckettiana.</p>
<p>One of the most interesting books about Beckett as a writer for theatre is also the most journalistic. Jonathan Croall's <italic>The Coming of Godot: A Short History of a Masterpiece</italic> is a short but clearly written book that tells the story of Peter Hall's 1955 London production of <italic>Waiting for Godot</italic>, and then rushes through subsequent productions, with alternate chapters being a concise rehearsal diary of Hall's 2005 revival of the play at the Bath Theatre Royal. Of course, in his brief account of the play's different incarnations around the world, Croall has no difficulty in proving that—despite Beckett's own reservations—his masterpiece ‘is susceptible to being performed in almost any environment, allowing audiences to extract their own meanings from a play that seems to remain forever modern’ (p. 78). The rehearsal diaries are of interest because they underline the practical difficulties of staging this particular piece of dramatic literature, and are full of down-to-earth problems and their solutions. Over the whole enterprise, the spirit of Hall looms like a wise old sage. Typically, he says: ‘I’ve had notices in the past which have said, This is twaddle … This time, the critics <italic>got</italic> the play. They’ve cottoned on to the fact that if Beckett says one thing he might mean another’ (p. 136). This book can surely be recommended for students and for anyone who needs to be reminded that great plays are both of their time and for a much longer duration. The difficulties, compromises and anxieties involved in translating a masterpiece, and one amended on several occasions by the author himself, from the page to the stage are clearly visible here.</p>
<p>When playwrights talk about other playwrights there are obvious dangers, as well as potential gains. In <italic>Obedience, Struggle and Revolt</italic>, David Hare offers a collection of eight public lectures and some shorter pieces, with the two devoted to John Osborne being among the most wonderful things that one playwright could say about another, full of admiration, wit and a real engagement with the theatrical past. For Hare, Osborne's ‘subject is, essentially, failure’ (p. 43) and he was ‘part of a rich generation of dramatic writers, whose prescience in the face of the arrival of a pervasive consumer society was to make a hugely romantic gesture of defiance’ (p. 44). From the very start of the book, Hare has a combative air reminiscent of the original Angry Young Men. He begins by defending the idea of the lecture, one person talking for about an hour or so, against those other and much trendier ‘heavily promoted forms of communication’ (p. 3) such as the panel discussion or the televized critics’ forum. Provocatively enough, he sees the lecture as a very democratic form, ‘a contract’ in which, ‘in return for the audience's presence, the guest is expected to have done a certain amount of work’ (p. 5). The more effort the speaker puts in, the better the audience response. Instead of the complacency you might expect from a knighted playwright whose successful career has already lasted some thirty-five years, what you get from Hare is that rare phenomenon in Britain, a public intellectual who actually cares about art. In this book he lambasts ‘the prevailing cowardice of our great national broadcaster’ (p. 7), talks with insight about Harold Pinter and Raymond Williams, God, Iraq and Israel, and examines the politics of what he calls fabulation. Hare is not always convincing. For example, his 1996 lecture in Austin, Texas, bemoans the lack of new plays, or rather of ‘enough good writers are writing good enough plays’ (p. 102), at a time when a new generation led by Sarah Kane and Mark Ravenhill were once again putting new writing on the cultural agenda. Not to recognize their work as precisely the rallying point he's calling for is evidence of a man out of touch with the new. Still, in a cynical age, the exciting thing about this compelling book is its sheer enthusiasm, its sense of intelligent questioning and its fundamental bravery. Hare moves from autobiographical anecdote to bruising polemic, taking in theatre history, the politics of privatization, matters of faith and international conflicts along the way. It is superbly written and full of passionate energy.</p>
<p>Similarly interesting is J.B. Priestley's 1956 Old Vic lecture, ‘The Art of the Dramatist’, which is the highlight of a collection of miscellaneous pieces on the subject of theatre published with a short introduction by the playwright's son, Tom Priestley. Here Priestley senior explains his theory, partly inspired by Coleridge's introduction to his lectures on Shakespeare, of the reasons why we go to theatre: ‘We go to the Theatre to enjoy a special kind of experience, which we can reasonably call “dramatic experience” ’ (p. 175). He analyses this by stressing the deliberate schizophrenia of our attitude to fantasy: the stage, he argues, is ‘seen in the strange light and shadow of belief and disbelief ’, belonging as it does ‘to a heightened reality that we feel deeply yet know to be unreal’ (p. 178). Here, as in the rest of these pieces, some of which offer an autobiographical account of his writing life, Priestley describes the workings of post-war theatre with what at the time must have been a mix of bullish provocativeness and sound common sense. Today, this book is chiefly useful in painting a picture of what a thoughtful dramatist made of the British theatre system of the 1940s and 1950s.</p>
<p>One of the most popular formats for theatre books remains the collection of interviews. Several of the books reviewed, notably those in the Faber About series, include sections devoted to interviews. Presumably, it's a lot easier to get writers and theatre-makers to talk than to ask academics or journalists to write something worthwhile about the work. And books that record the wit and wisdom of playwrights are probably easier to market than the theory-heavy theses of theatre academics. But while most of these collections of interviews are readable sourcebooks, they all suffer from the limitations of the format, which may be momentarily revealing but often lacks sustained argument and depth. To celebrate its seventy-fifth anniversary as a publishing house in 2004, Faber has published a collection of writers from the Faber list in public conversation at the National Theatre. <italic>Faber Playwrights at the National Theatre</italic> is introduced by Alan Bennett and features David Hare, Tom Stoppard, Tony Harrison, Christopher Hampton and Frank McGuinness. Edited by Lyn Haill, head of the National's publications department, this is a rather thin book, where the audience's questions to the playwrights elicit more original material than the set speeches or interviews. So although David Hare talks eloquently about <italic>Plenty</italic> [1978], some of his audience wanted to know about how that play's vision of the Suez crisis compares to Hare's account of the Iraq war, <italic>Stuff Happens</italic> [2004]. Stoppard talks about <italic>Travesties</italic> [1974], but is asked about <italic>Jumpers</italic> [1972] and <italic>Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead</italic> [1966]. In some ways, the contributions by Tony Harrison and Frank McGuinness are more interesting simply because there is less material available about these writers.</p>
<p>Although the interview format sometimes smacks of lazy writing, at its best it can be both engrossing and revealing. Alistair Owen's <italic>Hampton on Hampton</italic>, also from Faber, is a full-length study of Christopher Hampton based on ‘a dozen lengthy interviews and as many gourmet lunches’ (p. ix). As a result of Owen's persistence and editing skills, the result is an exemplary series of interviews which make up a fine autobiography of the writer. Hampton ranges over his entire oeuvre, from plays such as <italic>Total Eclipse</italic> [1968], <italic>The Philanthropist</italic> [1970], <italic>Savages</italic> [1973], <italic>Tales from Hollywood</italic> [1982], <italic>Les Liaisons Dangereuses</italic> [1985] and <italic>The Talking Cure</italic> [2002] to film or television versions of some of these, and original film work, such as <italic>Carrington</italic> [1995]. He also talks about his autobiographical <italic>The White Chameleon</italic> [1991] and his translations, especially those of Odon von Horváth's plays, and of the commercial hit, Yazmina Reza's <italic>Art</italic> [1997]. Hampton gives what is essentially a masterclass in staging plays and film-making. Although Owen's special interest is in films, he covers the drama with equal sympathy and understanding. Hampton is admirably lucid and specific, whether demonstrating his own maxim that ‘you take on subjects without really knowing what they’re about, and they tell you what they’re about while you’re working on them’ (p. 201) or trying to impose a coherent pattern on a forty-year career which includes more than fifty works. One central theme—‘the clash between a radical and a liberal’ (p. 16)—is constantly replayed, often with different outcomes. All in all, a very stimulating and thought-provoking book.</p>
<p>Some of the interviews in Ian Smith's <italic>Pinter in the Theatre</italic> will already be familiar to Pinter scholars. In the ‘Pinter on Pinter’ section, for example, there is his 1961 interview with Harry Thompson in <italic>New Theatre Magazine</italic> and his 1996 interview with Mireia Aragay and Ramon Simo. Similarly, Mick Goldstein and Henry Woolf, who were friends of the young Pinter, again share their memories of his early days as an enthusiastic reader of European modernist literature. Still, Smith's focus on Pinter as a theatre-maker rather than just as an individual writer is to be welcomed: ‘As Pinter has said, if a living performance does not take place, intellectual resonance “cannot exist” ’ (p. 10). Smith's interviews with theatre practitioners, such as directors Katie Mitchell and Peter Hall, as well as a whole range of actors, stress the collaborative nature of the theatrical enterprise, and—especially in Hall's case—are very revealing about Pinter's aims and working practices. Best of all is Smith's introduction, which offers a particularly sympathetic and illuminating account of Pinter's early development, with a persuasive argument about the essentially political nature of his art from the beginning. All the usual caveats about interviews apply to this book, but it remains nevertheless an interesting source.</p>
<p>By contrast, Aaron Kelly's <italic>Irvine Welsh</italic> has no interviews, but is a very good account of this controversial Scottish writer's career as a novelist, which, however, only mentions his drama—from <italic>Headstate</italic> [1994] to <italic>You’ll Have Had Your Hole</italic> [1999]—in passing. The chapter on <italic>Trainspotting</italic> [1994] (pp. 36–78) illuminates the themes of class, economic change and individualism that recur in different ways in both the novel and film, so it is something of a missed opportunity not to have also discussed the play version, adapted by William Gibson, which significantly alters the story's ending. Still, Kelly's book is easy to read, good on cultural context, and has a charming anecdote about Welsh's experience of watching Trevor Griffiths's <italic>Comedians</italic> [1975] in Edinburgh in 1991, and then defending the play in a long letter to the <italic>Scotsman</italic> newspaper (pp. 12–13).</p>
<p>The latest Methuen Student Editions, which are especially useful because of their succinct and expert introductions, includes Mark Ravenhill's 1996 in-yer-face play, <italic>Shopping and Fucking</italic>. The commentary, by Dan Rebellato, begins by emphasizing the play's significance: ‘<italic>Shopping and Fucking</italic>—helped by its wittily outrageous title—has insinuated itself into the popular consciousness more successfully than any play since John Osborne's <italic>Look Back in Anger</italic> in 1956, a play to which, in some respects, it bears a surprising resemblance’ (p. xii). He explores the background of the play by looking at long-term political and social effects of Thatcherism, and then moves on to an analysis of its themes of consumerism and sexuality. He convincingly shows how Ravenhill was influenced by American ‘blank generation’ novelists—such as Bret Easton Ellis, Dennis Cooper and Douglas Coupland—as well as by contemporary dramatists such as Martin Crimp and the Canadian Brad Fraser. He gives an excellent appreciation of Ravenhill's use of dramatic and linguistic irony, and explains how the play is a ‘queer’ rather than ‘gay’ drama. This is an indispensable guide to a contemporary classic whose place in the canon of 1990s drama is now secure. Similarly, the revised edition of Caryl Churchill's <italic>Top Girls</italic> [1982], with commentary by Bill Naismith, improves on the first edition of 1991. Generally speaking, another source that is worth consulting, especially given the comparative paucity of monographs on playwrights who have emerged in the past fifteen years or so, is the introductions to their collected plays. In David Eldridge's <italic>Plays One</italic>, for example, the playwright gives plenty of autobiographical information about the origins of his plays, and some additional material about the theatrical context in which they were written, especially the help he was given by directors such as Jonathan Lloyd and Rufus Norris, who also directed his commercially successful version of <italic>Festen</italic> [2004].</p>
<p>General histories of post-war theatre are represented by Jim Fowler's <italic>Unleashing Britain: Theatre Gets Real 1955–64</italic>, which is mainly a picture book, published by the V&A to coincide with an exhibition, held at the Theatre Museum in London, of the theatre of the time. The text has occasional small gems—a Royal Court flyer for <italic>Look Back in Anger</italic> [1956] originally described the play as ‘intensely personal’ and its protagonist Jimmy Porter as an English ‘Rebel without a Cause’ (p. 39) and, before it was made into a film starring Cliff Richard, <italic>Expresso Bongo</italic> [1958] was a stage show nicknamed ‘The Angry Young Musical’ (p. 67). In general, however, despite the excellent visual material, the book's text has a tendency to jump around from one year to another, often conflating different phenomena, and this tends to result in both irritation and a lack of clarity.</p>
<p>Much more impressive is Jen Harvey's <italic>Staging the UK</italic>, a fine example of a de-centred approach to the past twenty years or so of British theatre history. It is a serious, scholarly and succinct account of ‘how performance has produced national and related identities in the United Kingdom’ (p. 1). Using a methodology derived from ‘materialism, historicism, and performance studies’ theorization of the ephemeral quality of performance’ (p. 5), she starts with a broad overview of how post-war Arts Council policies have privileged the metropolis over the regions, and then considers the creative industries, site-specific work such as Brith Gof 's <italic>Gododdin</italic> [1988] and Tinderbox's <italic>convictions</italic> [2000], the Edinburgh Festival, the influence of Europe as manifest in DV8's <italic>Strange Fish</italic> [1992] and Complicité's <italic>Mnemonic</italic> [1999], Bollywood in Britain, and how the image of the imperial metropolis has been deconstructed by work such as Steve McQueen's <italic>Caribs’ Leap/Western Deep</italic> [2002]. Since Harvey's readings of individual works are revealingly critical, it is a real pity that her overall mission is to de-centre recent histories rather than engage with the larger issues of national identity. The ambition of her introduction, with its account of how identities can be formed locally as well as nationally, is compromised by the fact that some of her subsequent examples, especially McQueen's films, are too insignificant to bear the weight she places on them. If you consider that 35 per cent of theatre-goers rate musicals as their favourite entertainment, a similar percentage comedies, and 20 per cent straight plays, that leaves only 10 per cent at most who would be interested in Harvey's choice of examples, with the exception of the Edinburgh Festival. So her tendency to focus on the marginal instead of the mainstream means that her argument about ‘imagined communities’ avoids tackling the big questions. What does she think of <italic>The Mousetrap</italic> [1952], which enjoys the longest run of any play ever, or the work—apart from <italic>Bombay Dreams</italic> [2002], one of his failures—of Andrew Lloyd Webber? Surely, <italic>The Phantom of the Opera</italic> [1986] says plenty about attitudes to women and to nostalgia in our metropolitan culture? Ignoring text-based drama, especially populist writers such as Alan Ayckbourn, is particularly irksome since it is precisely these that say so much about national identity. For example, the success of director Stephen Daldry's version of J.B. Priestley's <italic>An Inspector Calls</italic> [1947] in the early 1990s could be read as reflecting a national shift towards the more communitarian ethic of New Labour. Finding no room for the West End mainstream, the plays seen by most people, looks like a wilful decision to value the obscure over the popular. So what you get is a politically correct grouping of what a liberal academic thinks is representative theatre. Thankfully, the reality of British theatre and the way it reflects and supports national identities is much more interesting than this partial account.</p>
<p>As well as focusing on individual authors, some of the best work on post-war drama locates the writer within the context of theatre institutions. Jinnie Schiele's <italic>Off-Centre Stages</italic> examines the often ephemeral phenomenon of fringe, or alternative, theatre by looking at two of London's most famous venues, the Open Space in Tottenham Court Road and the Roundhouse in Camden. Fringe theatre was ‘off-centre both in location and in its remoteness from conventional politics and theatrical practice’ (p. xi), although the Open Space was barely a fifteen-minute walk from Shaftesbury Avenue. But as well as being a fascinating and clear account of two unique spaces—the tiny and intense Open Space and the vast ex-engine shed that became the cultish Roundhouse—this is the story of the contribution to the history of contemporary experimental theatre of Charles Marowitz, the maverick American playwright and director, and Thelma Holt, actress and producer. As well as covering the heyday of alternative theatre in 1968–83, Schiele also gives a brief but accurate account of Marowitz's work with the Royal Shakespeare Company in the early 1960s and of playwright Arnold Wesker's pivotal role in using the Roundhouse as one of Britain's first arts centres for his project to set up Centre 42 in 1964. There are informative and critical chapters on the emerging British writers of the time, who included Paul Ableman, Stanley Eveling, John Hopkins and Tom Mallin, as well as more famous figures such as Peter Barnes, Trevor Griffiths and Howard Brenton. With its production photographs and appendix detailing the plays and events staged at both venues, this will be the definitive account of these two institutions for the foreseeable future.</p>
<p>A couple of books from the ever-enterprising Contemporary Drama in English (based in Germany) are valuable additions to our knowledge of British drama today. Kathleen Starck's <italic>‘I Believe in the Power of Theatre’</italic> is an account of women's drama of the 1980s and 1990s. She focuses on three themes: ‘women playwrights’ continuing interest in the depiction of women's experiences, parallel to this the emerging of gender transgressing subjects, and, finally, changes in dramatic form’ (p. 13). Analysing thirty plays by twenty-six authors, and including playwrights such as Christina Reid, Claire Dowie, Rona Munro and Sue Glover, the joy of this book lies not only in its breadth and comprehensiveness, but in the fact that it includes little-studied but significant writers. If Starck's central thesis is unremarkable, her work is thorough and detailed and shows—with the inclusion of lesbian authors and authors from diverse ethnic backgrounds—just how heterogeneous women's writing has become. The other CDE volume, <italic>Staging Displacement, Exile and Diaspora</italic>, edited by Christoph Houswitschka and Anja Müller, is a collection of conference papers, whose highlights include Christiane Schlote and Kathleen Starck's ‘From Displacement to Arrival: reflections on Exile and Diaspora in the Theatre’ (pp. 25–52), Deirdre Osborne's ‘The State of the Nation: Contemporary Black British Theatre and the Staging of the UK’ (pp. 129–50), Anja Müller's ‘ “We are also Europe”: Staging Displacement in David Greig's Plays’ (pp. 151–68) and Ulrike Behlau's ‘Remembering the Holocaust in British-Jewish Drama of the 1990s: Diane Samuels, Julia Pascal and Harold Pinter’ (pp. 193–210).</p>
<p>In <italic>Theatre and Celebrity in Britain</italic>, co-editor Mary Luckhurst contributes a chapter on ‘Infamy and Dying Young: Sarah Kane, 1971–1999’ (pp. 107–24). Here Luckhurst uses some rather familiar material to argue that ‘what really distinguishes Kane's notoriety as a post-war British playwright is the sheer intensity of the hostility directed towards her’ (p. 110), blaming a sexist media for her celebrity. Although one could argue that this hostility had less to do with Kane's being a woman and much more to do with the uncompromisingly direct and ‘in-yer-face’ quality of her theatrical sensibility, Luckhurst puts the feminist case eloquently enough. But, sad to say, her grasp of fact is not sound—for example, Kane was 28 years old when she died not 27 (p. 118). The rest of the book ranges across British theatre history, from David Garrick and Edmund Kean to Oscar Wilde and Laurence Olivier.</p>
<p>Similarly, the year's periodicals were a mixture of different pleasures. In <italic>New Theatre Quarterly</italic> 81 [Feb. 2005], an article by Catherine Rees—‘The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: The Politics of Morality in Martin McDonagh's <italic>The Lieutenant of Inishmore</italic> (2001)’ (<italic>NTQ</italic> 81[2005] 28–33)—defends the playwright and his play against charges of gratuitous violence and situates the controversial work in the wider context of British and Irish drama. In the same issue, Brian Woolland offers a concise outline of the achievement of playwright Peter Barnes in ‘ “A whole new world still to make”: A Valedictory for Peter Barnes’ (<italic>NTQ</italic> 81[2005] 23–7). In <italic>NTQ</italic> 83 [Aug. 2005], Sanja Nikcevic's ‘British Brutalism, the “New European Drama”, and the Role of the Director’ (<italic>NTQ</italic> 83[2005] 255–72) looks at the way in which recent British new wave drama was imported by Continental theatres and argues against the claims made for the political significance of the plays of, for example, Sarah Kane. Instead, she suggests that the acceptance by contemporary dramatists of violence as normal, without looking at its precise social context, effectively means accepting that violence is innate to human beings, and thus unreformable. This is a very good article that looks at British new writers in an unusually broad European context. In the same issue, Zekiye Er's ‘Tom Stoppard, New Historicism, and Estrangement in Travesties’ (<italic>NTQ</italic> 83[2005] 230–40) compares Stoppard's dramatic technique with the approach of critical new historicists.</p>
<p>The ever-enterprising <italic>Contemporary Theatre Review</italic> has published a range of interesting articles. In issue 2 [May 2005], there is Madeline Dewhurst's interview with playwright Colin Teevan, ‘ “Theatre and the Impossible” ’ (<italic>CTR</italic> 2[2005] 246–51) and David Ian Rabey's ‘Peter Barnes: A Memorial in Correspondence’ (<italic>CTR</italic> 2[2005] 252–8), in which the playwright's email answers to student questions are recorded. In issue 3 [Aug. 2005], playwright David Edgar contributes ‘Unsteady States: Theories of Contemporary New Writing’ (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 297–308), while Donna Soto-Morettini's ‘Trouble in the House: David Hare's <italic>Stuff Happens</italic>’ (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 309–19) and Helen Iball's ‘Room Service: En Suite on the <italic>Blasted</italic> Frontline’ (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 320–9) are both valuable accounts of comparatively recent plays. The journal also has a section called back pages, which comprises short pieces on, for example, Gurpreet Kaur Bhatti's controversial <italic>Behzti</italic> [2004] by Dominic Hingorani (<italic>CTR</italic> 1[2005] 158–61), Simon Stephens by Dan Rebellato (<italic>CTR</italic> 1[2005] 174–8), verbatim theatre by Chris Megson (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 369–71), Debbie Tucker Green by Lynette Goddard (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 376–81), Christopher Fry by Dan Rebellato (<italic>CTR</italic> 3[2005] 384–6), and playwright David Greig's rehearsal diary of <italic>The American Pilot</italic> (<italic>CTR</italic> 4[2005] 476–86). In <italic>Theatre Research International</italic> 30:ii, David Ian Raby builds on Charles Lamb's ideas of seduction in his account of ‘Two Against Nature: Rehearsing and Performing Howard Barker's Production of his Play <italic>The Twelfth Battle of Isonzo</italic>’ (<italic>TRI</italic> 30:ii[2005] 175–89), while David Barnett, in ‘Reading and Performing Uncertainty: Michael Frayn's <italic>Copenhagen</italic> and the Postdramatic Theatre’ (<italic>TRI</italic> 30:ii[2005] 139–49) defends the play against the criticism that it misrepresents history.</p>
<p>In the University of Toronto's <italic>Modern Drama</italic> there is an article on the Northern Irish playwright Gary Mitchell, ‘ “Loyal to the truth”: Gary Mitchell's Aesthetic Loyalism in <italic>As the Beast Sleeps</italic> and <italic>The Force of Change</italic>’ by Richard Rankin Russell (<italic>MD</italic> 48:i[2005] 186–201). In another issue, there are two articles on the ever-popular Stoppard: Moonyoung Chung's ‘Stage as Hyperspace: Theatricality of Stoppard’ (<italic>MD</italic> 48:iv[2005] 689–705) and Roberta Barker's ‘The Circle Game: Gender, Time, and “Revolution” in Tom Stoppard's <italic>The Coast of Utopia</italic>’ (<italic>MD</italic> 48:iv[2005] 706–25).</p>
<p>Finally, novelists often make readable theatre critics. Between 1992 and 2002, Beryl Bainbridge reviewed theatre for <italic>The Oldie</italic> magazine. She’d explored the world of weekly rep in her 1990 novel, <italic>An Awfully Big Adventure</italic>, and this collection of her reviews, <italic>Front Row: Evenings at the Theatre</italic>, is a revisiting of that world. At the age of 5 she was part of the Thelma Bickstaff tap-dancing troupe in Southport. At 11, she was already a radio actor (with Billie Whitelaw) on Northern Children's Hour. As a teenager, she worked at the Liverpool Playhouse as an assistant stage manager. These experiences give her empathy, perhaps at times excessive sympathy, with actors and the theatre. ‘There are six in the cast’, she writes of Kevin Elyot's <italic>My Night with Reg</italic> [1995], ‘and it's impossible to praise one actor above another’ (p. 85). Productions included here range from the lavish musical <italic>Sunset Boulevard</italic> [1993] to Derek Jacobi's <italic>Macbeth</italic> [1994] and <italic>Cleo, Camping, Emmanuelle and Dick</italic> [1998], Terry Johnson's tribute to the <italic>Carry On</italic> movies. However, Bainbridge has missed many of the new wave playwrights of the 1990s: there is no Sarah Kane or Mark Ravenhill, no Conor McPherson or Martin McDonagh. And while her enthusiasm is infectious, one could have wished for greater critical bite, something that is lacking in many of this year's books on contemporary drama.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC6"><title>6. Pre-1950 Poetry</title>
<p>The last volume of <italic>YWES</italic> omitted coverage of pre-1950 British poetry, so this year's entry will cover the years 2004 and 2005 at slightly greater length. The year 2004 saw the publication of two convenient introductory works by Chris Baldick and David Ayers containing relevant chapters on modern poetry. <italic>The Modern Movement</italic> by Chris Baldick, in the new Oxford English Literary History series, covers the years 1910 to 1940. As such, it has many of the virtues and some of the faults of a general survey. Although not exhaustive, short biographical entries and bibliographies at the end of the book provide helpful points of reference for further study and there is a supplementary bibliography of general works relating to this period that will also be of use to students. Baldick is open about the limited scope for detailed consideration of particular writers in the general chapters, but the chapter devoted to modern poetry is intelligent and helpful. This is carefully balanced. Baldick argues that ‘the salient tendency of poetic practice in England between 1910 and 1940 is not adequately to be described in terms of “modernism” at all’ (p. 75). The general terms of this claim are too widely accepted to constitute a significant revision (a role Baldick explicitly seeks to avoid). In practice, this means that material relating to Georgian poets such as Edward Thomas and John Masefield gets a look alongside the Imagists, Yeats and Eliot. But there is also a thought-provoking table which uses contemporary anthologies of poetry as an index of relative popularity, recording the number of poems included by each author: Yeats comes out on top with Charlotte Mew coming last out of those poets recorded.</p>
<p>The chapter on the Great War covers a range of material, from canonical First World War poetry by Owen and Sassoon to post-1918 writings about the war that revise the first assessments of its impact. Baldick makes a point of extending discussion of the literature of war to include novels, such as Ford's <italic>Parade's End</italic> sequence and memoirs such as Laurence's <italic>Seven Pillars of Wisdom</italic>. He mentions, although he does not discuss in detail, the recent critical recognition of literature about war by non-combatants and civilians. Scholars are unlikely to use this volume for any specialized purpose, but it will suit students wishing to glean a good if limited sense of the period as a whole.</p>
<p>As well as general material on prose works, David Ayers's <italic>Modernism: A Short Introduction</italic> includes chapters on T.S. Eliot and material on H.D. and Imagism of interest to students of modern poetry. Ayers's stated aim is to investigate whether modernist art was capable of sustaining ‘a real social purpose’ (p. x). Most of the material covered is standard stuff, fitting for an introductory work: thus, for Imagism we encounter ‘In a Station of the Metro’ and ‘A Few Don'ts’ and Eliot is represented by ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’, ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’ and <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. Ayers's interest in the social implications of modernism can feel slightly surplus in parts: his account of Pound concludes with the assertion that the aesthetics of Imagism turn out to be continuous with the <italic>Cantos</italic> and Pound's fascism—a fair observation, but not one that is earned in any detail. This is a thorough, solid and useful introductory resource pitched at the level of first- or second-year students.</p>
<p>One final general resource for students is Lawrence Rainey's <italic>Modernism: An Anthology</italic> (also reviewed above in <xref ref-type="sec" rid="SEC2.1">section 2a</xref>). Combining a mixture of material from poetry, prose and drama to contemporary critical writing, this will supersede the source anthology <italic>Modernism</italic> [1998] edited by Vassiliki Kolocotroni et al. for Edinburgh University Press. Rainey provides short biographical and critical introductions to the work of each writer included, extensive annotations to the texts, and brief historical overviews for each of the chronological sub-sections in the anthology. The extensive amounts of material, including the European contexts of modernism, mean that this is an unwieldy volume and it is not cheap. However, it is likely to become the best such resource for students and teachers on the market.</p>
<p>The years 2004 and 2005 saw the publication of several monographs dealing with modernism, or, as in the case of Peter Howarth's book, <italic>British Poetry in the Age of Modernism</italic>. Howarth begins with a contemporary split between difficult, experimental poets, such as Geoffrey Hill or J.H. Prynne, and clear, ‘immediately comprehensible’ poets, such as Andrew Motion or Wendy Cope. He traces this divide to the split between the modernists and the Georgian poets (p. 2). Like Baldick, Howarth aims to redress an imbalance within current literary criticism which tends to neglect poets such as Edward Thomas and W.H. Davies in favour of the extrovert activities of T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and Wyndham Lewis. The first chapter examines the modernist contention that form and content should be inseparable. Howarth tracks this back through T.E. Hulme's opposition of Romantic and classicist modes of thought to the Romantic aesthetics of Wordsworth and Coleridge and Schiller, Hegel and Kant. He argues that the ethical force of poems such as Wordsworth's ‘Simon Lee’ can be found in the possibility of separating form and content. In the chapters that follow, Howarth performs highly intelligent and finely tuned close readings that uncover similar effects in Wordsworth's successors. A severance or dissonance of form and content, he argues, allows Edward Thomas to step outside his experience momentarily and to explore his sense of displacement. Howarth describes how Walter de la Mare exploits cliché and tired lexis to access the uncanny foreignness of language to children. He suggests that W.H. Davies embodies a sense of self-absence through a disarmingly simple and yet cliché-ridden poetic vocabulary. The chapter on Thomas Hardy relates how Hardy's poetry enacts the world's and his own indifference through a conspicuous manipulation of form. A concluding chapter on Wilfred Owen examines the overtly written quality of his poetry, connecting this to Owen's sense of guilty responsibility for the men he led into battle.</p>
<p>These readings are alert to the apparent paradox or contradiction behind the claim that the formal qualities of Georgian poetry are alienated from their subject matter in such a way as to enact that alienation. Howarth's emphasis throughout is on ‘contingency’, which he explains as the sense that ‘a poem's formal structure, its way of spacing time and sound, is inseparable from its connections to history and agency, although it is not reducible to them’ (p. 12). This excellent book is about poetic form as much as it is about the poets under consideration, but Howarth does not sever its sense of form from the practice of those poets and discussion of the specifics. It is one of the most thoughtful monographs covered in this entry.</p>
<p>Roger Ebbatson's <italic>An Imaginary England: Nation, Landscape and Literature, 1840–1920</italic> proposes a ‘highly theorized’ set of readings of poems and prose from his chosen period, including poetry by Thomas Hardy, Rupert Brooke and Edward Thomas (his account of Victorian poetry is discussed in Chapter XIII above). His starting point is the literary representation of landscape and its role ‘as a “carrier” of cultural authority’ (p. 3). In particular, Ebbatson is concerned with the relation between landscape, ideas of Englishness and the politics of British imperialism. The chapter on Hardy's poetry explores the way that ‘The Souls of the Slain’ grants a voice to dead soldiers from the Boer War at the cost of Hardy's own voice, an effect Ebbatson derives from Paul de Man. Hardy's ‘silenced voice’ (p. 101) is representative of the loss typical of elegy and his divided feelings about the war. ‘It is’, concludes Ebbatson, ‘personal and colonial guilt which wells up in Hardy's text’ (p. 108). Similarly, Rupert Brooke's Tahiti poems offer the spectre of a disruptive sexual and racial Other, whose influence may also be detected within poems of the English landscape, such as ‘The Old Vicarage, Grantchester’. The lonely walkers who pace the roads and footpaths of Edward Thomas's poetry evoke ‘a sense of incompletion, unsettlement and resistance to the centralising forces of an increasingly administered culture’ (p. 173).</p>
<p>Ebbatson shares Howarth's interest in performing close readings, but where form is ‘inseparable from … history and agency’ for Howarth, it is treated as a first step towards a theoretical position for Ebbatson. His reading of the first stanzas of ‘The Slaughter of the Slain’ is typical in this respect: a highly sophisticated reading of Hardy's prosody (drawing on the work of Dennis Taylor) is crammed into two sentences in order to move swiftly onwards to Paul de Man and Roland Barthes via Walter Benjamin (pp. 99–103). The book's introduction is open about these proclivities, declaring its intention to provide ‘a more theoretically inflected analysis’ (p. 6) that draws upon postcolonial theory. If anything, this underplays the range of theoretical reference in the rest of the book, which cites Jacques Derrida, Slavoj Žižek, Michel Foucault, Homi Bhabha and George Lukács amongst its panoply of theorists. It is clearly extremely well versed in its chosen milieu and supported by a breadth of historical knowledge too. Yet its passing glances towards close reading are tantalizing: the creation of distinctive metrical effects, for example, might be at odds with the theory that Hardy is ‘silenced’ by giving voice to the dead soldiers.</p>
<p>Jed Esty's <italic>A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England</italic> roughly picks up at the chronological point where Ebbatson's study finishes. His subject is ‘the relationship between a fading imperialism and the putative death of English modernism’. This is characterized for Esty by the ‘anthropological turn’ in which intellectual writers ‘translate’ the end of empire into ‘a resurgent concept of national culture’ that emphasizes English particularism instead of universal values (p. 2). As well as drawing upon a wealth of historical and contextual material from the 1930s, Esty cites the work of Fredric Jameson and many of the same postcolonial theorists that influence Ebbatson. The book contains chapters on E.M. Forster, J.M. Keynes and Virginia Woolf, along with one on Eliot's <italic>Four Quartets</italic>, ‘Insular Time: T.S. Eliot and Modernism's End’ (pp. 108–62), which is most relevant to this section of <italic>YWES</italic>. Esty connects Eliot's social commentary to the later poetry through conceptual shifts in Eliot's notions of time and place. In contrast with <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, this phase of his career turns away from the metropolis in favour of a nationalism founded upon a localized sense of place that it is simultaneously inflected with an eschatological understanding of time. Esty's sharp study is ambitious in its scope, for it also hopes to account for subsequent intellectual developments such as the rise of cultural studies and the ways English national identity accommodated the loss of empire into the 1960s. His chapters move fluidly between investigations of particular literary figures and these wider theoretical and historical interests.</p>
<p>Edward Comentale offers a reading that is also influenced by cultural materialism in <italic>Modernism, Cultural Production and the British Avant-Garde</italic>. In place of the usual distinction between Romanticism and classicism, Comentale distinguishes between classical and romantic modernism. The difference hinges upon the emphasis on ‘contingency and limit’ offered by classical modernism and the false promise of ‘aesthetic wholeness’ (p. 4) held out by romantic modernism (which is ‘aligned’ with totalitarianism). Both are forms of response to ‘the larger forces and structures of economic modernity’ and ‘the violence by which our history has been repeatedly overturned’ (p. 3). The problem with too much current criticism of modernism is a tendency to reproduce that violence. Comentale begins with Marinetti and the Futurists, equating the violence of economic and class conditions with a violence of cultural production that is also replicated in the work of Roger Fry and Wyndham Lewis. Despite a political and historical sophistication there are deterministic assumptions at work here. Thus, Eliot's work as a banker provides him with ‘a way of transmuting the emotional wreckage of modern life into the formal economy of the marketplace’ (p. 73) and the quality of tortured physical mass in the sculpture of Henri Gaudier-Brzeska expresses the physical economy of the war effort and the increasing strain it placed upon Britain's general economic resources. T.E. Hulme is praised because the particularities of his poetry echo his ‘exposure to agricultural labour’ (p. 116) whereas Wilfred Owen is shown up as a dilettante who only pretended to like men and rather enjoyed being shot at (‘his work implicitly values the experience of battle’, p. 176). There are some subtleties here and there is a great sense of confidence in Comentale's argument, but some of the readings fall short of this promise.</p>
<p>The scope and aims of <italic>Geomodernisms: Race, Modernism, Modernity</italic>, edited by Laura Doyle and Laura Winkiel, might render the geographical parameters for this section on British poetry before 1950 redundant. In their introduction, ‘The Global Horizons of Modernism’ (pp. 1–14), Winkiel and Doyle explain their ambition to replace the study of a monolithic modernism with a plural ‘geomodernisms’, signalling ‘a locational approach to modernisms’ engagement with cultural and political discourses of global modernity’ (p. 3). Amongst other countries, they wish to link British and American writers with their contemporaries in China, the Lebanon, India and Brazil through a shared consciousness of place and the metropolis. This shared consciousness is characterized by a particular awareness of race. Because of their remit, most of the contributions are beyond the scope of this section, but Laura Winkiel's essay on Wyndham Lewis and Rebecca West, ‘Cabaret Modernism: Vorticism and Racial Spectacle’ (pp. 206–25), and Eluned Summer-Bremner's essay, ‘Unreal City and Dream Deferred: Psychogeographies of Modernism in T.S. Eliot and Langston Hughes’ (pp. 262–80), contain material that may be relevant. Summer-Bremner chooses to read <italic>The Waste Land</italic> as the expression of Eliot's ‘dislocated origins’ between the USA and England and compares his traumatic landscape with that of Langston Hughes's <italic>Montage of a Dream Deferred</italic>. It is an imaginative comparison, even if the account of Eliot's relations with his new chosen homeland is not always convincing.</p>
<p>In a special issue, <italic>Modernism/Modernity</italic> commemorated the death in 2003 of Hugh Kenner, arch-critic of modernism and advocate for the work of Ezra Pound, by devoting part of a issue, entitled ‘Reading Modernism after Hugh Kenner’, to his work. Contributions relevant to this section include John Paul Riquelme's ‘Introduction’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:iii[2005] 459–63); Barry Ahearn's ‘Kenner, Eliot and Language’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:iii[2005] 487–91); and Marjorie Perloff 's ‘Hugh Kenner and the Invention of Modernism’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:iii[2005] 465–9). Riquelme compares Kenner's critical achievement with that of T.S. Eliot and describes the range of response to Kenner as a critic. His ‘exemplary achievement,’ he observes, was in ‘reconstructing and maintaining … modernism’ (p. 462). Perloff grapples with defining Kenner's brand of close reading. Distinguishing Kenner from the New Critics, she argues that one key to understanding the eclectic range and mix of his critical interests and methods is Kenner's sense of himself as an outsider, as a ‘Canadian of Scottish-Irish descent’. His criticism, Perloff argues, of Eliot, Pound, Woolf and Joyce defies rigid classification on political or theoretical grounds. Ahearn describes Kenner's approach to Eliot through religion and the role played by metaphor in both poetry and theology. Kenner's increasing preference for Pound over Eliot is also discussed. The article concentrates on Kenner's early critical writing from the late 1940s and 1950s, oddly omitting reference to his classic study of Eliot's work, <italic>The Invisible Poet</italic> [1959].</p>
<p>John Bayley's new collection of essays, <italic>The Power of Delight: A Lifetime in Literature—Essays 1962–2002</italic> brings together articles from the <italic>NYRB</italic>, <italic>LRB</italic> and <italic>TLS</italic>. They are not weighty and, since they frequently review biographies of the poets and authors in question, they are predominantly biographical in outlook. Bayley's work exemplifies the kind of review article that is easy-going and yet directed and informative. It is journalism, but not in a pejorative sense. Amongst the many writers covered in this volume, there are pieces on Thomas Hardy (pp. 43–54), Edward Thomas (pp. 159–65), Rupert Brooke (pp. 166–74), Cecil Day Lewis (pp. 175–83), John Betjeman (pp. 184–95) and W.H. Auden (pp. 196–207). Of these, his account of Hardy's ‘double life’ and Thomas's ‘art of self-discovery’ are probably the most telling, although his view (from 1986) that Thomas was less of a talent than his poetic mentor Robert Frost may need revision in the face of the increasing amount of scholarship on Thomas's work recorded in these pages.</p>
<p>Lacking a decent annotated edition, students of T.S. Eliot's <italic>The Waste Land</italic> have long been forced to juggle between copies of the poem and books of annotations such as B.C. Southam's <italic>Students’ Guide to the Selected Poems of T.S. Eliot</italic>. So the publication of Lawrence Rainey's <italic>The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot's Contemporary Prose</italic> ought to have been a welcome event in 2005, especially since Eliot chose not to reprint much of his early criticism and some of it remains difficult for students to access. In order to re-edit <italic>The Waste Land</italic> Rainey re-examined the manuscripts and typescripts of the poem, devoting considerable attention to paper thicknesses and the spacing of typewriter characters. This evidence is used in an attempt to clarify the sequence and timing of Eliot's work on the poem. Rainey has channelled the research behind <italic>The Annotated Waste Land</italic> into an accompanying critical monograph, <italic>Revisiting The Waste Land</italic>. His first chapter provides a detailed account of his bibliographical work and two further chapters describe Eliot's negotiations with various publishing firms and the critical reception of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> upon its first publication. Most of the first chapter of <italic>Revisiting The Waste Land</italic> was also published as ‘Eliot Among the Typists: Writing <italic>The Waste Land </italic>’ in <italic>Modernism/Modernity</italic>, the journal that Rainey edits (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:i[2005] 27–84).</p>
<p>The textual and historical evidence provided in <italic>Revisiting The Waste Land</italic> is very directed. The description of papers and typewriters, for example, is intended to revise early accounts of the genesis of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> by Hugh Kenner and Grover Smith. By redating the sequence of Eliot's work, Rainey hopes to prove that emphasis upon the role of Jessie Weston's <italic>From Ritual to Romance</italic> in providing a plan to the poem is misguided. In his version of events, <italic>The Waste Land</italic> is swayed more by Eliot's interest in popular culture: he provides a mass of compelling detail about the depiction of typists in contemporary novels, poems and plays that informs the sordid sexual experience of the typist in ‘The Fire Sermon’ and this is capped by a thoughtful close reading of that section of the poem. Similarly, his account of Eliot's negotiations with journals such as <italic>The Dial</italic> and <italic>Vanity Fair</italic> is intended to locate <italic>The Waste Land</italic> within the material history of publishing. Rainey reiterates his own argument in <italic>Institutions of Modernism</italic> (YaleUP [1999]), emphasizing Eliot's awareness of the economic value of modernist poetry as a commodity. Critics like Kenner who ignore such evidence are misguided, confining their attention ‘to formal values viewed in isolation from their social actualization’ (p. 93). The final chapter of <italic>Revisiting The Waste Land</italic> hopes to debunk the idea that Eliot's poem was received with initial hostility and argues against Cleanth Brooks's claim that it can be made to cohere as a proto-Christian critique of secular society after the First World War.</p>
<p>Rainey's strong sense of critical argument also informs his edition of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> and his choice of contemporary prose. He includes, for example, a short piece on Baudelaire from March 1921 as a rebuttal to the impression given by ‘Baudelaire’ (the essay Eliot chose to include in his <italic>Selected Essays</italic>) that Eliot disapproved of the French poet on moral grounds. The scope of prose material is confined to 1921, since this is when Eliot was writing <italic>The Waste Land</italic> according to Rainey's assessment of the manuscripts, but this means omitting ‘<italic>Ulysses</italic>, Order and Myth’ and earlier essays published in <italic>The Egoist</italic> that refer to the work of J.G. Frazer and contemporary anthropologists. (There is only one reference to Frazer in the edition and no reference to him in <italic>Revisiting The Waste Land</italic>.) Such material might sit uncomfortably with Rainey's view that Eliot didn't take claims about ritual and myth seriously. More damning, however, are the textual and editorial faults described in extensive detail in Jim McCue's lengthy review of Rainey's scholarship in <italic>Essays in Criticism</italic> (<italic>EIC</italic> 56:i[2006] 1–27). McCue draws attention to the edition's unlovely format, which compresses the five sections of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> into a sequential block of text, rather than observing the breaks and spacing that Eliot requested. He questions Rainey's chain of inference regarding the dating of Eliot's work on <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, pointing out gaps in his logic and, devastatingly, lists errors in the poem's text and considerable transcription errors by Rainey in Eliot's letters and critical prose.</p>
<p>Rainey has not published a response to McCue's criticisms and <italic>YWES</italic> has been supplied with a copy of the second edition of <italic>The Annotated Waste Land</italic> which contains a revised text that corrects all of the errors listed by McCue without acknowledgement, a silent admission that the criticisms were justified. While Eliot's early prose remains unpublished elsewhere, it may be difficult to ascertain how thoroughly Rainey has cleaned up this edition, and it cannot be recommended to students as a reliable resource with absolute certainty. It should also be noted that the version of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> reprinted in Rainey's anthology of modernism (discussed above) transmits the same errors.</p>
<p>The manuscripts of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> also feature prominently in Richard Badenhausen's <italic>T.S. Eliot and the Art of Collaboration</italic>, where they provide evidence regarding the contribution of Ezra Pound and Vivien Eliot. Badenhausen argues that such creative co-operation is representative: it exemplifies both Eliot's approach to composing drama and poetry and an aesthetics of collaboration expressed in his critical writings. The book considers in detail Eliot's collaborations with Pound on <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, with Martin Browne on drama, such as <italic>The Rock</italic> and <italic>The Cocktail Party</italic>, and with John Hayward on <italic>Four Quartets</italic>. For Badenhausen, Eliot's experience of creative composition is one of burden, pain and difficulty. Collaboration helped spread the burden and reassure Eliot about the worth of writing. His criticism is envisaged as a kind of apology for this approach, focusing strongly upon the kinds of creative collaboration common within Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, emphasizing the role of tradition and the poet's position amidst other poets and criticizing the ideology of Romanticism for the importance it attributes to singularity and the way it isolates the role of the poet. Collaboration is more than a practical solution for resolving a creative impasse. For Badenhausen it becomes something of a catch-all: allusion and influence are envisaged as a form of collaboration, especially in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, and so is the process of reading. Straying into reader response theory, Badenhausen argues that Eliot's renunciations of authorial responsibility constitute an aesthetic approach which envisages poetic meaning as a form of collaboration with the reader. This is used to explain Eliot's turn towards drama in the 1930s, as actors on stage and the presence of a theatrical audience during a performance become the supreme example of such a collaboration.</p>
<p>There is much illuminating material in <italic>T.S. Eliot and the Art of Collaboration</italic>, especially regarding Eliot's relationship with Hayward, which has received less critical attention than his work on <italic>The Waste Land</italic> with Pound. The poetic manuscripts and criticism amply confirm Badenhausen's account of Eliot as a poet who repeatedly tried to soften ‘the horror of writing’ by seeking something outside himself, but a tendency to identify Eliot with the vacillating subjects of his poetry is mistaken—it takes skill and confidence to convey the indecision of J. Alfred Prufrock. In 1914 this poem prompted Pound to marvel that Eliot had modernized himself ‘alone’, a comment that Badenhausen chooses to overlook. Badenhausen mentions but does not fully explore the tensions between Eliot and his collaborators, and his account of the formal impact of collaboration tends to be limited to general considerations: Pound pushed <italic>The Waste Land</italic> away from its English setting towards a European resonance; Hayward helped Eliot find more direct means of incorporating personal material into <italic>Four Quartets</italic>. It is also odd that the book should explicitly avoid the religious side of Eliot's career, since the Church offers an exemplary instance of the ideals of shared values within community that Badenhausen identifies as fundamental to his outlook. These criticisms should not, however, detract from a work that provides an important account of Eliot and authorship.</p>
<p>Studies of T.S. Eliot during 2004 and 2005 tended to split between these critical accounts of the manuscripts and critical or theoretical work focusing on his life and sexuality. This follows in the wake of Carole Seymour-Smith's biography of Vivien Eliot, <italic>Painted Shadow</italic> (Constable [2001]) in which it is alleged that the poet was a closet homosexual who badly neglected his wife's mental health. James E. Miller Jr.'s <italic>T.S. Eliot: The Making of an American Poet, 1888 –1922</italic> continues work he started in <italic>T.S. Eliot's Personal Waste Land</italic> [1977], his account of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> as an elegy for Eliot's close friend Jean Verdenal. It offers a ‘biographical interpretation’ of the first thirty-four years of Eliot's life. This is not, though, an account of the American character of Eliot's work—only the final chapter clarifies that the ‘American Poet’ Miller has in mind is Walt Whitman. Miller sees Eliot as a homosexual who was unable to love women, but could not accept his own sexuality either. He identifies Eliot with poetic speakers such as J. Alfred Prufrock, Gerontion and the ‘hyacinth girl’ in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. The book is assiduously documented, providing a great amount of detail about the politics of the philosophy department of Harvard and bohemian, homosexual culture in Boston. Miller rarely cites first-hand sources though, bringing together salient pieces of information from previously published work by Manju Jain and Ronald Schuchard.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, there is very little factual evidence to confirm Miller's central account of Eliot's sexuality. It consists mainly of his attachment to Jean Verdenal, his painful and unsuccessful marriage to Vivien Haigh-Wood and the fact that he owned and read a copy of Havelock Ellis's book on sexual inversion. The evidence connecting Eliot to the speakers in his poems is even more tangential. Instead Miller uses hypothesis and innuendo. For example, Eliot once remarked that the coastline in his poem ‘Marina’ is really that of the Casco Bay, off the north-east coast of New England. He went sailing there with Harold Peters, a friend from Harvard. Miller hints that Eliot had homosexual feelings towards Peters which later disgusted him after his conversion to Anglo-Catholicism: ‘Why otherwise [in ‘Marina’] does he associate the deadly sins with an episode in his life during his Harvard days involving his sailing companion Harold Peters?’ Such insinuating questions are allowed to trail throughout the book as a poor substitute for argument.</p>
<p><italic>Gender, Desire and Sexuality in T.S. Eliot</italic>, a collection of essays edited by Cassandra Laity and Nancy K. Gish, covers similar topics to Miller's biographical volume. Indeed, <italic>T.S. Eliot's Personal Waste Land</italic> is a recurrent point of reference. Laity's introduction, ‘Eliot, Gender and Modernity’ (pp. 1–19), looks forward to formalist readings of Eliot's work that benefit from theoretical perspectives of postmodernism and cultural studies. There is, however, relatively little close reading in the accompanying contributions: where Miller's biography is theoretically naive, this volume rejects biographical speculation in favour of theoretical sophistication.</p>
<p>Colleen Lamos's ‘The Love Song of T.S. Eliot: Elegiac Homoeroticism in the Early Poetry’ (pp. 31–42) links the tones of elegy and loss in poems such as ‘The Love Song of Saint Sebastian’ to Judith Butler's concept of ‘heterosexual melancholia’. Butler argues that in ‘a heteronormative society subjects achieve proper masculinity and femininity only by abandoning early homosexual attachments’ (p. 32). On this view, homosexual readings of Eliot's poetry need not concern themselves with his actual experience: as inevitable features of acculturation they are part of the structures of language. In ‘T.S. Eliot, Famous Clairvoyant’ (pp. 43–65), Tim Dean argues that Eliot's famous theory of impersonality is not a strategy of evasion, but ‘represents a strategy of access’ (p. 43). The creation of disparate voices in <italic>The Waste Land</italic> are a means for Eliot to achieve ‘self-dispossession’ and make himself open, available and penetrable. Drawing on Leo Bersani, Dean argues that this is an ethical ideal, a means of renouncing the notion of sovereign selfhood. Michele Topper's ‘ “Cells in one body”: Nation and Eros in the Early Work of T.S. Eliot’ (pp. 66–82) draws upon two essays by Eliot from 1919 to argue that his anxiety about sexuality coincides with anxieties about national identity. Through secret homosexual urges, the poems seek to lose themselves in some greater body.</p>
<p>In ‘The Masculinity Behind the Ghosts of Modernism in Eliot's <italic>Four Quartets</italic>’ (pp. 83–104), Peter Middleton questions the status of <italic>Four Quartets</italic> as a coherent whole by considering the context in which ‘Burnt Norton’ was first published. Republishing ‘Burnt Norton’ as part of a longer sequence, Middleton argues, represses the ghosts of masculine sexuality that inhabit the lines of Eliot's poem. Their potency is subsumed into the traumatizing effects of the Second World War. The ghosts that haunt poems such as ‘Little Gidding’ are ‘compounded of a heterogeneous series of identifications with lost loves that have not been mourned’ (p. 100). In ‘Discarnate Desire: T.S. Eliot and the Poetics of Dissociation’ (pp. 107–29) Nancy Gish returns to Eliot's early studies in psychology at Harvard to argue that poems from <italic>Inventions of the March Hare</italic> to <italic>The Waste Land</italic> draw upon pre-Freudian theories of insanity to express internal states of alienation. Gish uses William James and Pierre Janet to explore the inability of Eliot's poetic speakers to acknowledge or accept their own experience, pointing out his fondness for the figure of a senile or mad old man who embodies unacceptable feelings. Jewel Spears Brooker employs a similar strategy in ‘Mimetic Desire and the Return to Origins in <italic>The Waste Land </italic>’ (pp. 130–49), arguing that the fragmentary aesthetics of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> can be traced to Eliot's early studies in anthropology and the notion of ‘survivals … fragments of behaviour and ritual which survive contemporary culture long after their function is lost or forgotten’ (p. 132). She offers a thoughtful reading of Eliot's work derived from René Giraud's theory of mediated desire, and uncovers the traces of deferred and mediated desires in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. ‘Theorizing Emotions in Eliot's Poetry and Poetics’, by Charles Altieri (pp. 150–72), is one of the most highly theoretical essays in the volume. It offers an account of Eliot's criticism and poetry that draws upon various philosophical accounts of the relation between subject and object in emotion, sketching a field for further critical enquiry.</p>
<p>In ‘Through Schoolhouse Windows: Women, the Academy and T.S. Eliot’ (pp. 175–94) Gail McDonald addresses the history of Eliot's critical reception by female critics and writers, such as Muriel Bradbrook, Kathleen Raine and Rebecca West. McDonald discusses Eliot's contribution to the professionalization of literary criticism and its domination by male figures. She argues persuasively that sympathetic accounts of his poetry by female critics should qualify those accounts which insist on his misogyny and can provide more complex models for understanding his work. Richard Badenhausen considers Eliot's earlier efforts at dramatic writing in ‘T.S. Eliot Speaks the Body: The Privileging of Female Discourse in <italic>Murder in the Cathedral</italic> and <italic>The Cocktail Party</italic>’ (pp. 195–214). Badenhausen argues that Eliot's depiction of women in these plays should be seen through French theories of feminine forms of writing in the work of Hélène Cixous, Luce Irigaray and Julia Kristeva. Dialogue attributed to Celia in <italic>The Cocktail Party</italic> and the chorus of <italic>Murder in the Cathedral</italic> breaks down the restrictive definitions of male and female to create new forms of speech that defy logic and reason. Badenhausen argues that Eliot's drama deconstructs gender categories. Rachel Potter takes a historical political approach in ‘T.S. Eliot, Women and Democracy’ (pp. 215–33); she argues that the crisis of liberalism during the First World War saw an overlap between women's enfranchisement and a general move towards the politics of welfare. The representation of women in Eliot's poetry and criticism into the 1930s incorporates this gendered view of politics and the crowd into poetic language. Potter argues convincingly that his conversion to Anglo-Catholicism in the late 1920s places this under further stress as Eliot struggles against a ‘feminine’ liberalism in his search for meaning and identity beyond the experience of the individual. The final contribution by Elisabeth Däumer, ‘Vipers, Viragos and Spiritual Rebels: Women in T.S. Eliot's Christian Society Plays’ (pp. 234–53), argues against misogynist readings of the women in Eliot's later drama. She paints a convincing picture of his forthright mother, Charlotte Stearns Eliot, and her social work, arguing that Eliot's complex relationship with her is a significant influence on his depiction of women. Those women, Däumer argues, who appear as stereotypical viragos in the plays, should instead be seen in their capacity as positive agents for redemption.</p>
<p>In ‘T.S. Eliot: The Performativity of Gender in <italic>The Waste Land </italic>’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 12:iii[2005] 425–41), Cyrena N. Pondrom approaches similar topics to the Laity and Gish volume via Judith Butler's theory of gender as something which individuals perform with and through their bodies. Her article throws into the mix Eliot's relationships with his wife and with his college friend, Emily Hale, along with the friendship with Jean Verdenal scrutinized so closely by James E. Miller. The decision not to marry Hale is mentioned by Miller, as is Eliot's later comment that the consequences of this were the unhappy origins of <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, but this sits awkwardly with the theory that Eliot was a sexually frustrated closet homosexual, so doesn't receive the weight that Pondrom places on it. In her article it is one of three biographical wellsprings in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. Her reading of the poem is based upon scenes where the gender of the speaker is not specified, but contextual details imply (or ‘construct’ or ‘perform’) one gender or another. Residual ambiguities allow Pondrom to claim the possibility that both speaker and interlocutor are of the same gender, so that the poem dramatizes gender and sexuality as unstable. It's a thoughtful reading that goes some way to redress the more reductive elements of some queer readings of Eliot's work.</p>
<p>Suzanne W. Churchill's ‘Outing T.S. Eliot’ (<italic>Criticism</italic> 47:i[2005] 7–30) questions biographical readings of Eliot's work, aiming at a homoerotic account of the poetry rather than the poet. She offers a reading of <italic>The Waste Land</italic>, ‘Little Gidding’ and some of the early poems from <italic>Inventions of the March Hare</italic> (all ground covered in Laity and Gish's collection of essays), but combines this with a wide-ranging critique of queer criticism of Eliot. Churchill rightly calls into question readings of the poems which identify the speaker too readily with Eliot himself, a reductive move which is not found in Carole Seymour-Smith's biography of Vivien Eliot. Her readings attempt to reinstate a complex understanding of the fractured and multiple voices in the poems and their relation to ideas of the self and sexuality.</p>
<p>The year 2004 also saw the publication of <italic>T.S. Eliot: The Contemporary Reviews</italic>, edited by Jewel Spears Brooker. This will probably now take the place of Michael Grant's volume on Eliot in the Critical Heritage series (to which it pays reverent homage): ‘probably’ because there are minor but significant differences between these two volumes. Both reprint reviews of Eliot's poetry and criticism in the immediate wake of their publication and stopping with his death in 1959. Where Grant usually quotes such reviews in full, Spears Brooker has excerpted from many of the reviews she reprints, introducing a rash of ellipses and square brackets. Moreover, the contents of these two volumes are not exactly the same. Spears Brooker includes material that Grant misses, but also omits or overlooks one or two significant entries. On the whole Spears Brooker wins out here with the benefit of recent scholarship, and, what's more, she supplies extremely useful checklists of additional reviews at the end of each chapter on individual items by Eliot so that scholars may pursue particular critical controversies in greater detail. The volume is an important incitement to further research on Eliot's reception, and is supported by a good index, allowing the reader to cut straight to responses to Eliot's work by a particular critic or within a particular publication. The decision to split the text into two columns is an unfortunate visual distraction in this significant and valuable critical resource.</p>
<p>In 2004 <italic>Modernism/Modernity</italic> devoted a special issue to ‘T.S. Eliot in the 21st Century’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 11:iii[2004]), including four leading articles on Eliot's life and work, headed by Nuzhat Bukhari's partial catalogue of portraits of Eliot. Bukhari's article, ‘The Distinguished Shaman: T.S. Eliot's Portraits in Modern Art’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 11:iii[2004] 373–424) begins with a critique of David Piper's suggestion that there is no adequate portrait painting associated with modernism. Bukhari would like to uncover portraits of modernism and modernists that are as fragmented as the aesthetics of Eliot's poetry. The article provides evidence from Eliot's correspondence of an acute self-consciousness about his public appearance and his increasing awareness of the relation between such portraits and the presentation of his written works and dramatic performances. The journal reproduces a fascinating range of these portraits—both photographs and drawings—providing anecdotal and manuscript evidence of Eliot's dealings with photographers and artists from Cecil Beaton to Man Ray. Although there are common threads running through this (Roland Barthes's remarks on the semiotics of photography are a recurrent reference), there is necessarily little argument in such a review. Instead, the background information Bukhari provides and the portraits themselves are fascinating.</p>
<p>Two articles in the issue explore the relation between Eliot and nineteenth-century Decadence. Cassandra Laity's contribution, ‘T.S. Eliot and A.C. Swinburne: Decadent Bodies, Modern Visualities, and Changing Modes of Perception’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 11:iii[2004] 425–48), explores the relation between Eliot's drowned men and eroticized scenes of drowning and storms in Swinburne. Laity draws on Benjamin's account of Baudelaire and Leo Bersani's theorization of Freud to argue for the powerful influence of a Decadent aesthetics of shock and self-dissolution upon Eliot. This is a sinuous reading that encompasses the Sapphic energies of H.D.'s sea poems as well as the controlled gaze of cinematic technique, ranging across Eliot's work from ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ and <italic>The Waste Land</italic> to <italic>Murder in the Cathedral</italic> and <italic>Four Quartets</italic>.</p>
<p>In comparison, Ronald Bush's ‘In Pursuit of Wilde Possum: Reflections on Eliot, Modernism, and the Nineties’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 11:iii[2004] 469–85) aims to qualify the work of those critics who claim that Eliot distanced himself from late nineteenth-century Decadence in order to repress misgivings about his sexuality. Instead, Bush argues that there are important continuities between the way that Eliot and poets of the 1890s deal with gender and sexuality. Bush provides a compelling reading of the links between Eliot and Wilde, from the influence of ‘The Ballad of Reading Gaol’ on the early poems in <italic>Inventions of the March Hare</italic> to the relations between Eliot's and Wilde's critical writings. Such ‘family resemblance’ (p. 475) does not exclude significant differences between the two, but Bush cites two little-discussed essays by Eliot from 1922–3 that pay tribute to Wilde and convey a sense of his debts to Wilde. The article concludes on a slightly disappointing note, returning to biographical questions about Eliot's sexuality that do not admit ready solutions. This is, however, a significant and useful contribution to critical thinking about Eliot's relationship to his late Victorian precursors.</p>
<p>Finally, David E. Chinitz explores the origins of the frustrated relations with various hyacinth girls in Eliot's poetry (‘the assignation topos’, pp. 452 ff.) in his article ‘In the Shadows: Popular Song and Eliot's Construction of Emotion’ (<italic>Mo/Mo</italic> 11:iii[2004] 449–67). They are traced to ‘the illicit world of popular culture’ (p. 451)—Victorian parlour songs and Tin Pan Alley productions. This world was only ever ‘illicit’, though, for Eliot's more po-faced critics. The poet was always open about this source of influence as Chinitz's book, <italic>T.S. Eliot and the Cultural Divide</italic> (UChicP [2003]) made clear. With convincing documentary evidence, this article rehearses his argument about the structuring possibilities of popular song in Eliot's work.</p>
<p>In ‘Prufrock in St. Petersburg: The Presence of Dostoyevsky's <italic>Crime and Punishment</italic> in T.S. Eliot's “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” ’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iii[2005] 1–24) Peter Lowe starts from the premise that previous critics have been mistaken in tracing the influence of Dostoevsky upon Eliot through Constance Garnett's English translation. Eliot read the Russian novelist in French while staying in Paris, and Lowe uses this as the premise for a new reading of Dostoevsky's influence on Eliot's depiction of alienation and the metropolis in ‘Prufrock’, ‘Preludes’ and <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. Given the critical precedents (which it cites) this is not a brilliantly fresh reading of Eliot's work, but the links between J. Alfred Prufrock and Raskolnikov cannot be denied.</p>
<p>The summer issue of the <italic>Yeats Eliot Review</italic> (<italic>YER</italic> 22:ii[2005]) contains three articles on aspects of Eliot's work. In ‘Meeting Eliot and Hodgson in Five-Finger Exercises’ (<italic>YER</italic> 22:ii[2005] 7–14), Vinni Marie D’Ambrosio reconsiders the battle between modernists and Georgian poets in the light of Eliot's personal friendship with Ralph Hodgson. He offers an interesting reading of the lines dedicated to Hodgson in <italic>Five-Finger Exercises</italic> as an extended parody of key elements from Hodgson's own poetry. Caterina Fornero is not afraid of an unwieldy title. Her article, ‘Chess is the Game Wherein I’ll Catch the Conscience of the King: The Metaphor of the Game of Chess in T.S. Eliot's <italic>The Waste Land </italic>’ (<italic>YER</italic> 22:ii[2005] 2–6), argues that the manuscripts of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> show Eliot moving away from an ‘inter-textual’ approach to an ‘intra-textual’ network of echoes within the poem, comparable to the rules of chess. The case for the ‘intratextual autonomy’ (p. 2) of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> seems weak given Eliot's subsequent inclusion of notes directing the reader to his allusive sources (Fornero rejects them as ‘devious’, p. 4), nor is her grasp of chess wholly convincing.</p>
<p>David A. Williams focuses upon Eliot's activities as a critic and public speaker during the Second World War in ‘ “Several Centers” T.S. Eliot's Wartime Agenda of Cultural Unity and Diversity’ (<italic>YER</italic> 22:ii[2005] 15–23). Williams describes Eliot's desire to maintain the ‘ “organic unity” of European culture’ (p. 16) in the face of wider events, and argues that Eliot attempted to enact this by publishing essays and giving talks through the British–Norwegian and Czech–Slovak institutes and the BBC's German Service. Smoothing out some of Eliot's references to race and national identity, Williams describes Eliot's wish for a ‘mosaic’ unity, arguing that complete national unity within a country is detrimental to culture. It's not clear what he would have made of the EU, nor is it clear that Williams attends to the propaganda value of such talk during wartime, but the article is clearly and coherently written.</p>
<p>Eve Sorum applies Gilles Deleuze's theory of masochism to Virginia Woolf 's experience of suffering in ‘Masochistic Modernisms: A Reading of Eliot and Woolf ’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iii[2005] 25–43), to argue for a more general theory that places ‘suffering and compensation’ (p. 25) at the heart of modernist aesthetics. T.S. Eliot's ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’ and Virginia Woolf 's writings about illness depend, Sorum claims, upon a sense of chaos and suffering around them in order to create art. This psychoanalytical approach is used as a tool for understanding Eliot's critical advocacy of self-surrender and the suffering voices in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>. Similarly, moments of shock or pain within Woolf 's experience are identified as the source of access to a sense of reality beneath the surface of things. Oddly, Sorum has little to say about Eliot's final allusion to Dante in <italic>The Waste Land</italic>: ‘Poi s’ascose nel foco che gli affina’, which she identifies merely as coming from the <italic>Purgatorio</italic>. A favourite with Eliot, this line describes inhabitants of Purgatory actively returning to the flames in order to purge their sins through suffering. The implications for Eliot's subsequent turn to Anglo-Catholicism and his literary relationship with Dante are significant. The article, then, is certainly suggestive in its subject matter, but for all its theoretical confidence, its engagement with the allusive detail of Eliot's verse feels incomplete.</p>
<p>John Zilcosky begins with the claim that Nietzsche's significance for Eliot has not yet fully been appreciated in ‘Modern Monuments: T.S. Eliot, Nietzsche, and the Problem of History’ (<italic>JML</italic> 29:i[2005], 21–33). Approaching the topic through Eliot's book reviews and ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’, Zilcosky argues that Eliot and Nietzsche coincide in their ‘monumental’ conceptions of art in relation to history. He scrutinizes the metaphorical language of Eliot's criticism closely. Without attempting to smooth out unduly differences between Eliot and Nietzsche, this account of ‘rhetorical instability’ in Eliot's prose (p. 30) aims to show some of the ways in which the two can be seen as entangled through their sense of history and its implications for the individual.</p>
<p>In ‘From Epitaph to Obituary: Eliot's and Pound's Death Politics’ (<italic>Biography</italic> 28:ii[2005] 255–75), Marysa Demoor explores the effect of epitaphs and funerary monuments on the posthumous status of modernist poets. As well as considering T.S. Eliot's tombstone at St Michael's in East Coker and his plaque in Westminster Abbey, she explores some of the ways in which Eliot and Pound reflected on the deaths and posthumous reputations of Henry James, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska and James Joyce in their own writings. Unsurprisingly she concludes that epitaphs, obituaries and memoirs were key tools in shaping literary reputations, and that Eliot and Pound were aware of this in relation to their own ambitions.</p>
<p>Not strictly an essay about Eliot, Anthony J. Cuda's ‘The Use of Memory: Seamus Heaney, T.S. Eliot, and the Unpublished Epigraph to <italic>North</italic>’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iv[2005] 152–75) nevertheless contains interesting material about Eliot's poetry and its influence on Heaney's development. Cuda starts with a discarded epigraph to Heaney's fifth collection of poems, <italic>North</italic>, but covers Heaney's critical references and allusions to Eliot within his own poetry. This thoughtful and persuasive article provides significant evidence regarding Eliot's effect on Heaney's thinking about poetry's negotiations with past traditions.</p>
<p>Cuda addresses Eliot's work directly in ‘Who Stood over Eliot's Shoulder?’ (<italic>MLQ</italic> 66:iii[2005] 329–64). Drawing heavily on Heaney's readings of Eliot from the late 1980s, he draws attention to the recurrent recognition scenes or moments in which a ghostly presence is felt throughout Eliot's dramatic and poetic oeuvre. What is at stake, Cuda claims, is a startling realization of the self 's vulnerability and incompleteness. This is a sensitive reading with broader implications. Cuda, in ‘Eliot's Quotation from Elizabeth Barrett Browning: “Shadows for my company” ’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004], 164–5), has also identified a series of connections between Eliot's poetry and Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Sonnet XXVI (‘I lived with visions for company’) from <italic>Sonnets from the Portuguese</italic>. Finally, James T. Bratcher, ‘The Speaker's Occasion and the Death of Pan in Eliot's “Journey of the Magi” ’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 52[2005] 497–8), suggests that the classical myth regarding the death of Pan lies behind the ‘Journey of the Magi’. Although Eliot's poem shares a narrative premise with Milton's ode, ‘On the Morning of Christ's Nativity’ (which does invoke Pan), Bratcher does not provide much evidence to support his claims. He does not, for example, cite Milton.</p>
<p>The year 2004 saw the publication of <italic>Thomas Hardy: A Biography Revisited</italic>, Michael Millgate's revision of <italic>Thomas Hardy: A Biography</italic> [1982], which has long been a standard source of reference for scholars. Millgate has made extensive revisions, adding considerable material from newly discovered or re-edited letters by Hardy and from his own editorial work on <italic>The Life of Thomas Hardy</italic>, ostensibly written by Hardy's wife Florence, but in fact written and revised by Hardy himself. Broadly well reviewed, as a general life of Hardy, rather than a study of the poems, <italic>A Biography Revisited</italic> has already been considered in detail in <italic>YWES</italic> 85[2006]).</p>
<p>Almost all of the contributors to <italic>Thomas Hardy and Contemporary Literary Studies</italic>, edited by Tim Dolin and Peter Widdowson, including luminaries such as Terry Eagleton and J. Hillis Miller, concern themselves exclusively with the novels. One exception to this is Linda M. Shires's ‘ “Saying that now you are not as you were”: Hardy's “Poems” of 1912–13’ (pp. 138–52), which reflects on ‘the critical reception of Hardy poems and on the site of cultural production that they have become’ (p. 138). Few critics, Shires argues, have moved beyond fallaciously echoing back the biographical terms of the poems themselves. Drawing on Hardy's architectural training, Shires proposes instead a reading of the poems as a building—a crooked Gothic building that opens onto a crooked, Gothic view of the self as fragmented and ambiguous. Close readings of Hardy's faltering rhythms and teasing rhymes are used to emphasize the fragility of loss and the experience of loss in the poems. She challenges readings that smooth out his poetry into narrative sequence in order to emphasize this experience of disruption. The other exception to the tendency to consider Hardy in terms of his novels, is Tim Armstrong's ‘Hardy, History and Recorded Music’ (pp. 153–66). This essay starts with an examination of allusions to music within Hardy's poetry, before proposing an argument about the link between listening to music, memory and the past. Armstrong moves deftly between Hardy's poetry and philosophical arguments about the relation between the will, being and music in the work of Schopenhauer. In recording memories of music and of the sound of music, Hardy's poetry, Armstrong argues, detaches music from ‘any particular consciousness … figur[ing] human freedom’. Hardy becomes ‘a gramophonic writer, turning music into text’ (p. 166).</p>
<p>R. Clifton Spargo devotes a chapter to Hardy's <italic>Poems of 1912–13</italic> in <italic>The Ethics of Mourning: Grief and Responsibility in Elegiac Literature</italic> as part of a larger argument that also takes in Shakespeare's <italic>Hamlet</italic> and poetry by Shelley, Randall Jarrell and Sylvia Plath. Spargo offers an account of the ethics of mourning—the ways in which mourning values events and loved ones from the past—that derives from the work of Emmanuel Levinas and Bernard Williams and dwells on ‘the deeply ethical plaintiveness of literary works of mourning’ (p. 6). As the protective imagining of someone who is already lost to the speaker, elegy is a complex form of ethical response for Spargo. Hardy's poems, he argues, evoke a hopeless reciprocity that is redolent with self-rebuke and the imagined reproaches of his dead wife. Spargo's is a complex reading that moves smoothly from philosophical abstraction into a fluid account of dramatic sequence within <italic>Poems of 1912–13</italic>.</p>
<p>Work continues on Hardy in the pages of various journals devoted to his life and writings. Marit J. Macarthur provides a close reading of Hardy's scansion in ‘Rhythms of Grief in Hardy's <italic>Poems of 1912–13</italic>’ (<italic>THJ</italic> 20:i[2004], 38–48). Her detailed technical analysis of metrical patterns does not make a simple equation between rhythm and mood, but discerns intimate links between Hardy's grief at his wife's death, the poems and the experience of reading the poems. Phillip Mallett provides a ‘critical commentary’ on the same poems in his article, ‘ “You were she”: Hardy, Emma and the <italic>Poems of 1912–13</italic>’ (<italic>THJ</italic> 20:iii[2004] 54–75). Mallett's reading contains none of Macarthur's metrical analysis, relying instead on a broadly biographical account of the poems and Hardy's relationship with his wife before and after her death. Neither of these articles presents anything revolutionary or particularly new, but both have their merits. In contrast, Michael Irwin, ‘Hardy and the “Baby” Poems’ (<italic>THJ</italic> 21:ii[2005] 9–27), pushes as hard as he can to make a case for Hardy's authorship of various animal poems in three illustrated volumes for children that also contain prose by his second wife, Florence Dugdale. Hardy's fondness for the semi-archaism of ‘thus’ is instanced as a connection with the lines ‘Yes I am a Hippopotamus | You would not like to be born thus’—not one of Irwin's most convincing arguments and not a couplet that a lover of Hardy's works might want to claim. Irwin's conclusion is engagingly frank, conceding that he has not convinced himself fully, but noting that he has learned much about Hardy's distinctiveness as a poet in the process.</p>
<p>Connections between Hardy and music predominate in the relevant contributions to the new <italic>Thomas Hardy Society Journal</italic> in 2005. Stephen Pastore presents a series of personal reflections on the difficulties of performing Hardy's poetry to music in ‘Some Thoughts on Singing the Poems of Thomas Hardy’ (<italic>THSJ</italic> 1:ii[2005] 35–8) and Claire Seymour considers Gerald Finzi's settings of Hardy's poems in ‘ “Absalom's Place”: Gerald Finzi and Thomas Hardy’ (<italic>THSJ</italic> 1:ii[2005] 38–46). She draws particular attention to the close correspondence between the form of ‘For life I had never cared greatly’ and the rhythms and moods of Finzi's music.</p>
<p>Following a spate of biographical studies of Kipling, 2004 saw the completion of Thomas Pinney's edition of <italic>The Letters of Rudyard Kipling</italic>. The final two volumes cover the years from 1920 to 1936. Pinney subdivides the letters according to the phases of Kipling's life and literary career, providing a brief introduction to in each section with small amounts of biographical information. The letters themselves are followed by copious scholarly annotations elucidating points of historical detail and supplying relevant points of detail from Kipling's life. Pinney remarks in the last volume that if he had the chance to start the task of editing the six volumes over again he would do things differently, and notes the discovery of letters that are not included in this edition. But it is hard not to feel that his edition is a monument of scholarship and will remain a standard point of reference for some time to come.</p>
<p>The <italic>Kipling Journal</italic> continues to publish short articles and notes of interest in relation to Kipling's poetry. Eric W. Vogt's ‘ “After me cometh a builder …” Kipling's Masonic <italic>Ludibrium</italic> in “The Palace” (1902)’ (<italic>KJ</italic> 78:cccxi[2004] 9–22) begins with a review of Kipling's involvement with Freemasonry, then reads ‘The Palace’ as a form of playfully coded reference to cubes, cubed numbers and the sacred geometry of the Freemasons. Helen Goethals provides an account of Kipling's contribution to public debate about the Boer War in ‘Poetry and Power: Rudyard Kipling and the War in South Africa 1899–1902’ (<italic>KJ</italic> 79:cccxvi[2005] 9–21). This took the form of publishing popular poems such as ‘The Absent-Minded Beggar’ in support of the war and participating in debate about the merits of the war in newspapers. Goethal's argument that Kipling's poetry celebrates ‘the benevolent despotism of the British Empire’ (p. 13) and that this has been a cause for unease for subsequent critics is hardly a revelation. Nor is her claim that ‘all poetry is political’ (p. 16) new, although it is offered to defend Kipling and in order to make space for the claim that some of his poetry is open to more generous readings. As for notes and sources for Kipling's poetry, William P. Cahill and Michael Harrawood trace the origins of ‘Gunga Din’ to an American Civil War poem by John Hay in ‘ “Banty Tim”: A Possible American Source for “Gunga Din” ’ (<italic>KJ</italic> 78:cccxii[2004] 23–32), and Janet Montefiore's ‘ “Archy Experiences a Seizure” and “The Rhyme of the Three Captains” ’ (<italic>KJ</italic> 79:cccxiv[2005] 47–9) traces the metrical inspiration for a poem by Don Marquis about a cockroach to a poem by Kipling.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, it proved impossible to obtain a copy of Joseph Bristow's <italic>The Fin-de-Siècle Poem: English Literary Culture and the 1890s</italic> (OhioUP [2005]) in time to cover Tricia Lootens's article ‘Alien Homelands: Rudyard Kipling, Toru Dutt, and the Poetry of Empire’.</p>
<p>The years 2004 and 2005 were sparse ones for criticism of A.E. Housman, yielding no monographs, some passing references to his influence on Georgian poetry and one article by Steven Matthews, ‘ “A Different Country”: Housman and Hill’ (<italic>English</italic> 53:ccvi[2004] 135–46). Even this is more concerned with Geoffrey Hill. Beginning with a misquotation by Hill from <italic>A Shropshire Lad</italic>, Matthews traces Housman's presence within Hill's recent poetry, including <italic>The Triumph of Love</italic> and <italic>The Orchards of Syon</italic>.</p>
<p>Recent years have seen something of a revival of interest in Edward Thomas. Faber have issued a revised and expanded version of <italic>Collected Poems</italic>, edited by R. George Thomas, which now includes an introduction by Peter Sacks and Thomas's war diary from 1917. Sacks's introduction mixes generalities with some thoughtful insights into Thomas as a poet of roads and birdsong. Faber have also packaged the book in a nicely chosen woody green paper wrapper that seems strangely appropriate. As well as the chapters on Edward Thomas's work in books by Baldick, Howarth, Bayley and Ebbatson discussed above, he is also the subject of two notes by Guy Cuthbertson: the first, ‘The Shakespeare and Tennyson behind Edward Thomas's “Parting” ’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 51[2004] 175–8), identifies a series of allusive interconnections among Thomas's ‘Parting’, Tennyson's In Memoriam and Shakespeare's <italic>The Tempest</italic>. These quiet literary evocations of parting through death are connected to Thomas's worries for his son Merfyn. In the second note, ‘Leonard Bast and Edward Thomas’ (<italic>N&Q</italic> 52[2005] 87–9), Cuthbertson suggests that the characterization of Leonard Bast in <italic>Howards End</italic> may be indebted to E.M. Forster's acquaintance with Thomas. Apparently, Forster may have modelled Bast's more boring tendencies and taste for long strolls on Thomas, whom he disliked. Martin Bidney reads Edward Thomas through Melanie Klein in ‘Rage and Reparation in the Epiphanies of Edward Thomas: Dark-Bright Water, Grating Roar’ (<italic>ELT</italic> 47:iii[2004], 292–310), arguing that Thomas's poems constitute epiphanic works consisting of ‘rage-reparation conflicts barely subdued’ (p. 294). Bidney's readings are full of the sensory richness of Thomas's poetry, but the symbolic identifications between colours and various psychoanalytic archetypes (any female figure always stands in for aggrieved Mother) aren't always convincing.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, it proved impossible to obtain a copy of Hans Ulrich Seeber's article, ‘The Retrospective Attitude in Poems by Edward Thomas and Andrew Motion, and the Construction of the English Tradition in Poetry’ (<italic>YREAL</italic> 21[2005] 147–59) in time for this entry.</p>
<p>In ‘The Censorship and Transmission of D.H. Lawrence's <italic>Pansies</italic>: The Home Office and the “Foul-Mouthed Fellow” ’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iii[2005] 44–71), Christopher Pollnitz relates the Home Office's attempt to suppress the last collection of poems Lawrence published during his life. It represents an important chapter in the history of an unofficial campaign of literary censorship conducted by the Home Secretary, Sir William Joynson-Hicks, one eclipsed by the furore surrounding <italic>Lady Chatterley's Lover</italic>. Lawrence was forced to retype the collection, introducing typographical errors, and Pollnitz provides a detailed editorial description of the text as well as an account of Lawrence's interactions with Joynson-Hicks in the debate over censorship. He concedes that the literary merit of <italic>Pansies</italic> is dubious in parts, but this article is an exercise in literary and textual history rather than criticism. It is fascinating, characterized by unscrupulous methods on the part of the authorities and a mixture of outrage and carelessness on the part of Lawrence.</p>
<p>Studies of W.H. Auden continue apace. The year 2004 saw the publication of <italic>The Cambridge Companion to W.H Auden</italic> edited by Stan Smith. Intended as an introduction to key areas of Auden's life and poetry, this volume contains nineteen separate essays on different aspects of Auden's career, including an extremely useful bibliographical essay by Nadia Herman Colman (pp. 240–6). Students are most likely to turn to individual essays, since reading the volume through can be tiresome: too many essays overlap. This may be a hazard of compiling a collection for the general reader, but there are several groups of essays that stray into each other's territory: Stan Smith's introduction (pp. 1–14), Richard Davenport-Hines's biographical sketch (pp. 15–24) and Peter Porter's essay on ‘Auden's English: Language and Style’ (pp. 123–36) all offer general overviews of Auden's life and poetic career. Porter's opening gambit is to explore whether Auden had a characteristic style by citing imitations and parodies by his contemporaries. Unfortunately he overlooks one of the most savage and successful, William Empson's ‘Just a Smack at Auden’, and doesn't pursue this intriguing approach further. ‘Auden's England’ by Patrick Deane (pp. 25–38), ‘Auden in America’ by Nicholas Jenkins (pp. 39–54) and ‘The European Auden’ by Edward Mendelson (pp. 55–67) relate Auden's poetic oeuvre to political, social and personal aspects of his geographical peregrinations. Deane identifies Auden's sense of England's decline as key to his 1930s poetry and connects this to public events, including the abdication crisis and the rise of extreme politics. Jenkins explores the significance of exile for Auden's sense of religious and sexual identity following his move to America in the 1940s, and Mendelson traces the influence of Auden's summer sojourns in Italy and Austria on the writing of major late works such as ‘Horae Canonicae’ and ‘The Shield of Achilles’. John R. Boly's ‘Auden and modern theory’ (pp. 137–51), John Lucas's ‘Auden's Politics: Power, Authority and the Individual’ (pp. 152–64) and Rod Mengham's ‘Auden, Psychology and Society’ (pp. 165–74) all rehearse different permutations of the influence of Freud, Brecht and Marx upon Auden. Mengham's essay presents the closest contribution to new scholarship by pursuing Auden's connections with lesser-known psychologists Georg Groddeck and Homer Lane. Unfortunately, the specialization that makes Mengham's contribution interesting may make it less attractive to the kind of general student that the volume hopes to attract.</p>
<p>Highlights of the volume include Tim Young's account of ‘Auden's Travel Writings’ (pp. 68–91), Stan Smith's essay on ‘Auden's Light and Serio-Comic Verse’ (pp. 96–109) and Gareth Reeves's essay on ‘Auden and Religion’ (pp. 188–99). Young makes suggestive connections between <italic>Letters from Iceland</italic> [1937], <italic>Journey to a War</italic> [1939] and Auden's other writing. He describes how Auden presents travel writing in composite forms, mixing poetry and prose and playing with the objectivity usually associated with the role of an observer. As well as confounding the expectations of the genre, the apparent playfulness of Auden's travel writing is shown to implicate the narrator and his readers in world-historical developments. Smith's approach is also highly suggestive in the way in which it highlights the frequent and awkward shifts of register from serious to comic within Auden's poetry. Quoting Auden's verdict on W.B. Yeats, Smith argues, in effect, that the strength and challenge of Auden's modernity lie in the fact that ‘he was silly like us’ (p. 97). Reeves locates Auden's religious impulse in a similar tension between the serious and the playful in his poetry. Such tensions represent conscious back-thoughts and a persistent self-conscious awareness of human limitation that resonates within the acoustics of Auden's verse.</p>
<p>Otherwise, the volume includes a workmanlike essay by Christopher Innes on Auden's dramatic writing. Innes charts cabaret's influence upon the early closet drama, Brecht's effect upon Auden's dramatic parables and his later work on operatic libretti (pp. 82–95). Richard R. Bozorth explores the relation between Auden's writings and his homosexuality (pp. 175–87), identifying a persistent flirtation with personal revelation about his sexuality in his poetry and criticism. Paola Marchetti claims that critics have neglected the symbolic and metaphorical values attributed to ‘Auden's Landscapes’ (pp. 200–11). This process, Marchetti argues, culminates in the spiritually charged landscapes of Auden's later Christian poetry. Rainer Emig presents a similar argument in his account of ‘Auden and Ecology’ (pp. 212–25). Averse to Romantic idealism, Auden invests landscapes and natural scenes with human values. Yet, despite this ‘anthropocentric’ outlook (p. 218), Emig points out that Auden's late poetry, such as ‘Ode to Gaia’, interrogates man's responsibilities towards the environment in ways that are sympathetic to the ecological movement. Ian Sansom's essay on ‘Auden and Influence’ (pp. 226–39) aims to shift discussion from the Auden generation of the 1930s to his impact on poets and poetry from the 1940s to the end of the twentieth century. He cites Auden's influence on poets as diverse as Christopher Logue and Allen Ginsberg as well as his popularization through the reading of ‘Funeral Blues’ in <italic>Three Weddings and a Funeral</italic> and fictive representations of Auden on the stage and in novels. On the whole, dipping into such essays reveals this as a useful and imaginative collection.</p>
<p>Another resource for students from 2004 is the <italic>W.H. Auden Encyclopaedia</italic> by David Garrett Izzo. After a brief overview of Auden's life in the introduction, Izzo provides brief summaries of Auden's poems and essays mixed with longer commentary on works judged to be of greater substance, such as <italic>The Age of Anxiety</italic> [1947] or the essay, ‘The Dyer's Hand’ [1956] (oddly, the essay collection from 1962 of the same name receives much shorter treatment). Entries are also included for key events, texts and figures from Auden's life, from friends and lovers such as Chester Kallman to T.S. Eliot, Auden's editor and a key source of complex (and vexed) poetic influence. Occasional quibbles on matters of fact arise (Auden's reference to writing ‘Just a Smack at Empson’ alludes to a poem by Empson about Auden, not one by Richard Eberhart) and readers may not agree with all of Izzo's summaries or analyses of the poems. But this is a useful work of quick and fairly easy reference.</p>
<p><italic>Auden and Christianity</italic> by Arthur Kirsch offers what it describes as a ‘work of description and appreciation’ (p. xxi). The introduction is open about the pitfalls of writing about Auden's Christianity, a topic which Auden himself felt was best suited by reticence. It is also open about the complexity, contradiction and difficulty of some aspects of Auden's belief. The poet was convinced of the fallen and fallible nature of mankind and aware that such fallibility was part of his own experience of faith and doubt. Throughout the book Kirsch is clear about the tensions between Auden's Christianity and his homosexuality: his obsessive affection for Chester Kallman, spilling over into letters and poetry, is almost blasphemous at times and yet the suffering associated with Auden's sexuality helped confirm his feeling for the necessity of his faith. Inevitably, this cogent and sensitive account of Auden's explorations of faith in poetry and prose slips occasionally from ‘appreciation’ into apology. Kirsch emphasizes Auden's creative output from the 1940s onwards, devoting whole chapters to <italic>For the Time Being</italic> [1944] and separate close readings of the seven sections in ‘Horae Canonicae’ [1955]. The book passes quickly over the years outside the Church during the 1920s and 1930s, accepting too easily Auden's own denial that he had seriously lost faith (‘I simply lost interest’, p. 6). Instead, Kirsch asserts that ‘Auden exaggerated his faithlessness as a young man’, skirting his flirtation with Marxism, which is referred to obliquely as ‘really an attempt to find an alternate, though still Christian, epistemology’ (p. 9). This was the period in which Auden achieved his fame, and the book underplays the shock for his early devotees of both his departure for America and his conversion. Kirsch sometimes risks making Auden sound bland: some of his best poetry is edgily uncertain about its moral foundations for speaking out. Kirsch captures some aspects of this in his account of the later work, but misses a trick by underplaying its role in the earlier writing.</p>
<p>Randall Jarrell certainly didn't share Kirsch's preference for Auden's later poetry. Stephen Burt's edition of <italic>Randall Jarrell on W.H. Auden</italic> brings together six unpublished lectures by the American poet delivered at Princeton in 1952. For Jarrell, Auden's writing was in a process of continual decline almost from the start. But his principal dislike is Auden's poetry from 1940 onwards and his main complaint that Auden turned his considerable intelligence and technical gifts into a ‘rhetoric-mill’ (p. 60). The readings of Auden's poems, the tics and tricks associated with rhetoric are painstaking here, the product of Jarrell's insights as a poet and his fundamental love for Auden. For he identifies Auden's ‘virtues’ too and pays due homage to the power of poems such as ‘Nones’. Indeed, even his criticisms testify to the strength and depth of Jarrell's relationship with Auden. Scrappy as they are in parts (Jarrell used some passages in published criticism, but otherwise did not prepare them for publication), these lectures offer a compelling instance of the insights one poet brings to the work of another who has influenced him deeply.</p>
<p>Michael Murphy's ‘Neoclassicism, Late Modernism, and W.H. Auden's “New Year Letter” ’ (<italic>CQ</italic> 33:ii[2004] 101–18) begins by attending to the allusive implications of Auden's choices of stanzaic form during the early 1940s. The analysis of ‘New Year Letter’ that follows argues against the view of critics from Randall Jarrell to Roy Fuller that its neoclassical couplets represent a failure of judgement. Murphy attempts to connect Auden's sense of exile after his departure from England to a similar quandary within the poetry of Andrew Marvell. This is the means for Murphy to reclaim Auden for late modernism through the poem's sense of political and formal ambivalence and fragmentation. He ends by reconnecting Auden with Marx and, finally, Habermas.</p>
<p>Beth Ellen Roberts's ‘W.H. Auden and the Jews’ (<italic>JML</italic> 28:iii[2005] 87–108) describes an interest in Jews and Judaism throughout Auden's life and poetic career. His left-wing commitments in the 1930s were characterized by a militant rejection of anti-Semitism, including a (restrained) rebuke to T.S. Eliot's <italic>After Strange Gods</italic>. Upon his move to America, Roberts observes, this became a ‘philo-Semitism’ linked to his relationship with Chester Kallman and a sense of exile, estrangement and cultural difference that he felt as a common bond with Jews. The article takes a straightforward biographical approach, covering aspects of Auden's life and engagement with Jewish culture, from his marriage to Erika Mann in 1935 (a German Jew fleeing Nazi persecution) to his interest in kabbalah. As such, reference to his poetry features as biographical interest. Nevertheless, this is a thoroughgoing account of its kind that is open to some of the tensions between Auden's conversion to Christianity and his liking for Jews and Judaism.</p>
<p>Tom Duggett's article, ‘In Solitude, for Company: The City in W.H. Auden's “Horae Canonicae” ’ (<italic>English</italic> 54:ccx[2005] 195–208), pursues the image of the city in “Horae Canonicae” in order to articulate Auden's development of a Christian civic philosophy under the influence of Reinhold Niebuhr and Charles Williams. The article moves from Auden's conception of time, punctuality and Christian historiography to the relation between Christ's incarnation and the City of God. Duggett deals deftly with Auden's theological influences, as well as the allusive and acoustic texture of his verse.</p>
<p>The ground covered by Alexander Nemerov's ‘The Flight of Form: Auden, Bruegel, and the Turn to Abstraction in the 1940s’ (<italic>CritI</italic> 31:iv[2005] 780–810) is broad. His central concern is with the influence of Bruegel's <italic>Fall of Icarus</italic> on the way that writers and painters represented catastrophe in the 1940s. Auden's ‘Musée des Beaux Arts’ is Nemerov's point of departure for an art-historical enquiry. The article describes the historical events that influenced Auden (he witnessed the Japanese bombing of Hankow in 1938), arguing that the poem transforms Bruegel's painting into a surrealist allegory of destructive aerial warfare. In a similar vein, Nemerov argues for the wider resonance of the ploughman in Bruegel's painting and Auden's poem as a symbol of the hapless intellectual faced with catastrophic historical events. He has many interesting things to say about the relation between form, content and visual rhythm in the work of Bruegel and abstract expressionists, such as Jackson Pollock. However, the article suffers from a general lack of comment on the form of Auden's poem, beyond identifying these broad types.</p>
<p>Finally, the most recently available edition of the <italic>W.H. Auden Society Newsletter</italic> contains various short notes of interest with regard to Auden's life and work. Nicholas Jenkins, ‘The Travelling Auden’ (<italic>WHASN</italic> 24[2004] 7–14), traces Auden's movement around the world, comparing his mobility to that of Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams, and ‘Novalis and Auden’ (<italic>WHASN</italic> 24[2004] 17–18) charts the influence of German Romantic poet Novalis on Auden's poetry through various allusions. Edward Mendelson clarifies ‘When Did Auden First Visit Greece?’ (<italic>WHASN</italic> 24[2004] 14–17), and in ‘A Preliminary Census of <italic>Poems</italic> (1928)’ (<italic>WHASN</italic> 24[2004] 19–23) offers a preliminary census of Auden's first published collection of poetry, privately printed by Stephen Spender. The contents of the <italic>Newsletter</italic> from 2005 will be summarized in the next volume of <italic>YWES</italic>.</p>
<p>The year 2005 saw the long-awaited publication of the first volume of John Haffenden's biography of William Empson, <italic>Among the Mandarins</italic>. Although nearly 700 pages long, this covers only the first thirty-three years of Empson's life, from 1906 to 1939. During this period Empson wrote nearly all of his significant poems and established his reputation as a critic by publishing <italic>Seven Types of Ambiguity</italic> [1930] and <italic>Some Versions of Pastoral</italic> [1935]. Haffenden describes Empson's public school education at Winchester and his experiences at Magdalene College, Cambridge, during the 1920s. He provides detail about Empson's sexual proclivities, including an account of his departure from Cambridge in disgrace. The book describes Empson's experience teaching in China and Japan and his fraternization with various literary figures in London during the 1930s, including T.S. Eliot and members of the Mass-Observation movement. There is also a detailed appendix describing Empson's aristocratic ancestors at Yokefleet Hall in Yorkshire. As the editor of Empson's criticism and poetry, few people are better placed than Haffenden to fulfil this task, though it is surprising how much of the material in this bulky volume is reprinted near-verbatim from his edition of the poems. Most of this, however, relates to aspects of Empson's career as a poet at Cambridge. The length of the volume is largely due to Haffenden's thoroughness throughout. This extends to the sights, sounds and confusions of Empson's experiences in China during the Japanese invasion.</p>
<p>Haffenden's style is engagingly idiosyncratic, ranging from the careful prose of a scholar to cheerfully demotic slang when describing some of Empson's sexual activities (he enjoyed, apparently ‘the rub with a chum, the helping hand of mutual masturbation’, p. 239). This is, perhaps, fitting tribute to Empson's own critical style, which prides itself on avoiding the professional obfuscations of literary critical language. Indeed, Haffenden is very good on the relation between Empson's written style and the bluff, matey slang spoken between chums at Winchester. The chapters on the genesis of <italic>Seven Types</italic> and on Empson's relationship with his college tutor I.A. Richards are significant contributions to the field in their own right. There is no doubt that, with the second volume (due in 2006), this is an important resource and a major achievement.</p>
<p>In <italic>Twentieth Century Poetry: Selves and Situations</italic> Peter Robinson discusses Empson's poem ‘Aubade’ in detail (pp. 11–18). Robinson locates the individual consciousness within ‘the fact of an individual body, with its vicissitudes, in the world’ (p. 4) and argues that, as representations of selves and experiences, poems and their forms are also located in that world. His sensitive reading shows how the repeating refrain of ‘Aubade’ shifts with the poet's uneasy awareness of his compromised moral stance towards a Japanese lover, from the localized predicament of the lovers to wider events on the world stage in the 1930s.</p>
<p>The year 2004 saw the publication of the second volume of <italic>Dylan Remembered</italic>, edited by David N. Thomas. These two volumes bring together a series of interviews by Colin Edwards about Dylan Thomas's life and experience. The interlocutors range from Ethel Anne Gunn, who used to catch the same train to Witney as Thomas during the 1950s, to Jiřina Haukovà, his Czech translator, and Robert Lowell. Insights fluctuate between the banal and intimate glimpses of his everyday life, humour and working practices. Edwards asks so persistently about Thomas's reputation for drunkenness that it isn't clear whether he is trying to confirm or refute it (for the record, Ethel heard about it but never saw it, p. 132). The book concludes with a section devoted to dispelling or clarifying various myths about Thomas and his life, from the genesis of <italic>Under Milk Wood</italic> to establishing the cause of his death (which is attributed to medical misdiagnosis and neglect). It's an odd, engagingly eclectic collection, which provides useful biographical material amidst a lot of trivia.</p>
<p>It is hoped that Gwen Watkin's biographical account, <italic>Dylan Thomas: Portrait of a Friend</italic> (Lolfa [2005]) will be covered in next year's volume of <italic>YWES</italic>, a copy having been difficult to obtain this year.</p>
<p>The year 2004 saw the completion of Bevis Hillier's magisterial biography of John Betjeman with the third volume, <italic>Betjeman: The Bonus of Laughter</italic>. It begins with Betjeman's move to Wantage in 1951 and concludes with his funeral at St Enodoc's church in Cornwall in May 1984, followed by a short epilogue describing his posthumous critical reputation as a poet. These are the years in which Betjeman probably enjoyed most fame. Following his appointment as poet laureate in 1972, they are the years in which he received considerable attention as a public figure. They saw the publication of <italic>Summoned By Bells</italic> as well as his collaboration with various television programmes on his life and works and his interests in architecture. Hillier is a scrupulous biographer who provides copious detail and does not shrink from recording Betjeman's creative lows as well as arguing for his seriousness as a poet. Nor is he afraid to reveal the sillier side of the man. These three volumes should remain a standard point of reference for anyone interested in Betjeman's life and work for some time to come.</p>
<p>Kevin Gardner brings together a selection of Betjeman's religious verse in <italic>Faith and Doubt of John Betjeman</italic>. Gardner introduces this anthology with a biographical overview, quoting snippets of <italic>Summoned By Bells</italic> (which is not included) and then prefaces each of the thematic sub-sections with a description of the poems chosen. The book's division into sections such as ‘Spiritual Doubts and Fears’ and ‘The Church in Society’ (largely poems about ecclesiastical architecture) thoughtfully reflects the vacillations of Betjeman's faith as well as its roots in outward form. Unusually the book also includes a selection of poems expressing Betjeman's sense of the ‘The Decline of England’ which culminates with his famous denunciation of ‘Slough’ (‘Come, friendly bombs’). But Gardner sensibly defends this on the grounds that ‘his views on progress … are rooted in his religious beliefs’ (p. 157). This is the closest the anthology comes to controversy: it is most likely to appeal to those who already share Betjeman's beliefs.</p>
<p>Yvor Winters's reputation, as David Reid points out in ‘Rationality in the Poetry of Yvor Winters’ (<italic>CQ</italic> 34:i[2005] 1–21), has suffered much at the hands of his admirers. Reid sets out to defend Winters's severe muse, asserting the value of his critical prose and seeking to explicate with sympathy Winters's emphasis upon ‘rationality’ and his fondness for the less popular Renaissance poets. It is not clear at times that Reid is any more successful than Christopher Ricks or Donald Davie, but this is fiercely argued with a highly intelligent sense for the acoustic energies of Winters's poetry and sources of influence, from Ben Jonson to H.D.</p>
<p>Ella Zohar Ophir welcomes a resurgence of interest in Laura Riding, although since her article, ‘The Laura Riding Question: Modernism, Poetry and Truth’ (<italic>MLQ</italic> 66:i[2005] 85–114), is the only item on Riding that turned up for inclusion in <italic>YWES</italic> during 2004 and 2005, such a resurgence may not be terribly obvious. Ophir identifies ‘Riding's apparently eccentric preoccupation with truth’ (p. 89) and asserts that it is of a piece with the values espoused by other modernist poets and the following generation of New Critics. The article is an account of Riding's mixed critical reception and a summary of her critical writing (with Robert Graves) and poetry. Ophir emphasizes Riding's striving towards ‘unity and truth’, but recognizes that this may not have been wholly successful.</p>
<p>As well as receiving general coverage in Baldick's <italic>The Modern Movement</italic>, First World War poetry still generates regular critical interest. However, Vincent Sherry's <italic>The Great War and the Language of Modernism</italic> seeks to shift the limits of this genre. Tackling classic accounts of war poetry by Jay Winter and Paul Fussell, Sherry argues that modernist works by T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and Virginia Woolf should be considered as war poetry. Critics have long opined that the sense of cultural and spiritual desolation in <italic>The Waste Land</italic> is related to the First World War. Sherry, however, seeks to place this on a footing of ‘historical specificity’ (p. 191). He contrasts the language and syntax of Pound, Eliot and Woolf before and after the war, arguing that logical disruption is an observable effect of the war upon their writing. This is, he contends, symptomatic of a critical crisis within the language of reason and logic in England. It stems from the intellectual contradiction that arose when a Liberal government dedicated to the language of reason and rationality found itself leading the country to war. The Liberal emphasis on reason and the reasonable breaks down into mere seeming. The appearance of logic, Sherry claims, belies this internal ideological contradiction, and this ‘reason-seemingness’ (p. 115) is what the stylistic experiments of his modernists express: a language at odds with its own values.</p>
<p>There is no doubt that this is a significant work. Sherry produces stimulating and fresh readings of Pound's and Eliot's work and the material relating to the poems in quatrains that Eliot wrote during and immediately after the First World War is compelling. Where previous critics have written of the ‘non-propositional’ quality of poems such as ‘Whispers of Immortality’, Sherry makes a strong case for viewing them as ‘pseudopropositional’ (p. 200). They mockingly imitate the debased rhetoric of the Liberal establishment. This thesis of a government producing spurious justifications for an unjustified war is strikingly resonant with recent events in the USA and UK. But there are flaws too: Sherry is not always clear about the distinctions between the partisan ideology of Liberalism, the Liberal Party, liberals and liberalism. Also, his close readings of poetry and prose are finely tuned to details of syntax, but his own prose can be excruciatingly abstract in parts. The professional language of criticism does not always serve this important work well.</p>
<p>Rather like Pat Barker's novel <italic>Regeneration</italic>, Daniel Hipp's <italic>The Poetry of Shell Shock: Wartime Trauma and Healing in Wilfred Owen, Ivor Gurney and Siegfried Sassoon</italic> approaches the work of three major British war poets via their experience of shell shock, a medical classification invented in 1914. Hipp's first chapter outlines various diagnoses and treatments associated with shell shock, from the electro-shock therapy favoured by Dr Lewis Yelland to the use of hypnosis and W.H. River's experiments with a Freudian ‘talking cure’. The book's emphasis, however, is upon the therapeutic value of poetic composition as means of re-engaging with the world—it takes T.S. Eliot's recovery from ‘aboulie’ through the completion of <italic>The Waste Land</italic> at a sanatorium in Lausanne as an introductory paradigm. The chapter on Owen relies heavily upon his letters home from the front line to his mother and offers a detailed reading of ‘The Sentry’ before considering his experiences at the Craiglockhart Military Hospital and the resulting poetry. Hipp argues that Owen used the formal patterning of poetry to acquire the kind of distance and control over his own experience that was necessary to recover from shell shock. The chapter on Ivor Gurney traces the poet's mental illness from its pre-war roots through to his experiences in the trenches and his post-war descent into psychosis. Again, poetry is described as a means of therapy: Gurney's capacity for structured composition slipped away as his mental condition deteriorated in the 1920s. The chapter on Siegfried Sassoon considers the politics of his diagnosis for shell shock and the relation between this diagnosis and attempts to stifle his criticism of the war and its conduct. Hipp compares the representation of traumatic war experiences in poetry to Sassoon's treatment by W.H. Rivers and, again, emphasizes its therapeutic value.</p>
<p><italic>The Poetry of Shell Shock</italic> is heavily indebted to Anthony Babington's <italic>Shell-Shock: A History of the Changing Attitudes to War Neurosis</italic> [1997] for its understanding of the medical and social history of shell shock. Its approach is largely descriptive and the sequence within individual chapters is mostly determined by the biographical experience of the poets considered rather than any sense of argument or thesis. Although it makes reference to Freud, it seems unusually lacking in a theoretical framework for its account of poetry as therapy. It engages with the major critical responses to this field by the likes of Paul Fussell and Jon Silkin, but gives little sense of moving criticism further on. The book reads more like a cogent and lively introductory work.</p>
<p>Robert Hemmings covers similar material in ‘ “The Blameless Physician”: Narrative and Pain, Sassoon and Rivers’ (<italic>L&M</italic> 24:i[2005] 109–26). Hemmings begins with the psychoanalytical premise that trauma may express itself in the form of gaps or lacunae within narrative, applying this to Sassoon's fictionalized account of his treatment by W.H. Rivers in <italic>Sherston's Progress</italic> [1936]. The article also traces such gaps within the elliptical syntax of some of poems too, arguing that Sassoon's later prose records repressed memories of the kind of traumatic event the poetry depicts.</p>
<p><italic>Siegfried Sassoon: A Biography</italic> is, Max Egremont concedes, at least the sixth biographical work devoted to Sassoon. It arrives in the wake of two volumes of biography by Jean Moorcroft Wilson—<italic>The Making of a War Poet</italic> [1998] and <italic>The Journey from the Trenches</italic> [2003]—now widely recognized as standard reading. Although Egremont claims access to unpublished primary documents that have not received full attention yet, it is unlikely that this biography will supplant Wilson's achievement. Much of the new material in the volume relates to Sassoon's relationship in middle age with Stephen Tennant, including intimate details of their sex life. This is as much an account of Sassoon's sexual development as it is an account of his development as a poet and writer. (Readers of his poetry may not need to know whether Sassoon's lover could ejaculate or not when they had sex.) It takes us from his feelings towards the men beneath his command in the trenches of the First World War to his dalliances at the edges of the Bloomsbury set. Clearly written, and highly readable, this seems intended for a popular audience rather than scholars of Sassoon's works.</p>
<p>The year 2005 also saw the appearance of <italic>The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the First World War</italic>, edited by Vincent Sherry. The introduction by Sherry (pp. 1–11) makes clear that, while the essays in the volume give a greater proportion of space to writing in English about the war, it deliberately incorporates contributions relating to European literature, from France and Germany, and representations of the First World War in American literature. Edna Longley's essay ‘The Great War, History and the English Lyric’ (pp. 57–84) pays particular attention to the work of Wilfred Owen and Edward Thomas, and makes the case for Thomas (who died in 1917 soon after reaching the front line) as a war poet against a restrictive view limiting this to poetry written in the trenches. At the same time, Longley incorporates a broad range of reference to those poems and poets most usually associated with this category (including Siegfried Sassoon, Ivor Gurney and Isaac Rosenberg). Longley argues subtly and sympathetically that the small elements of strangeness in Thomas's syntax and the eerie deserted landscapes in his poems register delicately the effects of living in wartime and reshape the influence of Hardy and Frost. As part of a wider account of women's writing from this period, Claire Buck's ‘British Women's Writing of the Great War’ (pp. 85–112) makes detailed reference to a number of women poets writing during the First World War who have been passed over by many of the mainstream anthologists. Buck draws on critical work in this area by Noshee Khan, Claire Tyree, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar in order to draw attention to little-known women poets, such as Louisa Prior, Marjorie Pratt and Jessie Pope, as well as Margaret Sackville and Katherine Tynan. She points out the link between women's poetry, the suffragettes and women's economic and material contribution to the war effort, and describes a range of poetic response from pro- to anti-war. Vincent Sherry's essay, ‘The Great War and Literary Modernism in England’ (pp. 113–37), condenses material from his monograph <italic>The Great War and the Language of Modernism</italic>, citing political commentary from newspapers to support his argument that the rational language of the Liberal Party was tainted by its role in conducting the war. Irrational and disruptive elements within the literary language of Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf, Sherry argues, reflects, satirizes and comments on this wider crisis of political language. As well as these essays on poetry of the period, this Cambridge Companion also contains stimulating contributions by David Trotter, Marjorie Perloff and Laura Marcus and a useful bibliography of critical and historical material at the end. It should serve as a good resource for students and, given the width of its scope, may help pedagogues seeking to push their students to write on more than the poetry of Owen and Sassoon.</p>
<p>In ‘Teaching World War I Poetry—Comparatively’ (<italic>CollL</italic> 32:iii[2005] 136–53), Margot Norris argues that British poetry from the trenches should be taught alongside contemporary material by German poets, urging university teachers to use contextual material from <italic>Blast</italic> and the <italic>Georgian Poetry</italic> anthologies as well. This is a generalized introduction to First World War poetry based upon Norris's own experiences in the classroom. It offers extremely useful but scarcely revolutionary readings of the material as pointers and is probably best suited to the purposes of lecturers or graduate students at the beginning of a teaching career.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC7"><title>7. Post-1950 Poetry</title>
<p>Jeffrey Wainwright has published a collection of his essays on the work of Geoffrey Hill entitled <italic>Acceptable Words: Essays on the Poetry of Geoffrey Hill</italic>. It begins thus: ‘The first wonder of poetry lies in the immediate effects of language. How words are drawn from the myriad, their particular sounds heard and then associated by rhythm, and sometimes their visual appearance, constitutes the primary pleasure and amazement of verse’ (p. 1). The primary pleasure of Wainwright's book is that it succeeds in combining his immediate sense of wonder on the publication of each of Hill's poetry collections with an authoritative overview of the development of the poet's oeuvre. Wainwright evokes especially Hill's gift for the language, and argues that the poet's search for ‘acceptable words’ is an ethical quest. Apart from the introduction and afterword, the chapters are substantially or wholly based on essays published in response to the emergence of each collection since <italic>King Log</italic> [1968] (and some essays cast backward glances to Hill's first collection, <italic>For the Unfallen</italic>), and includes commentary on some recent poems which have not yet been published in book form. To retain their sense of immediacy the essays have not been substantially revised, and yet they do not appear dated or ‘reheated’ in any way. They hang together well as a collection, and the threads running through Wainwright's astute and attentive commentary are woven together into an enjoyable and persuasive narrative of Hill's achievements as a poet.</p>
<p>Laura Severin begins her book, <italic>Poetry off the Page: Twentieth-Century British Women Poets in Performance</italic>, by asking why women poets were in more or less the same critical position at the end as at the beginning of the twentieth century. She borrows a line from Stevie Smith, ‘nobody knew what she sang about’, to explain that position. Severin blames feminist scholarship, with some notable exceptions, for this neglect, as well as other forms of scholarship. What follows for Severin is a study of six women poets, all of whom are interested in poetry which is both narrative and performed, examining in particular several framing devices through which these poets ‘lift poetry off the page’. Charlotte Mew and Anna Wickham are examined for their interest in performance as practice and performance as theme, particularly through their interest in the love lyric, although Severin finds that both fail in their aim of creating a heterogeneous poetry of love. In the next chapter, Severin seeks to explain why Edith Sitwell and Stevie Smith ‘gravitated toward a persona-oriented performance style’ (p. 43), and concludes that, while both used performance personae to challenge stereotypes of femininity, they also suffered from the personae they created. Jackie Kay and Liz Lochhead are the subject of the next chapter, specifically their adoption of shape-shifting identities in their poetry, and they are found to be alike ‘in their use of performed poetry for activist purposes’ (p. 87). The concluding chapter focuses on Kay's poetry for television, <italic>Twice Through the Heart</italic> [1992] and <italic>Sabbath</italic> [1995]. At 112 pages, <italic>Poetry off the Page</italic> is a slight book, effectively containing four short essays, and it feels as if it is introducing a topic, rather than giving the topic and the work of these poets their deserved critical exposition. At £45, it is a shame to say, the book is also unlikely to promote the story of performing women poets beyond a highly select readership.</p>
<p><italic>Twentieth Century Poetry: Selves and Situations</italic> is Peter Robinson's third book of poetry criticism, and continues his exploration of the relationship between poetry and its contexts. In this volume the term ‘situations’ is used to refer to ‘a great variety of human predicaments’, so great a variety as to include almost anything: ‘a cultural moment of poetic inspiration, the atmosphere of a political crisis, the mood of a decade, the state of a nation, a condition of exile, an artistic vogue, and a lifetime’ (p. 18). Given the dexterity of the terms of the title, it might not come as a surprise that one looks in vain in this volume for a thesis about twentieth-century poetry. Instead, Robinson provides a series of essays, loosely connected if at all, each attending to very specific aspects of the work of a wide range of twentieth-century poets. These range from concerns with the art of poetry, its forms and modes of address, to the reputation or renown of each poet. The first essay, for example, explores the creative problems and loss of confidence which Pound grappled with in ‘Villanelle: The Psychological Hour’. This is followed by a celebration of Basil Bunting's renovation of the literary ballad in his poems ‘Gin the Goodwife Stint’ and ‘The Complaint of the Morpethshire Farmer’. MacNeice's <italic>Autumn Journal</italic> is considered as a response to the political crisis of 1938, and here as elsewhere in the volume the question of ‘political adequacy’ is eschewed in favour of understanding poetry as form. The essay which ponders whether Elizabeth's Bishop's poetry exhibits a ‘gay sensibility’ follows a similar pattern, resolving that Bishop's work will be read ‘not because she was an exemplary woman, or representative lesbian, but because she wrote some memorable, moving poems’ (p. 115). Each essay attends to the work of a particular poet, extrapolating only occasionally beyond the poetry. The poets considered, besides Pound, Bunting, MacNeice, and Bishop (whose work is the subject of two essays), include Allen Curnow, W.S. Graham, Charles Tomlinson, Mairi MacInnes, Tom Raworth, and Roy Fisher. If Robinson shies away from any grand narratives of twentieth century poetry, he is never less than illuminating as a reader of each of these poets.</p></sec>
<sec id="SEC8"><title>8. Irish Poetry</title>
<p>J. J. Callanan (1795–1829) was a Cork poet who, weakened by tuberculosis, died at a young age in Lisbon, just a month or two before the publication of his only book, <italic>The Recluse of Inchidony and Other Poems</italic> [1829], in London. It was a debut of considerable achievement, but its literary impact was negligible. In the same way that Thomas Moore was selectively edited for a nationalist readership (viz. all those editions which remove the poems that represent him as the darling of important London cliques), so too is Callanan, as late as 2005, in Gregory A. Schirmer's edition, <italic>The Irish Poems of J.J. Callanan</italic>. Schirmer says he has selected only the Irish material, as he deems that superior. Omitted and unmentioned is Callanan's fulsome poem of praise at the coronation of George IV (the same Prince Regent so despised by Moore—for London reasons, not Irish ones), in which the Cork poet declares: ‘God save great George our king | Honor and glory and length to his reign.’ Although this praise is given in the hope that the new king will help Ireland, what lingers in the memory is the reference to George IV ‘our king’. The book would only have been slightly longer had Schirmer included all Callanan's poems. It is a missed opportunity.</p>
<p>The effort at selective editing is all the more anxious as Callanan, unlike Moore, read Irish and his versions are considered by many critics to have caught a great deal of the originals. How then could such a poet wish to inveigle himself into British affections? But how could he not, given that Irish poetry is not the expression of some ‘otherness of Ireland's Gaelic culture’, as this editor has it, but a much more hybrid affair. Callanan's only book of poems is an achievement in precisely this way: it mixes works in the Romantic mode of Byron and Shelley, along with excellent versions, or amalgamations, of Irish originals.</p>
<p>The unremitting Irish focus produces a howler when Schirmer glosses one of Callanan's comments in a letter to his Methodist loved one: ‘as for us poor ghebars … we must be content with what dignity we can borrow from having Christ as the founder of our family and race’. Schirmer glosses: ‘probably “geabar” in modern Irish, meaning “small fish” ’; a more acute editor would know that the Ghebers (also spelled ‘Ghebar’) were the Persian heroes of <italic>Lalla Rookh</italic> [1817], who were defeated by the Muslims. These are the reasons that Schirmer's book is infuriating, but one is also very grateful to him for making accessible texts that were heretofore cached in the rare-books sections of libraries. It helpfully reminds us that early nineteenth-century Ireland had another poet of talent besides Moore.</p>
<p>W. J. McCormack's <italic>Blood Kindred: W.B. Yeats: The Life, the Death, the Politics</italic> is billed as a biography of the poet, but the description does not fit so easily. Certainly it does not present a consecutive account of the poet's life (McCormack claims to go consecutively backwards). Rather it is, in part, biography as Gothic novel, with Yeats as a kind of Uncle Silas figure, who is either deeply bad or just badly understood. McCormack goes whipping open the doors of wardrobes, convinced there's a cloak and dagger in every one, only to end up tussling with moth-eaten mohairs. However, this is an incomplete characterization. The book is important because it takes Yeats's politics—his fascist sympathies, his praise of hatred, his relish of violence—seriously and refuses to disengage them from the poetry. Critics such as Edward Said and Jahan Ramazani who would package Yeats for postcolonial consumption are stymied, as are those who would like to have him for liberal democracy.</p>
<p>As an example of the first aspect, there is McCormack's discussion of the case of Carl von Ossietzky (1889–1938), the German journalist and pacifist who was openly critical of the Nazis and, as a result, incarcerated in a concentration camp. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1935 and died three years later of tuberculosis in a private hospital. Yeats, when importuned by Ethel Mannin and Ernst Toller (on an evening when the last two were, as McCormack admits, quite drunk), refused to support Ossietzky's cause. McCormack's penultimate paragraph on the issue ends thus: ‘Of the writers who have chosen to write books about the poet's politics, only the late Geoffrey Thurley notes the Ossietzky case. Thurley was refused permanent employment in Dublin's two universities.’ These remarks set off strong eddies of suspicion: what was, and indeed is, the extent of the whitewashing of Yeats's politics? Does this one, as in <italic>Serpico</italic>, ‘go right to the top’? The analogy with detective novels, however, will only go so far, as those books use the language of evidence with a degree of care and consistency unlike McCormack. As an undergraduate in one of those Dublin universities in the late 1980s, I attended classes where Yeats's late poetry was discussed, and the case of Ossietzky was clearly outlined. We were presented with a poet whose unpleasant political opinions formed an integral part of his poetry. It was hard to get a copy of <italic>On the Boiler</italic>, but that situation has since been remedied. There simply wasn't, and isn't, enough conspiracy about the place to justify the claims of <italic>Blood Kindred</italic>.</p>
<p>For McCormack, Yeats's silence on Ossietzky is part of a larger pattern of Yeats's silence on developments in Germany; and silence, he says, does not mean innocence. Occasionally the silence is broken, for instance when, in 1938, the <italic>Irish Independent</italic> reports a speech of Yeats in which he is said to endorse, in part, the Nuremberg Laws of 1935—not for their anti-Semitic intent and consequences, but for their protection of hereditary owners of farms. Such a comment, along with many strategic silences, make Yeats morally repugnant to McCormack. But it is obvious that this does not, in McCormack's own phrase, constitute a ‘smoking gun’, and he has to resort to less acceptable means of vilification. One of his frequent devices in the book is to use the image of Jews massing at the margins of the poet's proclamations and silences. I give the last sentence of one chapter: ‘If a young writer [Lauro de Bosis] sharing so much with the Nobel Prize winner could elicit not a word of marginal regret or indignation, what could be hoped by mere millions of nameless others?’ Here, as elsewhere, McCormack is not above a cheap rhetorical trick.</p>
<p>The drift of his argument is that Yeats should have known that Nazis were bad in 1934 when he accepted the Goethe-Plakette, or at least should have tried to find out; by the time of his reported comment in 1938 there was no excuse whatsoever. The question here is, as McCormack says: what did Yeats know? Although McCormack would disagree, standard historical accounts state that up to Kristallnacht in November 1938 the situation of German Jews did not seem completely hopeless. It is clear that the poet, already ageing and infirm, was not attending carefully to the actions of those whose politics he sympathized with. (His 17-year-old son knew more about central European politics than he did.) That some of the same desires and ideas motivated both Nazi policy and some of Yeats's finest poetry should not be forgotten. But McCormack's repeated use of the image of the Jews—on one occasion ‘with sad accusing stares’—carries the implication that Yeats, had he lived, would have been less than compassionate about the victims of the Holocaust. This goes too far into hypothesis.</p>
<p>The book also presents new material on Yeats's family background in Ulster, and although McCormack flags the importance of this, it is merely a little extra demythologization to reveal Yeats's ‘great gazebo’ of Anglo-Irish Ascendancy to be, in McCormack's words, a ‘gimcrack Victorian fabrication’. As a critic, his default tone is arch and ironic deflation, so that while he admits that Yeats is possibly the greatest poet of the English language since Milton, he has hardly anything to say about the poetry itself.</p>
<p>While McCormack has produced a book—by turns impassioned, inspired, errant and insightful—Michael Faherty has produced a pedagogical instrument to enable the undergraduate to orient herself in the historical development of Yeats criticism: <italic>The Poetry of W.B. Yeats: A Reader's Guide to Essential Criticism</italic>. There are also thematic divisions—the issues of the biographies of Yeats, as well as Yeats in connection with revivalism, modernism and nationalism. Long passages of criticism are quoted, often two or three pages at a time, and these are interlarded with a workmanlike, equable commentary by Faherty. That commentary never rises to opinion, but perhaps that was considered beyond the brief of the book. It remains, then, only for the reviewer to assess the fairness of Faherty's emphases as he surveys this vast critical field.</p>
<p>In general, they are even enough, but there are some occasional misjudgements. For instance, he gives far too much space to Patrick Kavanagh's opinions on Yeats; these are only of interest to the critics of Kavanagh's own poetry. This forms part of the chapter on Yeats and the Revival, which gives a good amount of space to both Seamus Deane and W.J. McCormack (surprisingly not to Edna Longley, whom I will come to below); but to end the chapter with seven pages or so of Declan Kiberd's <italic>Irish Classics</italic> [2000]—in which it is proved by means more subtle than algebra that Yeats belonged to the Gaelic poetic tradition—was an error. This opinion glosses over the question of linguistic competence in a rather imperialistic way, and Faherty limply comments by way of conclusion: ‘it must come as a relief to some of his readers that, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, at least some of his critics have finally decided that he might be Irish after all’. A reader's guide must by necessity simplify and summarize, but Faherty, with a crude comment like this, goes further and makes exciting cultural issues bland and simplistic. In the same chapter, he does not pick up Ernest Boyd's confusion of the plots of <italic>The Death of Cuchulain</italic> and <italic>Purgatory</italic> (Boyd, in a long passage quoted by Faherty, states that the first play is about ‘the slaying of Cuchullin by his father, who is ignorant of his son's identity’).</p>
<p>In <italic>Poetry and the Wars</italic> [1986], Edna Longley argued for Yeats, Thomas, MacNeice and others as poets who were more responsive to their times, on intellectual and artistic levels, than the modernist poets were. Her reading of his poetry was much more nuanced and insightful than the work of the majority of the other critics quoted in Faherty's book, and remains essential to an understanding of Yeats's position in twentieth-century poetry; the omission of this, along with Longley's name from the index, makes the book a reader's guide, not to the essential criticism, but only nearly all of it.</p>
<p>Staying with Yeats, we have the sixteenth number of the <italic>Yeats Annual</italic>, edited by Warwick Gould and subtitled <italic>A Special Number: Poems and Contexts</italic>. It kicks off with a long article by James Pethica on the background to Yeats's poems about Coole Park, dealing not only with his relationship with Lady Gregory but also with her son and his wife. Of the pre-emptive elegies for Lady Gregory he perceptively notes that the fact that she ‘was still very much alive when many of them were written suggests at least some element of <italic>desire</italic> for the loss of Coole and/or its owner on Yeats's part’. In the next article Jahan Ramazani presents Yeats's poetry as ‘self-theorizing’, especially in <italic>The Green Helmet and Other Poems</italic>. He argues that we usually consider self-reflective poetry as somehow uninterested in the world and that Yeats shows this to be a false axiom. This is unoriginal. Wayne K. Chapman considers the publication history of the rebellion poems, Joseph M. Hassett the Crazy Jane poems, P.S. Sri the influence of the Vedanta on the ‘Supernatural Songs’, and Deirdre Toomey presents a brief biography of a candidate for the ‘beautiful and gentle’ woman mentioned in ‘The Municipal Gallery Revisited’, a <italic>demi-mondaine</italic> named Muriel Broadbent. Not for the faint-hearted is Neil Mann's essay about <italic>A Vision</italic>, where he considers what George Yeats knew of the seventeenth-century writer on mysticism, Athanasius Kircher. There is also a hundred-page biography of Iseult Gonne by A. Norman Jeffares and transcriptions of Richard Ellmann's notes on Yeats. Most of the material in the latter is familiar from Foster's biography (who drew upon it), but there are some points of interest, for instance when Ellmann records that Norman Haire (Yeats's Steinach doctor) ‘[s]uggested I go to bed with Ethel Mannin’. Indeed, when he meets her, Ellmann notes Mannin's ‘good figure, and a way of hugging her stockinged leg with her dress pulled above her knee’.</p>
<p>Warwick Gould and Deirdre Toomey have splendidly edited Yeats's <italic>Mythologies</italic>. The publication has a high level of textual scholarship, and annotations are especially brilliant and informative. The way the explanatory and textual notes—over two hundred closely printed pages of them—combine information and emphasis often amounts to originality. For instance, in the notes to ‘The Tables of the Law’, where John O’Leary and Lionel Johnson are proposed as models for Owen Aherne, and also where Yeats's story is placed in the context of late nineteenth-century antinomianism. As the editors tell us, this edition was originally planned for inclusion in Palgrave Macmillan's edition of the <italic>Collected Works of W.B. Yeats</italic> and was withdrawn because of a disagreement with one of the general editors about the arrangement of texts within the <italic>Collected Works</italic>. The 1959 publication of <italic>Mythologies</italic>, according to Gould and Toomey, ‘offers a paradigm for those who would understand WBY's larger patterns of collecting, regrouping and revising published work. It also offers perhaps the clearest example of the way in which his widow and executor, George Yeats, and his editor at Macmillan, Thomas Mark (1890–1963), sought to publish his work in the changed and difficult circumstances after his death.’ That may well be, but the exigencies of a scholarly edition of any writer's work must on occasion sacrifice such contours. It seems a shame that Gould and Toomey's work is not part of the <italic>Collected Works</italic> for this reason.</p>
<p>There is a further issue, however, with Palgrave Macmillan's edition of Yeats. If one is lucky enough to purchase a volume in the first print-run, one receives a handsome, well-designed hardback, printed well on good paper (although not well bound). However, recently I ordered the Palgrave Macmillan edition of the poems, the first volume in the series, and received a print-on-demand copy, with an ugly, cheap cover and poor-quality paper and printing—and this for the same high price as the first print-run. The design of <italic>Mythologies</italic> is on this level, and moreover, it seems that Gould and Toomey had to have the book typeset themselves (which has resulted in not a few design glitches). If publishers are not going to stitch, as opposed to glue, their books and if they are not going to ensure that certain printing standards are maintained, then why should outstanding scholars such as Gould and Toomey not place their work online? Certainly this book, because of its physical attributes, is not going to last, and so is a bad investment for libraries and scholars alike. The issue would not arise if Palgrave Macmillan were committed to producing durable books, which they clearly are not.</p>
<p>The last and longest chapter of Alan Gillis's <italic>Irish Poetry of the 1930s</italic> is devoted to Yeats. The political slant is the same as McCormack's: Yeats's politics are described as ‘bilious’, ‘repulsively violent’ and occasionally nauseating and insulting. The usual critical counterpoint to such a judgement is that in the end Yeats was a great poet despite his political opinions. Gillis does indeed come round with an eirenic reference to ‘the music of [Yeats's] art’; but not before he makes a more interesting remark: ‘while the form of his critique turns into a repellent explosion of social prejudice, Yeats's late politics represent a gross and inverted parody of the conservatism that was dominant not just in Ireland, but across the West’. Such a comment illuminates the work of Yeats as much as it does DeValera's Ireland. Gillis is also perceptive about the declamatory aspect of Yeats's late work in which he railed against the modern world, particularly against democracy and industrialism, remarking that ‘Yeats was half in love with degeneration.’ This is to use Yeats's own theory of the Daimon profitably against himself, and it is likely that the poet would not query the justice of the observation.</p>
<p>Gillis reads the poet's work of the 1930s against Yeats's own conception of it. We are left not with a traditional poet who suppresses his personality in order to let the ‘Anima Mundi’ speak through him but a poet who seeks ‘replenishments of subjective power, content with generating the anarchic violence of mere energy, with which he was intoxicated’. In order to make this point he has to simplify the poet's thought as well as find incoherence where it is not present. For instance, he argues that the folk poems and ballads ‘are radically antagonistic towards the “common man” he claimed to write them for’. The conclusion is not held up by the examples adduced; but the core of the matter would seem to be that a left-leaning critic cannot accept that Yeats, who wished to deny the peasantry education and the vote, could be anything but antagonistic towards them. The violence that is expressed in some of these poems is not deployed <italic>against</italic> the peasantry from the Big House, but rather Yeats harnesses the huge force of the imagery and discourse of folk ballads with an artistic humility that does not foreclose aristocratic pride.</p>
<p>It is also a category mistake to think that the violence of the imagery implies a violent artistic egotism. Like Valéry in roughly the same period, Yeats's ambition was ‘to be the voice of no-one | but that of the waves and the woods’. This is an anti-modernist organicist fiction, but it is prosecuted with a seriousness of purpose that today's academic criticism is ill equipped to perceive. There is an anxiety that the Swastika billows in the background of such statements. This very ambition is at the heart of the ‘music of [Yeats's] art’, which is neither confusion nor culpable aporia, but creative conflict.</p>
<p>The book also devotes a separate chapter to Louis MacNeice, and it groups Austin Clarke and Patrick Kavanagh together for one chapter; and Denis Devlin, Brian Coffey and Samuel Beckett for another. He is caustic about Devlin (‘capable of generating preternatural effects, fusing intellectual complexity with emotive allure and threat; but this is too often followed by, or gratingly intermingled with, the pompously Parnassian’), and beyond caustic about Coffey (‘hermetically self-indulgent contortions of a dull imagination’). Given the piety with which these poets are treated in the academy, one breathes a sigh of relief at the justice of the characterizations.</p>
<p>Gillis is aware of the conventionality of his arrangement of poets, and in his introduction says that it unravels as the book progresses. In fact, it doesn't, and our idea of the period has not been radically changed. Also, by concentrating on the 1930s, he has to omit much of the best work of Denis Devlin and Austin Clarke (Coffey was uniformly bad throughout his career; Kavanagh and MacNeice wrote some of their best work in the decade); one also feels that Samuel Beckett's execrable poetry of the period is only taken seriously because of his post-war writings. It would have been better had Gillis reconstructed the decade from scratch, going to journals, magazines, correspondence, etc., with no reference to later achievements (as well as taking into account other poets, including female ones), or assessed these poets’ oeuvres <italic>in toto</italic>. There are several misspellings of authors’ and other names, as well as several attempts to make Padraic Colum literally into a pillar of the Revival by tacking an ‘n’ to the end of his surname.</p>
<p>Austin Clarke was also a dramatist of note in his own time, although that part of his work has been neglected in the decades since his death. He helped establish the Lyric Theatre in 1944, as well as the Dublin Verse Speaking Society. Mary Shine Thompson has chosen ten of his plays, along with two of his essays on verse drama and verse speaking for Colin Smythe's series, Irish Drama Selections. The plays stretch over Clarke's entire career, from <italic>The Son of Learning</italic> (first performed in 1927) to the late work, <italic>The Frenzy of Sweeny</italic> (which, Thompson remarks, has yet to be performed). The first of these is standard Revival fare, apart from the central farcical element in the plot (a large worm has taken up residence in the king's innards and has to be drawn out). In the 1930s, Clarke's drama, like his poetry, is preoccupied with what he called the Celtic-Romanesque period. Typical of this is a play like <italic>The Flame</italic> (first performed in 1932), set in an abbey where a novice struggles with her vocation. The abbess diagnoses the problem thus: ‘Sound and stir | Of Ireland, glitter of assemblies, fill | Her mind’. Clarke also tried his hand at comedies, but for the most part these are sad affairs. More interesting is his freewheeling treatment of Dublin folk history, <italic>Liberty Lane</italic> [1978], in which the Zozimus character steps forth and repeats the lines of the original Dublin glee-man. The free adaptation of <italic>Buile Suibhne</italic> from the last phase of Clarke's career contains some of his best poetry: there is a compact Keatsian sensuousness to the verse, along with a defter use of <italic>deibhí</italic> rhyme than is to be found in his poetry. While the book does not substantially change our view of the poet, it is good to have these plays published here. However, it is unfortunate that Thompson, who wrote her Ph.D. on Clarke and obviously knows the material well, did not provide any notes and a more extensive introduction.</p>
<p>Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill's name is something of a shibboleth in academic circles: one hears so many different pronunciations of it by non-Irish critics—diphthongs do back flips and there are consonantal shifts no linguist has dreamed of. This is ironic given the fact that Ní Dhomhnaill has done so much to bring Irish poetry to an international audience. While other poets such as Biddy Jenkinson and Tomás MacSíomóin receive little critical attention, Ní Dhomhnaill gives readings and plenaries and holds visiting professorships around the world; her work is translated into English by some of the best poets of that language. There are several reasons for this, among them that Ní Dhomhnaill is a marvellous performer of her own poetry, and an excellent raconteur, wittily and economically sketching out the dilemmas and problems of being an Irish-language poet at the present time. Another reason is that her take on Irish mythology is consonant with magical realism, especially that of writers like Angela Carter and Marina Warner; this is revisionist folklore of a particularly rich strain. A further reason is that her work does not employ the complex bardic forms of the Irish tradition, but instead uses the loose free-verse forms which spread from the US in the 1950s. Thus, arguably, when Ní Dhomhnaill is translated into English it is a type of homecoming. On the other hand, in 1986, Gearóid Ó Cruadhlaoich argued that no contemporary Irish poets connect with the Gaelic poetic tradition, with the exceptions of Ní Dhomhnaill and Michael Hartnett. The two poets then would appear to be the best examples of Thomas Kinsella's idea of the dual tradition of Irish poetry.</p>
<p>Just as the forms and themes of her poetry have many English and American roots, so too do her ideas about Irish culture. The following passage is from the essay ‘Cé Leis Tú?’: ‘In Ireland, everything, including personal and collective history, gets subsumed into the mythological. Our unconscious is still far our most creative side. For one reason or another, on this island the door between the rational and the irrational has never been locked tight shut. There was always someone—the bard in the hall, the <italic>seanchaí</italic> by the fireside or the balladeer in the pub—who kept his foot in the door. … the arts are in such a wonderfully creative state in Ireland at the moment. Art necessitates a holistic approach to life—at the very least a strong neck that is the necessary bridge between the head and the rest of the body—and no artistic creation that has been approached in a purely rational or logical manner is going to satisfy us aesthetically.’</p>
<p>One would like to know in which country exactly has ‘the door between the rational and irrational’ ever been shut. This Irish exceptionalism is of course taken directly from Matthew Arnold: here we have the dreamy Celt constructed to amuse the Saxon. This Celt, probably always ready with a song or a story, will send you packing with your logic and rationality. The institutions and laws of Gaelic society disintegrated before the Enlightenment, and this historical fact allows writers like Ní Dhomhnaill to think that the Irish are more imaginative than reasonable, left- and not right-brainers. Such reductiveness is present throughout these essays.</p>
<p>Love it or loathe it, you still must have this book. The collection is in English and it will be crucial for academics, students and readers with a general interest in Ireland. The slant of the essays is mostly autobiographical and they were written for different occasions over the period 1992–2003. Ní Dhomhnaill tells the story of her relationship to the Irish language and how she gradually learned to gain the trust of her relations and the community of Ventry in County Kerry. The book also includes her introduction to the ‘Contemporary Poetry’ section of what is wrongly billed here as <italic>The Field Day Anthology of Irish Women's Writing</italic>. Many of the essays also return to her difficulty establishing herself in Irish poetry: the sexism that Eavan Boland encountered in the world of Anglophone poetry in the 1960s and 1970s was, it seems, just as strong in that of Irish poetry.</p>
<p>It is a pity then that it is so shoddily edited. Ní Dhomhnaill repeats anecdotes and observations twice or three times; the book is littered with misspellings and typos. Not only are foreign names misspelled (among the many, there is a reference to one ‘Sorely MacLean’), but Irish ones too (Liam Ó Muirthile, <italic>An Claidheamh Soluis</italic>). Turns of phrase that would have gone over well in performance lie dead on the page (‘there wasn't a snowball's chance in hell …’, ‘You bet your sweet life …’), and Ní Dhomhnaill swings from that to a pseudo-academic tone (‘Among the many belief systems that have been depotentated and imploded in our time, I would argue, are Freudian and Lacanian discourses’). ‘Depotentated’? That must have been what happened to the book's editor, Oona Frawley.</p>
<p>Sarah Broom has written a book entitled <italic>Contemporary British and Irish Poetry: An Introduction</italic>. The troubling question which the authors of all such books face is how to corral their material. Should one write an introduction to, say, all contemporary Anglophone poetry (a daunting task) or if one restricts it to what Norman Davies calls the Isles then do you include poetry written in Irish and Scots Gaelic? (Broom deals only with poetry in English.) Having chosen to narrow the scope to Britain and Ireland, one then has to struggle with nationalist readings of literature, which are often woven into the texts themselves, or at least the texts one finds oneself ineluctably choosing. These general issues aside, Broom's book will serve as a handy tool for undergraduates, as it presents issues of gender, nation, class and poetic form in a methodical and lucid way.</p>
<p>There is a refreshing bite to her discussion of ethnicity in British poetry. For instance at the end of her discussion of Benjamin Zephaniah, Jackie Kay and Moniza Alvi she remarks that the ‘three poets express a strong and—one might venture—<italic>comfortable</italic> sense of British identity and belonging which paradoxically exists alongside the other more discomforting experiences of racism and exclusion’. The comment holds for many other British poets who claim subversive status, but address A-level students at venues like the Barbican about the meaning of their poems. The problem here is that the poets that vaguely define themselves as belonging to various ethnic groups in Britain are not as good as the novelists from the same groups. Broom seems to realize this, but includes them to increase her book's coverage and perhaps to avoid being labelled racist. Elsewhere, it is again clear that aesthetic excellence is not the main criterion for all her choices of poets. For instance, Eavan Boland is dealt with rather critically, and I imagine that she was included only because it allowed Broom to cover feminism in Irish poetry.</p>
<p>From Broom's survey it is obvious that the most intense and <italic>un</italic>comfortable questioning of identity has taken place in Northern Ireland in the last four decades, and she gives an excellent account of that poetry, especially that of Michael Longley. I would, however, take issue with the contradiction she finds in Muldoon between his utter control as an artist and his desire to give himself over to the serendipity of language through rhymes. A critic more attuned to poetry would know this is only an apparent contradiction. Also, her account of experimental Irish poetry feels slightly second-hand: ‘[Irish] Experimental writers tend to prefer to view themselves as part of an international community of avant-garde writers, and adopt formal methods which make their poems resistant to assimilation into any narrative of identity—in fact, any narrative whatsoever.’ Generally speaking this is true, but Broom passes over the interest of these poets in the subject of Ireland, as evidenced in the work of Maurice Scully, Randolph Healy or Trevor Joyce (the last has translated <italic>Buile Suibhne</italic>, and the translation makes up part of his collected poems). Moreover, these poets do not avoid narrative in the radical way Broom suggests (Healy's poetry, for example, tells excellent stories). But one is always going to disagree with aspects of a book with such wide coverage; that does not stop one warmly endorsing it.</p></sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list><title>Books Reviewed</title>
<ref id="B1"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Alter</surname><given-names>Robert.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Imagined Cities: Urban Experience and the Language of the Novel</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>YaleUP</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 175</fpage><comment>£18 ISBN 0 3001 0802 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B2"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Armstrong</surname><given-names>Paul B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Play and the Politics of Reading: The Social Uses of Modernist Form</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>CornUP</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 207</fpage><comment>£30 ISBN 0 8014 4325 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B3"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Armstrong</surname><given-names>Tim.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Modernism: A Cultural History</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Polity</publisher-name><fpage>x + 176</fpage><comment>£15.99 ISBN 0 7456 2983 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B4"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ayers</surname><given-names>David.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Modernism: A Short Introduction</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>176</fpage><comment>hb £45 ISBN 1 4051 0854 1, pb £14.99 ISBN 1 4051 0853 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B5"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Badenhausen</surname><given-names>Richard.</given-names></name></person-group><source>T.S. Eliot and the Art of Collaboration</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 256</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 5218 4123 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B6"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bainbridge</surname><given-names>Beryl.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Front Row: Evenings at the Theatre</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><fpage>214</fpage><comment>£14.99 ISBN 0 8264 8787 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B7"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baldick</surname><given-names>Chris.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Modern Movement: 1910–1940</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>OELH 10. OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 550</fpage><comment>hb £41 ISBN 0 1981 8310 0, pb £20 ISBN 0 1992 8834 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B8"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barker</surname><given-names>Howard.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Death, the One and the Art of Theatre</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>105</fpage><comment>pb £12.99 ISBN 0 4153 4987 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B9"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Batty</surname><given-names>Mark.</given-names></name></person-group><source>About Pinter</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Faber</publisher-name><fpage>xix + 243</fpage><comment>pb £8.99 ISBN 0 5712 2005 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B10"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bayley</surname><given-names>John.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Power of Delight: A Lifetime in Literature: Essays 1962–2002, <italic>ed. Leo Cowey</italic></source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Duckworth</publisher-name><fpage>xvii + 677</fpage><comment>£25 ISBN 0 7156 3312 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B11"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Begley</surname><given-names>Varun.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Harold Pinter and the Twilight of Modernism</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UTorP</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 207</fpage><comment>£35 ISBN 0 8020 3887 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B12"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Bentley</surname><given-names>Nick</given-names></name></person-group><source>British Fiction of the 1990s</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 244</fpage><comment>£60 hb ISBN 0 4153 4256 2, pb £16.99 ISBN 0 4153 4257 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B13"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Breton</surname><given-names>Rob.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Gospels and Grit: Work and Labour in Carlyle, Conrad and Orwell</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UTorP</publisher-name><fpage>241</fpage><comment>$CAN55 ISBN 0 8020 3888 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B14"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Briggs</surname><given-names>Julia.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Virginia Woolf: An Inner Life</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Lane</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 527</fpage><comment>£30 ISBN 0 7139 9663 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B15"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Broom</surname><given-names>Sarah.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Contemporary British and Irish Poetry: An Introduction</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>278</fpage><comment>hb £45 ISBN 1 4039 0674 2, pb £14.99 ISBN 1 4039 0675 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B16"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>Richard Danson</given-names></name><name><surname>Gupta</surname><given-names>Suman</given-names></name></person-group><source>Aestheticism and Modernism: Debating Twentieth-Century Literature 1900–1960</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge/OpenUP</publisher-name><fpage>vi + 445</fpage><comment>£18.99 ISBN 0 4153 5168 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B17"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Buning</surname><given-names>Marius</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><source>Historicising Beckett/Issues of Performance: Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Rodopi</publisher-name><fpage>362</fpage><comment>ISBN 9 0420 1767 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B18"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Burack</surname><given-names>Charles.</given-names></name></person-group><source>D.H. Lawrence's Language of Sacred Experience: The Transfiguration of the Reader</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 206</fpage><comment>£40 ISBN 1 4039 6845 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B19"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Burt</surname><given-names>Stephen</given-names></name><name><surname>Brooks-Motl</surname><given-names>Hannah</given-names></name></person-group><source>Randall Jarrell on W.H. Auden</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>ColUP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 179</fpage><comment>$36.50 ISBN 0 2311 3078 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B20"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Caminero-Santangelo</surname><given-names>Byron.</given-names></name></person-group><source>African Fiction and Joseph Conrad: Reading Postcolonial Intertextuality</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>NYUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 172</fpage><comment>$40 ISBN 0 7914 6262 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B21"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Childs</surname><given-names>Peter.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Contemporary Novelists: British Fiction Since 1970</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>287</fpage><comment>£15.99 ISBN 1 4039 1120 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B22"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Clay</surname><given-names>Catherine.</given-names></name></person-group><source>British Women Writers, 1914–1945: Professional Work and Friendship</source><year>2006</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 184</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 7546 5093 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B23"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Cohn</surname><given-names>Ruby.</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Beckett Canon</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UMichP</publisher-name><fpage>414</fpage><comment>pb £18.50 ISBN 0 4720 3131 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B24"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Collitts</surname><given-names>Terry.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Postcolonial Conrad: Paradoxes of Empire</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 226</fpage><comment>£55 ISBN 0 4153 5575 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B25"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Comentale</surname><given-names>Edward P</given-names></name></person-group><source>Modernism, Cultural Production and the British Avant-Garde</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 261</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 5218 3589 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B26"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Corcoran</surname><given-names>Neil.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Elizabeth Bowen: The Enforced Return</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Clarendon</publisher-name><fpage>211</fpage><comment>£51 ISBN 0 1981 8690 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B27"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Crivelli</surname><given-names>Renzo S</given-names></name></person-group><source>Una Rosa per Joyce: A Rose for Joyce</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>MGS Press</publisher-name><fpage>22</fpage><comment>€18 ISBN 8 8892 1903 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B28"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Croall</surname><given-names>Jonathan.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Coming of Godot: A Short History of a Masterpiece</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Oberon</publisher-name><fpage>147</fpage><comment>pb £9.99 ISBN 1 8400 2595 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B29"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Curtis</surname><given-names>Vanessa.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Hidden Houses of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Hale</publisher-name><fpage>240</fpage><comment>£20 ISBN 0 7090 7512 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B30"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dalrymple</surname><given-names>Theodore.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Our Culture, What's Left of It: The Mandarins and the Masses</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Dee</publisher-name><fpage>xi + 341</fpage><comment>pb $27.50 ISBN 1 5666 3643 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B31"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Davis</surname><given-names>Robert Murray</given-names></name><name><surname>Villar Flor</surname><given-names>Carlos</given-names></name></person-group><source>Waugh Without End: New Trends in Waugh Studies</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Lang</publisher-name><fpage>291</fpage><comment>pb £35.70 ISBN 3 0391 0496 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B32"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>DeVine</surname><given-names>Christine.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Class in Turn-of-the-Century Novels of Gissing, James, Hardy and Wells</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>158</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 7546 5150 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B33"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Dolin</surname><given-names>Tim</given-names></name><name><surname>Widdowson</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name></person-group><source>Thomas Hardy and Contemporary Literary Studies</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>248</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 3339 9445 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B34"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Donovan</surname><given-names>Stephen.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Joseph Conrad and Popular Culture</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>xiii + 240</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 1 4039 0810 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B35"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dowson</surname><given-names>Jane</given-names></name><name><surname>Entwistle</surname><given-names>Alice</given-names></name></person-group><source>A History of Twentieth-Century British Women's Poetry</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>CUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxi + 381</fpage><comment>£50 ISBN 0 5218 1946 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B36"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Doyle</surname><given-names>Laura</given-names></name><name><surname>Winkiel</surname><given-names>Laura</given-names></name></person-group><source>Geomodernisms: Race, Modernism, Modernity</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>IndUP</publisher-name><fpage>354</fpage><comment>$55 ISBN 0 253 21778 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B37"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Earl</surname><given-names>John.</given-names></name></person-group><source>British Theatres and Music Halls</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Shire</publisher-name><fpage>64</fpage><comment>pb £5.99 ISBN 0 7478 0627 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B38"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ebbatson</surname><given-names>Roger.</given-names></name></person-group><source>An Imaginary England: Literature and Landscape 1840–1920</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 236</fpage><comment>£50 ISBN 0 7546 5092 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B39"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Egremont</surname><given-names>Max.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Siegfried Sassoon: A Biography</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Picador</publisher-name><fpage>xv + 639</fpage><comment>£25 ISBN 0 3303 7526 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B40"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Eldridge</surname><given-names>David.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Plays One: Serving It Up; Summer Begins; Under the Blue Sky; M.A.D</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Methuen</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 351</fpage><comment>pb £14.99 ISBN 0 4137 7509 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B41"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Esty</surname><given-names>Jed.</given-names></name></person-group><source>A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>PrincetonUP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 285</fpage><comment>$22.95 ISBN 0 6911 1549 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B42"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Faherty</surname><given-names>Michael</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Poetry of W.B. Yeats: A Reader's Guide to Essential Criticism</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>177</fpage><comment>pb £12.99 ISBN 1 4039 1137 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B43"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Farn</surname><given-names>Regelind.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Colonial and Postcolonial Rewritings of ‘Heart of Darkness’: A Century of Dialogue with Joseph Conrad</source><year>2005</year><fpage>285</fpage><comment>£18.95 ISBN 1 5811 2289 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B44"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ferrebe</surname><given-names>Alice.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Masculinity in Male-Authored Fiction, 1950–2000: Keeping It Up</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 221</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 1 4039 4550 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B45"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Fogarty</surname><given-names>Anne</given-names></name><name><surname>Martin</surname><given-names>Timothy</given-names></name></person-group><source>Joyce on the Threshold</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UFlorP</publisher-name><fpage>299</fpage><comment>$65 ISBN 0 8130 2839 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B46"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fowler</surname><given-names>Jim</given-names></name></person-group><source><italic>with Jonathan Gray</italic>. Unleashing Britain: Theatre Gets Real 1955–64</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>V&A</publisher-name><fpage>126</fpage><comment>pb £19.99 ISBN 1 8517 7473 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B47"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Frawley</surname><given-names>Oona</given-names></name></person-group><source>Selected Essays, <italic>by Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill</italic></source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>New Island</publisher-name><fpage>222</fpage><comment>pb €12.99 ISBN 1 9043 0132 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B49"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gale</surname><given-names>Maggie B</given-names></name><name><surname>Gardner</surname><given-names>Viv</given-names></name></person-group><source>Auto/Biography and Identity: Women, Theatre and Performance</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>ManUP</publisher-name><fpage>272</fpage><comment>£50 ISBN 0 7190 6332 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B50"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gardner</surname><given-names>Kevin J</given-names></name></person-group><source>Faith and Doubt of John Betjeman: An Anthology of Betjeman's Religious Verse</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Continuum</publisher-name><fpage>xii + 200</fpage><comment>£16.99 ISBN 0 8264 8272 4</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B51"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gasiorek</surname><given-names>Andrzej.</given-names></name></person-group><source>J.G. Ballard</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Contemporary British Novelists. ManUP</publisher-name><fpage>228</fpage><comment>hb £47.50 ISBN 0 7190 7052 X, pb £14.99 ISBN 0 7190 7053 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B52"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gibson</surname><given-names>George Cinclair.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Wake Rites: The Ancient Rituals of Finnegans Wake</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UFlorP</publisher-name><fpage>xiv + 277</fpage><comment>$59.95 ISBN 0 8130 2870 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B53"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gillis</surname><given-names>Alan.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Irish Poetry of the 1930s</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>228</fpage><comment>£49 ISBN 0 1992 7709 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B54"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gould</surname><given-names>Warwick</given-names></name></person-group><source>Yeats Annual, <italic>no. 16:</italic> A Special Number. Poems and Contexts</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>384</fpage><comment>£65 ISBN 1 4039 4568 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B55"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Gould</surname><given-names>Warwick</given-names></name><name><surname>Toomey</surname><given-names>Deirdre</given-names></name></person-group><source>Mythologies, <italic>by W.B. Yeats</italic></source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Palgrave Macmillan</publisher-name><fpage>545</fpage><comment>£80 ISBN 1 4039 4505 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B58"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Haffenden</surname><given-names>John.</given-names></name></person-group><source>William Empson: Among the Mandarins</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>OUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxi + 695</fpage><comment>£32 ISBN 0 1992 7659 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B59"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Haill</surname><given-names>Lyn</given-names></name></person-group><source>Faber Playwrights at the National Theatre</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Faber</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 120</fpage><comment>pb £6.99 ISBN 0 571 23076 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B60"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hall</surname><given-names>Sarah.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Before Leonard: Virginia Woolf 's Unsuitable Suitors</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Owen</publisher-name><fpage>304</fpage><comment>£22.50 ISBN 0 7206 1222 5</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B64"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hare</surname><given-names>David.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Obedience, Struggle and Revolt: Lectures on Theatre</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Faber</publisher-name><fpage>245</fpage><comment>£12.99 ISBN 0 5712 2872 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B69"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hipp</surname><given-names>Daniel.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Poetry of Shell Shock: Wartime Trauma and Healing in Wilfred Owen, Ivor Gurney and Siegfried Sassoon</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>McFarland</publisher-name><fpage>218</fpage><comment>$35 ISBN 0 7864 2174 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B102"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Moore</surname><given-names>James Ross.</given-names></name></person-group><source>André Charlot: The Genius of Intimate Musical Revue</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>McFarland</publisher-name><fpage>200</fpage><comment>pb £27.95 ISBN 0 7864 1774 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B103"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nadel</surname><given-names>Ira B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Publishers</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>National Library of Ireland Joyce Studies 20</publisher-name><fpage>59</fpage><comment>€5 ISBN 0 9073 2858 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B105"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Nicholson</surname><given-names>Steve.</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Censorship of British Drama 1900–1952, <italic>vol. 2:</italic> 1933–1952</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>ExeUP</publisher-name><fpage>360</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 8598 9697 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B106"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Oldfield</surname><given-names>Sybil.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Afterwords: Letters on the Death of Virginia Woolf</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>EdinUP</publisher-name><fpage>xxxii + 221</fpage><comment>£17.99 ISBN 0 7486 2242 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B107"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>O’Neill</surname><given-names>Patrick.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Polyglot Joyce: Fictions of Translation</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UTorP</publisher-name><fpage>x + 301</fpage><comment>$55 (£35) ISBN 0 8020 3897 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B108"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>O’Rourke</surname><given-names>Fran.</given-names></name></person-group><source>‘Allwisest Stagyrite’</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>National Library of Ireland Joyce Studies 21</publisher-name><fpage>59</fpage><comment>€5 ISBN 0 9073 2861 X</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B109"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Owen</surname><given-names>Alistair</given-names></name></person-group><source>Hampton on Hampton</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Faber</publisher-name><fpage>ix + 249</fpage><comment>pb £14.99 ISBN 0 5712 1418 5. ed</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B110"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Panichas</surname><given-names>George A</given-names></name></person-group><source>Joseph Conrad: His Moral Vision</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>MercerUP</publisher-name><fpage>xviii + 165</fpage><comment>$35 ISBN 0 8655 4936 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B111"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Pinney</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Letters of Rudyard Kipling, <italic>vol. 5:</italic> 1920 –1930</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>592</fpage><comment>£64 ISBN 1 4039 2131 8</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B112"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Pinney</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name></person-group><source>Letters of Rudyard Kipling, <italic>vol. 6:</italic> 1931 –1936</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Palgrave</publisher-name><fpage>544</fpage><comment>£64 ISBN 1 4039 2132 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B113"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pollard</surname><given-names>Wendy.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Rosamond Lehmann and her Critics: The Vagaries of Literary Reception</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>185</fpage><comment>$99.95 ISBN 0 7546 3713 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B114"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Poulos Nesbitt</surname><given-names>Jennifer.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Narrative Settlements: Geographies of British Women's Fiction Between the Wars</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>UTorP</publisher-name><fpage>146</fpage><comment>$CAN45 ISBN 0 8020 8986 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B115"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Priestley</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Art of the Dramatist, and Other Writings on Theatre</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Oberon</publisher-name><fpage>232</fpage><comment>pb £12.99 ISBN 1 8400 2294 9</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B116"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rainey</surname><given-names>Lawrence.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Revisiting The Waste Land</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>YaleUP</publisher-name><fpage>224</fpage><comment>$37 ISBN 0 3001 0707 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B117"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Rainey</surname><given-names>Lawrence</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Annotated Waste Land</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>YaleUP</publisher-name><fpage>304</fpage><comment>$35 ISBN 0 3000 9743 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B118"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rainey</surname><given-names>Lawrence</given-names></name></person-group><source>Modernism: An Anthology</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name><fpage>xxxii + 1181</fpage><comment>£20.99 ISBN 0 631 20449 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B119"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rawa</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Imperial Quest and Modern Memory from Conrad to Greene</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>156</fpage><comment>£35 ISBN 0 4159 7552 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B120"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Rebellato</surname><given-names>Dan</given-names></name></person-group><source>Shopping and Fucking, <italic>by Mark Ravenhill</italic></source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Methuen</publisher-name><fpage>i + 101</fpage><comment>pb £8.99 ISBN 0 4137 7373 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B122"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rosner</surname><given-names>Victoria</given-names></name></person-group><source>Modernism and the Architecture of Private Life</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Columbia UP</publisher-name><fpage>219</fpage><comment>£18.50 ISBN 0 2311 33049</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B123"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Roy</surname><given-names>Anindyo.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Civility and Empire: Literature and Culture in British India, 1822–1922</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name><fpage>viii + 216</fpage><comment>£55 ISBN 0 4153 0435 0</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B124"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sagar</surname><given-names>Keith.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Literature and the Crime Against Nature</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Chaucer Press</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 397</fpage><comment>£20 ISBN 1 9044 4947 6</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B125"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schiele</surname><given-names>Jinnie.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Off-Centre Stages</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>University of Hertfordshire Press/STR</publisher-name><fpage>xvi + 229</fpage><comment>pb £18.99 ISBN 1 9028 0643 3</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
<ref id="B126"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Schirmer</surname><given-names>Gregory A</given-names></name></person-group><source>The Irish Poems of J.J. Callanan</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Smythe</publisher-name><fpage>153</fpage><comment>pb £8.99 ISBN 0 8614 0449 1</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B129"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Severin</surname><given-names>Laura.</given-names></name></person-group><source>Poetry off the Page: Twentieth-Century Women Poets in Performance</source><year>2004</year><publisher-name>Ashgate</publisher-name><fpage>vii + 112</fpage><comment>£45 ISBN 0 7546 3668 2</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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<ref id="B153"><nlm-citation citation-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Worthen</surname><given-names>John.</given-names></name></person-group><source>D.H. Lawrence: The Life of an Outsider</source><year>2005</year><publisher-name>Penguin</publisher-name><fpage>xxvi + 518</fpage><comment>£30 ISBN 0 7139 9613 7</comment></nlm-citation></ref>
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</article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo><title>XIVModern Literature</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" contentType="CDATA"><title>XIVModern Literature</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Nick</namePart><namePart type="family">Bentley</namePart><affiliation>Keele University</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">John</namePart><namePart type="family">Brannigan</namePart><affiliation>University College, Dublin</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Matthew</namePart><namePart type="family">Creasy</namePart><affiliation>University of St. Andrews</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Rebecca</namePart><namePart type="family">D’Monté</namePart><affiliation>University of the west of England, Bristol</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Anne</namePart><namePart type="family">Fogarty</namePart><affiliation>University College, Dublin</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Andrew</namePart><namePart type="family">Harrison</namePart><affiliation>Technische Universitaet Darmstadt, Germany</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Chris</namePart><namePart type="family">Hopkins</namePart><affiliation>Sheffield Hallam University</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Justin</namePart><namePart type="family">Quinn</namePart><affiliation>Charles University, Prague</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Andrew</namePart><namePart type="family">Radford</namePart><affiliation>University of Glasgow</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Lisa</namePart><namePart type="family">Shahriari</namePart><affiliation>University of Essex</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Aleks</namePart><namePart type="family">Sierz</namePart><affiliation>Rose Bruford College</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>Oxford University Press</publisher><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2007</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2007</copyrightDate></originInfo><abstract>This chapter has eight sections: 1. General; 2. Pre-1945 Fiction; 3. Post-1945 Fiction; 4. Pre-1950 Drama; 5. Post-1950 Drama; 6. Pre-1950 Poetry; 7. Post-1950 Poetry; 8. Irish Poetry. Sections 1 and 7 are by John Brannigan; section 2(a) is by Andrew Radford; section 2(b) is by Chris Hopkins; section 2(c) is by Anne Fogarty; section 2(d) is by Andrew Harrison; section 2(e) is by Lisa Shahriari; section 3 is by Nick Bentley; section 4 is by Rebecca D’Monté; section 5 is by Aleks Sierz; section 6 is by Matthew Creasy; section 8 is by Justin Quinn.</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Year's Work in English Studies</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><subject><topic>Articles</topic></subject><identifier type="ISSN">0084-4144</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1471-6801</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">ywes</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">ywes</identifier><part><date>2007</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>86</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>780</start><end>886</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1093/ywes/mam014</identifier><accessCondition type="use and reproduction" contentType="copyright">© The English Association; all rights reserved</accessCondition><recordInfo><recordContentSource authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-GTWS0RDP-M">oup</recordContentSource><recordOrigin>© The English Association; all rights reserved</recordOrigin></recordInfo></mods><json:item><extension>json</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/json</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/metadata/json</uri></json:item></metadata><covers><json:item><extension>tiff</extension><original>true</original><mimetype>image/tiff</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/404220E95C70AB3A32B5022966751D6E1E768E08/covers/tiff</uri></json:item></covers><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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