MusiqueCeltiqueV1, Istex, Corpus, bibRecord, 000222

Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education

Identifieur interne : 000222 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000221; suivant : 000223

Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education

Auteurs : John O Lynn

Source :

International journal of music education [ 0255-7614 ] ; 2005-12.

RBID : ISTEX:B7796F186043BEAB49F149895A5921DD1777ED09

English descriptors

KwdEn :
- Bimusicality, Blacking, Classical music, Cultural experiences, Different expressions, Different styles, Different types, Different ways, First instance, Formal music education, General idea, Hargreaves, Ideas sobre, Intercultural, Intercultural contexts, Intercultural music education, Intermusicality, International journal, International perspective, International society, Interpretative approach, John baily, John blacking, Lundquist szego, Many cases, Many countries, Many societies, More types, Multicultural, Multicultural music education, Music archive, Music curricula, Music education, Music education practice, Music education systems, Music educators, Music teachers, Music teaching, Musical activities, Musical cultures, Musical development, Musical elements, Musical intelligence, Musical life, Musical practices, Musical systems, Musical worlds, Musicality, National levels, Other cultures, Other music, Other styles, Oxford university press, Particular culture, Particular societies, Particular society, Performance practices, Popular music, Social contexts, Social lives, Social realities, Technological factors, Traditional music, Transmission practices, Ways people, Wider society, World music, World today.
Teeft :
- Bimusicality, Blacking, Classical music, Cultural experiences, Different expressions, Different styles, Different types, Different ways, First instance, Formal music education, General idea, Hargreaves, Ideas sobre, Intercultural, Intercultural contexts, Intercultural music education, Intermusicality, International journal, International perspective, International society, Interpretative approach, John baily, John blacking, Lundquist szego, Many cases, Many countries, Many societies, More types, Multicultural, Multicultural music education, Music archive, Music curricula, Music education, Music education practice, Music education systems, Music educators, Music teachers, Music teaching, Musical activities, Musical cultures, Musical development, Musical elements, Musical intelligence, Musical life, Musical practices, Musical systems, Musical worlds, Musicality, National levels, Other cultures, Other music, Other styles, Oxford university press, Particular culture, Particular societies, Particular society, Performance practices, Popular music, Social contexts, Social lives, Social realities, Technological factors, Traditional music, Transmission practices, Ways people, Wider society, World music, World today.

Abstract

This article examines ideas of musicality as they may apply to local, national and intercultural contexts of music education. Conceptions of multicultural music education are explored in the light of alternative approaches to musicality adapted from ethnomusicological perspectives. It is argued that while recently published music curricula in many countries appear to offer a more pluralistic view of music and music education than previously, these may fall short of providing an intercultural model for teachers and schools. Critically, an intercultural music education will draw on a variety of performing and learning practices, in addition to a range of beliefs and values that are pertinent to the musical systems in question. Ideas of bimusicalityand intermusicalitycan be adapted not only to our understanding of individual learners and performers, but also to the professional preparation of teachers, to the design of music curricula and to the development of musical infrastructures in contemporary societies.

Url:

https://api.istex.fr/document/B7796F186043BEAB49F149895A5921DD1777ED09/fulltext/pdf

DOI: 10.1177/0255761405058238

Links to Exploration step

ISTEX:B7796F186043BEAB49F149895A5921DD1777ED09

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<journal-title>International Journal of Music Education</journal-title>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0255-7614</issn>
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            <publisher-name>Sage Publications</publisher-name>                 
            <publisher-loc>Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</publisher-loc>             
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<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1177/0255761405058238</article-id>
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<title-group><article-title>Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education</article-title>
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         <contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>O’flynn</surname>
<given-names>John</given-names>
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<aff>University of Limerick, Ireland</aff>
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         <pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>12</month>
<year>2005</year>
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<volume>23</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>191</fpage>
<lpage>203</lpage>
<abstract>             
            <p>This article examines ideas of musicality as they may apply to local, national and                 intercultural contexts of music education. Conceptions of multicultural music                 education are explored in the light of alternative approaches to musicality adapted                 from ethnomusicological perspectives. It is argued that while recently published                 music curricula in many countries appear to offer a more pluralistic view of music                 and music education than previously, these may fall short of providing an                 intercultural model for teachers and schools. Critically, an intercultural music                 education will draw on a variety of performing and learning practices, in addition                 to a range of beliefs and values that are pertinent to the musical systems in                 question. Ideas of <italic>bimusicality</italic>
and <italic>intermusicality</italic>
can be adapted                 not only to our understanding of individual learners and performers, but also to the                 professional preparation of teachers, to the design of music curricula and to the                 development of musical infrastructures in contemporary societies.</p>         
         </abstract>
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            <kwd>bimusicality</kwd>             
            <kwd>intermusicality</kwd>             
            <kwd>multicultural</kwd>         
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<meta-value> Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education1             JOHN O'FLYNN University of Limerick, Ireland Abstract This article examines ideas of             musicality as they may apply to local, national and intercultural contexts of music             education. Conceptions of multicultural music education are explored in the light of             alternative approaches to musicality adapted from ethnomusicological perspectives. It is             argued that while recently published music curricula in many countries appear to offer a             more pluralistic view of music and music education than previously, these may fall short             of providing an intercultural model for teachers and schools. Critically, an             intercultural music education will draw on a variety of performing and learning             practices, in addition to a range of beliefs and values that are pertinent to the             musical systems in question. Ideas of bimusicality and intermusicality can be adapted             not only to our understanding of individual learners and performers, but also to the             professional preparation of teachers, to the design of music curricula and to the             development of musical infrastructures in contemporary societies. Key words             bimusicality, intermusicality, multicultural Introduction This article is premised on             two fundamental beliefs: first, that the ability to be musical is shared by virtually             all members of the human race; and, second, that the development of our musical selves             is conditioned by our social and cultural experiences, not least through processes of             education. If we can say that most people are musical, or at least potentially musical,             it does not of course follow that we are equally musical. Yet, the phenomenon of musical             talent among a minority of people cannot be used to justify an elitist view of             musicality that acts to negate the musical potential of all peoples, a point famously             argued by John Blacking in How musical is man? (1973). In addition to our individual             musical behaviours and thoughts, each of us has our own unique (musical) personality.             Differences in how musical or not we are can also arise from cultural experiences: the             more music is valued and practised in the family, community, school and wider society,             INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright © 2005 International Society for             Music Education Vol 23(3) 191-203 [(200512)23:3] 10.1177/0255761405058238             http://ijm.sagepub.com the more likely it is that our individual musical sides will             develop and flourish (Howe, Davidson, & Sloboda, 1998). In many ways, these             sociocultural influences have become increasingly difficult to interpret, given the             complexity of cultural, political, economic and technological factors that continue to             impact on all societies throughout the world. This presents many challenges and             opportunities for those of us with a direct involvement in music education. Among other             matters, 'multicultural music education' suggests a desire to broaden our students'             engagement with the world of music. While I share this general aim, my particular focus             is to examine how conventional understandings of 'musicality' can be adapted to more             flexible conceptions of music and music education. In the first section of this article,             I explore the idea of musicality and identify some potential problems that the             assumption and definition of this concept pose in cross-cultural and multicultural             contexts of music and music education. Following this, I comment on aspects of theory             and practice in the field of multicultural music education in recent decades, with             particular reference to cross-cultural and culture-specific conceptions and phenomena of             musicality. The third section of the article addresses some of the problems raised in             the opening sections by adopting a broader anthropological and sociological perspective.             The terminology now shifts from 'multicultural' to 'intercultural' music education,             arguing that the musician-centred models of 'bimusicality' and 'intermusicality' (both             terms adapted from studies in ethnomusicology) can inform our understanding of music             teaching and learning in specific as well as in broader cultural contexts. This has             implications for the reappraisal of music education policies in contemporary,             differentiated societies. How do we conceive music and musicality? Some writers on music             education have recently come to question the very idea of music as a universal             linguistic concept. Robert Walker (1996) adopts a postmodernist perspective when he             argues that the idea of 'music' is specific to western cultures. Thus, he argues,             although perspectives on multicultural music education are seemingly more pluralist than             former colonial approaches to music education, the very assumption of music as a             universal concept means that these newer ideas in music education continue to be             ideologically linked with aspects of cultural imperialism. While Walker presents a             compelling ideology critique, I believe that his post-colonial perspective tends to             obscure the social realities of music and music education in the world today. First, it             is somewhat reductionistic to compare highly differentiated 'western' societies with             'other' less differentiated societies around the world, since there are many cases that             do not 'fit' into such a theory. Rightly or wrongly, the so- called western idea of             music has now become a global idea. We discover this in practice if we tune in to radio             in virtually any country in the world.2 Yet, although I do not agree with Walker's             proposed abandonment of the term 'music' in global education, I believe he is right in             highlighting the various ways that different groups of people deal with and conceive             'sonic materials' in their social lives (Walker, 1996, p. 11). I argue below that a             general concept of music can be applied strategically in global contexts, provided that             we acknowledge the possibility of different ways of practising and conceiving music.             Furthermore, as much as I take an interpretative approach to the state of music and             music education around the world today, particularly in relation to processes of             globalization, I also take the view that music education can be proactive in regard to             cultural renewal and development, and particularly so with regard to indigenous musical             forms and practices. But I have jumped a little forward here with the notion of             musicality. Can musical ability be distinguished from a more culturally specific idea of             musicality that requires particular contexts and experiences of enculturation? Does             musicality require the acquisition of 192 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 23(3)             specialist knowledge and technical skills (as is believed in some music systems, for             example the western classical music model of 'musicianship')? Blacking (1987, p. 260)             makes a useful distinction between 'musical intelligence' and 'musical thought'. As with             the general idea of music, musical intelligence can be considered as universal to all             societies, whereas various systems of musical thought arise from particular 'traditions'             of sociomusical ideas and behaviours. These different manifestations of musical thought             are closely associated with different musics of the world, though not always exclusively             so. Arguably, it makes sense to adopt a flexible approach to the idea of musicality,             recognizing (a) that virtually all people share the same cognitive, emotional and             physio- logical capacity to make and/or make sense of music; and (b) that we can also             consider different expressions of musicality, each of which, while sharing a common base             of musical intelligence, also has its own unique set of musical practices and associated             beliefs. Bennett Reimer's (1993) reflection on issues in multicultural music education             can inform this flexible conception of musicality. Reimer states that all music is, to             some degree, like all other music, is like some other music, and is like no other music             (Reimer, 1993). We might add that what counts as same, similar and different depends             very much on a range of social and individual contexts. It is not just a question of             finding structural contrasts and comparisons between one type of music and another, as             might be the approach adopted in analytical musicology. Far more important, perhaps, are             the specific musical practices and beliefs of individuals and/or groups concerning their             own music, and how these musical practices and beliefs relate to those of other             individuals and/or groups. Bearing this social contingency in mind, we could say the             following about musicality: 1. All cultures share a core set of conceptual and             behavioural traits that can be generally recognized as 'musical', albeit to varying             degrees. One obvious example of this would be the distinction made between speech and             song in virtually every human society. 2. Some aspects of the ways people conceive of             and practise music in one culture or subculture might be shared by another culture or             subculture  as examples, the use of similar scales and/or instruments across many types             of music, or the differentiation between classical music and folk music in relatively             distinct cultures. 3. Some of the ways that people make music and/or make sense of music             in a particular culture or subculture might be unique to its own specific context.             Examples here might be the unique sonic, social, creative and cathartic dimensions of             Indonesian Gamelan contrasted with western symphonic music, with its highly rationalized             organization of pitches, rhythms, timbres and structures, its division of labour along             the lines of composers/performers/listeners and the very conception of autonomous music             for aesthetic fulfilment. This is of course an ideal-type contrast, and it is arguable             that these cultural differences are less fixed at a time of rapid globalization. The             point worth keeping here is that, whether in groups or as individuals, we are still             likely to encounter same, similar and different ways of conceiving and experiencing             musicality. And it is this perspective that informs my brief review of some recent             thinking about multicultural music education. Multicultural perspectives on music             education Before speaking about multicultural music in the world, it might be helpful to             establish which commonalities, if any, can be found by taking an international overview             of music edu- cation systems. In a volume of contributions dealing with many (though by             no means all) O'Flynn Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music education 193 countries             in the world, Hargreaves and North (2001, pp. 220233) identify four common areas of             concern for music education systems around the globe, albeit with varying degrees of             similarity and difference. First, they emphasize the importance of historical, political             and cultural backgrounds. To present one striking comparison here, China has 56             recognized nationalities whereas Ireland has just one.3 So, before even beginning to             debate what a multicultural music education might entail, we need to be cognizant of             such varied contexts. Second, Hargreaves and North identify a number of curriculum             issues, such as the distinc- tions often made between generalist and specialist music             education. Arguably, this curriculum differentiation is reflective of societies where             clear divisions along the lines of professional/amateur or musician/non-musician are to             be found. Yet, these ideas of sociomusical stratification are not equally applied in             different parts of the world or among particular subcultures in modern differentiated             societies. Accordingly, it could be said that the structural division of music education             into generalist and specialist spheres becomes particularly contentious when a             multicultural perspective is involved. The third common area identified by Hargreaves             and North relates to aims and objectives. Depending on the country concerned, aims and             objectives could be focused on musical matters, individual development, sociocultural             issues, or combinations of these. As I shall comment later, these differences have both             conceptual and practical implications for what is understood as multicultural music             education. Finally, Hargreaves and North note a pattern in many societies whereby a             clear demarcation emerges between musical learning inside the school system and that             which takes place outside. This includes distinctions between formal and informal             methods of teaching/learning, and the varied settings of music education in             institutions, in communities, or in combinations of these. The dialectical inter- play             of relatively distinct methods and settings is an issue that is discussed towards the             end of this article. While I have mainly used the term 'multicultural' so far, much of             what I now discuss also refers to conceptions of 'world music in education'. I presently             argue that the use of these terms often carries implicit assumptions about (a) the             possibility of a universal system of music education; and (b) a taxonomy of 'exotic'             music(s) subsumed within a 'pan-western' view of music and musicality. For reasons             already outlined above, we need to replace the idea of a universal music education with             an approach that recognizes both cross-cultural and culture-specific facets to music             teaching and learning (Campbell, 2004). The taxonomic approach needs to be challenged,             not only in terms of its implicit hierarchy and ethnocentricity, but also because, quite             often, musical diversity at local and national levels tends to be bypassed by pluralist             conceptions of 'world music'. Here, I speak of the wealth and diversity of domestic             musical practices in various parts of the globe. A critique of ethnocentric and             western-classical paradigms of music education has consistently featured in music             education literature from the 1970s onwards (among others, see Campbell, 1997; Elliott,             1995; Floyd, 1996; Hargreaves & North, 2001; Reimer, 1993; Small, 1977;             Swanwick, 1988; Walker, 1996). Perhaps the most authoritative in this respect is that             published in the International Society for Music Education's Policy on musics of the             world's cultures (Lundquist & Szego, 1998). This is a well-thought-out policy             that recognizes the plurality of the world's various musical systems and gives             recognition to the matrix of sonic, practical and conceptual interrelationships between             and among them. Yet, in spite of its largely 'polycentric' thrust, the first article of             ISME's policy at that time stated that: The world of music should be seen as a group of             discrete musics, each with a unique style, repertory, set of governing principles and             social contexts. Western art music is simply one of these musics, but because it has             achieved widespread respect and an almost universal geographical distribution, it             appropriately plays a special role in the world's musical education. We recognise that             each society has a stratification of musics somewhat 194 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC             EDUCATION 23(3) related to its social stratification, e.g. classical, folk and popular             musics; but that each society makes its own relative evaluation of the musics within its             purview. (Lundquist & Szego, 1998, p. 17)4 There is no denying the ubiquity of             common syntactic elements in much of the music practised around the globe today, musical             elements that could be loosely described as 'western'. Following the earlier             interpretative work of Max Weber, the music sociologist Kurt Blaukopf (1992, pp.             247260) argued that this came about through a gradual process of cultural assimilation.             This owed as much to inherent features of western musical styles as it did to the             sociohistorical, economic and technological factors of colonization and globalization.             Yet, it is highly questionable whether western art music can be considered as a core             musical system for the world's music education. First, it is arguable that what has been             'transplanted' (instrumentation, tonalities, structures and performance practices) comes             more from Afro-American and Anglo- American popular music styles than it does from             western classical music. What I wish to underline here is the common syntactic base of             western classical and popular music styles (Middleton, 1990, pp. 115122), and, by             extension, the emergence of a shared musical syntax (albeit to varying degrees) in many             societies around the world. Whereas European classical music has been adopted as a             specialized area of musical practice and theory in many parts of the globe, elements of             Anglo- and Afro-American popular music have been adapted and hybridized into a plurality             of local popular musics around the world (and, increasingly, elements from other musical             systems have been adapted into western popular and traditional music). Arguably, this             represents a much more significant musicalcultural phenomenon in terms of the numbers             of people involved, and the resultant diversity of musical forms and practices. In             contrast to the establishment of western classical music in many countries around the             world, the adaptation of 'western' musical elements in localized musical practices does             not necessarily lead to concomitant changes in the ways people use and/or make sense of             music, or to their beliefs about the relationship between music, culture and, for that             matter, education. To reiterate this point, the identification of western 'elements' in             different locations around the globe does not amount to a universal western musicality.             There are inherent difficulties in trying to formulate a polycentric (as opposed to             ethnocentric) view of music education. Do we adopt a completely relativist outlook or do             we try to find a common set of musical and educational principles that can be applied or             adapted to particular societies, recognizing the plurality of musics around the world?             On the surface, a relativist approach would appear to do little for human development or             for cross- cultural cooperation and understanding. However, it is arguable that the             recognition of contesting conceptions of musicality is a first step towards the             identification of common goals in music education (see Brändström, 1999). Ironically,             while an alternative, comparative approach is clearly more utopian in nature, it does             not always follow that 'polycentric' models of music education are free from ideologies             of ethnocentricity, as I now argue in the following points. First, do we wish to have a             music education that acknowledges more than one expression of musicality in specific             sociomusical contexts, or do we regard the inclusion of different musical repertoires,             practices and ideas as part of a wider civic education? This latter application of             'multicultural' may be problematic insofar as its objectives are geared more towards             non-musical sociopolitical ends (John Blacking cited in Campbell, 2000, p. 344). If our             goals are those of music education, then perhaps we should strive to maintain a             musicalartistic focus in the design of curricula, with due regard for the ways in which             musical activities and ways of thinking about music relate to the wider beliefs and             values of the societies concerned. O'Flynn Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music             education 195 Second, the very assumption that there is such a thing as formal music             education might be counter to the values of a particular culture (or among adherents of             a particular musical style).5 This is particularly the case in sub-Saharan Africa, where             musical development is a shared familial and communal experience and is considered in             the same way as the natural development of speech; consequently, for many Africans, the             idea of learning music formally in an institution is an alien one (Primos, 2001).             Against this, there is no doubt that formal music education can act as a cultural             catalyst in the regeneration of both formal and informal musical practices at local and             national levels (see Dionyssiou, 2003; McCarthy, 2004; Santos, 1994). Third, it is often             the case that curriculum organization for music education is embedded with assumptions             not only about music, but also concerning ways of thinking about music, e.g. the             division of 'musical labour' into composing, performing, listening, or the identi-             fication and analysis of 'musical elements'. Those who advocate a shift from a western             classical paradigm of musicality to 'global music education' may still retain these             ideological elements. Fourth, assumptions about universal musical development do not             necessarily hold in cross-cultural contexts. European methodologies that start with             simple song materials, skills and concepts appear to work well in some European contexts             where such culturaleducational assumptions 'fit' with society's beliefs about music and             education. I refer here to Kodály, Orff and similar 'systems'. However, developmental             strategies such as these make little sense in parts of the globe where children may be             involved in complex musical activities at an early age, largely owing to their immersion             in community-based musical practices. Towards an intercultural music education: adapting             the ideas of bimusicality and intermusicality Cross-cultural diversity in music             education, then, is more than a matter of broadening repertoire and introducing students             to a variety of musical traditions. Key to the development of this field is an             understanding of how music comes to be practised, thought about, taught and learned in             our own and in other cultures. In other words, we need to focus on the dynamic             interchange between and among musicians, teachers, learners and various musicalsocial             groups in our own and in other cultures. It is primarily for this reason that I hold a             preference for the term 'intercultural' over 'multicultural'. While a multicultural             focus acknowledges the plurality of music(s) within and beyond particular societies, an             intercultural view allows us to interpret the ways that individuals and groups negotiate             the diversity of their musical worlds (see Swanwick, 1988, pp. 102119). This in turn             facilitates dialectical perspectives on the interrelationships between music in culture             and music in education. Patricia Sheehan Campbell (2004, pp. 1213) and Bruno Nettl (in             Lundquist & Szego, 1998, pp. 2328) suggest a number of useful strategies in             this regard, and these are now adapted to the theme of musicality and its theoretical             relation to music education. Approaching diverse expressions of musicality in education             practice An interpretative approach Here, we need to regard each expression of             musicality for its particular performance practices and other musical behaviours, and             for the way that people might think about music (as music or, more broadly, as part of             their social lives). This is particularly important at the planning stages of music             education programmes as it involves an understanding of differences between and among             musicalsocial groups. At another level, we need to be 196 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF             MUSIC EDUCATION 23(3) cognizant of the differences between, on the one hand, practices             and conceptions of music in the institution and, on the other hand, practices and             conceptions of music in the community and wider society (see Wade, 2004). An interactive             approach All expressions of musicality are based in dynamic sociocultural contexts. Not             only should we learn about the practices and beliefs of musicians and the communities in             which they are based; we also need to learn directly from the same musicians and             communities. This is close to the idea of field experience, and can contribute to the             development of 'reflective' musicality as much as it can lead to the acquisition of             particular skills and knowledge. A balanced approach Each expression of musicality needs             to be considered both in relative terms (culture-specific) and comparative terms             (cross-cultural). 'Culture' in this context not only applies to different locations             and/or (sub)cultural groups, but also to discrete musical styles. For the music teacher,             this means working out the tensions between pedagogical approaches that are specific to             locations, styles or musicalsocial groups, and those that are based on 'commonalities'             identified in terms of syntactic elements, performance practices, social contexts, or             combinations of these (see Campbell, 2004). A pedagogical approach Here, we need to             consider the culturally situated modes of teaching, learning and transmission for each             expression of musicality. Looking at these pedagogical modes gives us insights into the             acquisition of musical behaviours and dispositions that may be specific to locations,             musicalsocial groups, or styles. More importantly, perhaps, they throw light on             people's beliefs concerning the value of teaching and learning music, and in doing so             can enrich our own philosophy of music education. A realistic approach This involves             looking at what is 'existing' rather than focusing on what is deemed valid. By being             open-minded we might find more educational value in some expressions of musicality than             previously thought possible. This is especially relevant in the case of popular music             practices (see Green, 2001; Jaffurs, 2004; Winter, 2004), and with more innovative             practices in traditional and classical music. I now wish to suggest some ways of             thinking about different expressions of musicality that might further the aims of music             education in local, national and transnational contexts. One problem associated with             multicultural music education arises from its conventional emphasis on a representative             selection of 'indigenous' and/or 'ethnic' music from around the globe. As a result, many             multicultural music curricula have failed to engage in any sustained way with the             ubiquity of local popular and traditional musical practices, and with the models of             musicality (including ways of teaching and learning) that these may offer to formal             systems of music education. I would argue that promoting intercultural music education             at national and regional levels is the first necessary stage in promoting an             understanding of the world's musical cultures. Critical here is the inclusion of             music(s), musical practices and ways of thinking about music that are closest to the             culture in question (and to subcultures within the society concerned). This does not             exclude an acquaintance with 'other' music; rather, I argue that systems of music             education best advance with due regard to the social realities in which that education             takes place. In any case, this is likely to include music and musical practices produced             'outside' any particular society, given the capacity of music to transcend national             boundaries. O'Flynn Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music education 197 So, what             kind of action can we take to promote an intercultural music education? To begin with,             music educators need to be aware of existing music practices in the social worlds for             which they will programme. Depending on the country or region concerned, this will             include one or more types of classical music(s) (e.g. European, Indian, Chinese) and one             or more types of vernacular music (traditional, popular and hybrids of these).             Obviously, the younger the children, the more desirable it is to streamline their             musical learning experiences into coherent programmes. With older learners, however, it             would be possible to engage consciously with two or more systems of musical learning and             musical performance. Related to this, the music curriculum could be closely linked to             the practices of performers in that society, that is to say, to living traditions of             music, as opposed to curricula that are exclusively framed on developmental stages             and/or 'universal' concepts of music. These general points now lead me to a concluding             set of recommendations that are based on the concepts of bimusicality and             intermusicality.6 'Bimusicality', a term originally coined by ethnomusicologist Mantle             Hood (1960), is useful to music educators for a number of reasons. The general idea of             Hood's term is that some people have an understanding of, and are also proficient in,             the technical requirements and stylistic nuances of two distinct musical systems. If we             think of bilingualism, this could refer to individuals who have learned from birth to             practice in and understand two distinct musical systems through processes of             enculturation. Hood (1960) also used the term to articulate a principle in             ethnomusicological method, namely, that the field researcher ought to learn the music of             the 'other' culture in order to interpret adequately its sociomusical aspects. This             suggests that bimusicality cannot simply be interpreted as a facet of 'bicultural'             experience, since musical activities are not always fixed in particular sociocultural             contexts, neither are they necessarily contingent on initial musical development. For             educators, this means that it is possible for both teachers and learners to have             meaningful engagements with more than one type of musical system. In a flexible             application of the term, bimusicality allows us to understand different types of             music-making in our society. By extension, we could describe many cultures as tri- or             even multimusical (Nettl, 1983, pp. 6061). Applied broadly, a 'bimusical' conception of             music education recognizes the value of both formal and informal modes of learning. A             more conventional application of bimusicality might be appropriate in some music             education contexts such as the training of music teachers in two different styles of             music, or the detailed study of an 'other' musical culture at high school or             undergraduate levels (for example, see Mertz, 1998). From bimusicality to             intermusicality If musicality is a flexible and inclusive term, it also needs to be             considered in the singular, rather than as a set of distinct 'musicalities'. As John             Baily (2001) argues, the same musi- cality or general musical ability informs our             engagement with more than one type of music. This brings us back to Blacking's             distinction between musical intelligence and musical thought. Accordingly, while the             'bi' of bimusicality might refer to the presence of two relatively distinct musical             systems or styles among the musical practices of some groups and individuals, musicality             can be regarded as the bridge through which such differentiated cultural experiences are             integrated. This allows for both the relative autonomy of musical practices and the             individual agency of musicians and others in the maintenance and negotiation of musical             cultures. It is also a conception of musicality that challenges orthodox methodologies             of music education, where different styles and traditions are hierarchized and/or             treated in taxonomic terms. Ingrid Monson (1996) uses the term intermusicality to             describe the phenomenon by 198 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 23(3) which             musicians can sometimes import specific practices and nuances from one style or             performance context to other styles or performance contexts.7 This idea lends itself to             an understanding of multiple practices and conceptions of music within an integrated             experi- ential plane, and suggests a way forward for the development of music curricula             that are at once pluralistic and dialogic. To this end I now propose different 'levels'             of intermusicality that can inform our understanding of what an intercultural music             education might entail. Intermusicality and music education In its broadest sense,             intermusicality can be applied to our understanding of musical life in any given             society: people pick up and learn all kinds of music in a variety of ways. Thus, it is             not a matter of associating particular learning methods with delineated styles of music             (traditional/oral, classical/literate, popular/technological) as there are numerous             counter- tendencies in each case; rather, music education needs to be regarded as one             multifarious yet interrelated field. In the first instance, this level of             intermusicality needs to be recognized in statutory cultural and educational policies.             Thus, the value of music in and for a particular society comes not to be expressed             solely in terms of cultural heritage and/or the promotion of particular genres and             established educational practices; there is also a need to consider the diversity and             everyday reality of music-making and music transmission. This type of interpretative             approach to cultural and educational policy allows for the development of intercultural             conceptions of musicality in national curricula and other institutional settings. For             music education planning in particular schools, a broad application of intermusicality             suggests a framework by which we might profile and interpret the musical backgrounds of             teachers, students, their parents and other community members. A survey of this type             also needs to include the potential involvement of the same social actors in musical             networks or 'scenes' (Cohen, 1999), and/or in transnational musical 'intercultures'             (Slobin, 1993). By such a survey we come to know the relevant who, what, where and how             of our education community and of its constituent and associated 'sound groups'             (Blacking, 1973). In some ways, this approach is not so far removed from the tenets of             multicultural music education. Arguably, what distinguishes an intercultural,             intermusical perspective is the way in which the annotation of musicalcultural             diversity is in the first instance specific to, and in dialogue with, practices and             conceptions of music in the communities and societies concerned. A second proposed             'level' of intermusicality is addressed to practices and conceptions of music that have             particular relevance to the community in question. Depending on the context, this may or             may not require a special recognition of traditional, popular, classical or other             styles. But to reiterate an earlier argument, this calls for much more than a plurality             of musical content. Also needed is an understanding of the particular performance and             transmission practices associated with each discrete style or musical tradition. In many             cases we already have access to information about, and instruction in, particular             musical styles  take, for example, the numerous websites dedicated to the promotion of             Irish traditional music (see Comhaltas, 200002; Irish Traditional Music Archive, n.d.;             Ng, 200103). Pertinence at this level will also relate to broader sociocultural             patterns. Accordingly, the emphasis might be on combinations of particular domestic             and/or international styles (e.g. 'domestic traditional' and 'western classical', or             'international popular' and 'indigenous classical'). Differentiation along these lines             is already provided for in some institutional practice, to cite a number of examples:             Greece (Dionyssiou, 2003), the Philippines (Santos, 1994), Ireland (McCarthy, 2004) and,             more globally, Mertz (1998). These and similar applications appear to accord with             conceptions of bi-, tri- and even multimusicality. However, it is arguable that an             intermusical outlook poses more questions regarding the educational potential of such             musical diversity. Let us imagine a school where students engage with two O'Flynn             Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music education 199 distinct musical systems.             Presuming they have different teachers and methods of teaching for each style or system,             we might ask whether their teachers were aware of the performance and transmission             practices of their colleagues 'on the other side'. We might further inquire whether             these teachers themselves experienced aspects of a bimusical education, and, if so,             whether or not they have reflected on the possible conflict or interchange of values,             beliefs, performance practices and methods of learning. Furthermore, and with due regard             to both relativist and cross-cultural perspectives, we might wish to ask in what ways             were students in this school asked to profile and reflect on the diversity of values,             beliefs, practices and methods experienced in their own music education narratives. In a             related though different sense, the concept of intermusicality may also inform practice             and understanding in the changing social reality of our musical worlds. As desirable as             it may be to argue for the unique cultural heritage of particular musical systems, we             are ever more likely to encounter crossover ideas and genres in an age of accelerated             globalization, cultural hybridization and mass mediation. These 'cultural intersections'             can be utilized in a number of ways in music education practice. To illustrate this, I             now look at the music/dance piece Riverdance8 as it might be applied in Irish music             education settings. Riverdance includes recognizable aspects of Irish traditional music             and dance, involves western classical orchestral and choral resources, and follows many             of the production standards of mass-mediated popular music. The musicalcultural             dimension of this piece is further enriched by its layering of asymmetric Balkan metres,             that is, by musical patterns and ideas other than 'Irish', western classical, or             Anglo-American popular. An 'unpacking' of this piece might lead to multiple educational             journeys through exploring the various genres, contexts and musicalcultural practices             involved, and by examining the ways in which different genres and practices come to be             recontextualized in contemporary modes of production. Looked at from another angle, such             conscious exploration of different musical processes and cultural contexts could             facilitate students' direct engagement with syncretic modes of performance and             composition. The idea of intermusicality can also help teachers negotiate aspects of             curriculum design and practice that suggest different types of musical discipline,             depending on the activity concerned. This requires a considerable degree of versatility             when organizing such highly diverse activities as classroom singing, instrumental             ensembles and group/individual composition. To this we can add a list of teaching             approaches and styles, many of which appear to conflict with one another (for example,             formal/informal, aural/notational/ technological, instructional mode/democratic mode).             The fostering of intermusical links between these modes and activities are critical for             teachers and learners alike. We can, of course, help this process by systematically             drawing comparisons between different musical activities, both in their own right and as             they apply in the context of particular musical styles. More dynamically, we can import             specific practices across the various curriculum activities and/or styles. To give one             example, listening to recordings (widely used as a self-directed learning method across             a range of musical styles) could be employed as an alternative to notational modes of             analysis in western classical and other styles. As obvious as these points may seem, it             would appear that such approaches have yet to become established practice in statutory             and other institutionalized forms of music education (see Green, 2001: Chapter 7). Last,             and arguably most importantly, intermusicality identifies the capacity for integrated             musical experiences on the part of musicians and musical learners. While ethnomu-             sicological studies provide some insights into this phenomenon as experienced by             individual musicians (for example, Monson, 1996; Ó Súilleabháin, 1994), we have yet to             explore its potential contribution to the practice of intercultural music education. 200             INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 23(3) Notes 1. An earlier version of this             article comprised a keynote address given at The International Symposium on             Multicultural Music Education in the World, Nanjing Normal University, China, 16 October             2004. 2. Even in countries where broadcast music is periodically banned  for example,             Afghanistan during the Taliban regime  such acts of censorship of themselves             acknowledge the cultural significance of music. 3. The designation of 'official'             nationalities in the case of both countries does not of course correspond with an             equivalent set of homogenous, ethnic and/or sociocultural categories. 4. It is worth             noting that this statement was published two years after its adoption by the ISME Board             in 1996. The assertion in relation to western classical music was immediately criticized             by the ISME's Community Music Commission following publication of the document in 1998.             At the time of writing, a special working committee of ISME was engaged in a review of             the policy statement. 5. For some cultures, music education is not considered as             something in its own right; rather, music is at the very core of 'education for living'             (see Ellis, 1985). 6. For a fuller discussion around these issues see O'Flynn (in             press). 7. Baily (2003) proposes the alternative term of 'intermusability' to describe             the ability of some musicians to perform in more than one kind of music. 8. Riverdance             (composer Bill Whelan) originated as a music and dance interval act for the Eurovision             Song Contest held in Dublin, 1994 (Whelan, 1995). Acknowledgements Thanks are due to             Gary McPherson for his helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article. References             Baily, J. (2001). Learning to perform as a research technique in ethnomusicology.             British Journal of Ethnomusicology, 10(2), 8598. Baily, J. (2003). Correspondence             relating to a draft of a paper by John Baily entitled 'The Future of Performance' to be             read at a conference in Goldsmith's College, University of London later that year.             Blacking, J. (1973). How musical is man? Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.             Blacking, J. (1987). Coda: Making sense of the musical world. In A. Levine White (Ed.),             Lost in music: culture, style and the musical event (pp. 259264). London and New York:             Routledge & Kegan Paul. Blaukopf, K. (1992). Musical life in a changing society:             Aspects of music sociology (trans. D. Marinelli). Portland, OR: Amadeus Press.             Brändström, S. (1999). Music teachers' everyday conceptions of musicality. Bulletin of             the Council for Research in Music Education, 141, 2126. Campbell, P. S. (1997). Music             the universal language: Fact or fallacy? International Journal of Music Education,             29(1), 3239. Campbell, P. S. (2000). How musical we are: John Blacking on music,             education and cultural understanding. Journal of Research in Music Education, 48(4),             336359. Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally. New York and Oxford: Oxford             University Press. Cohen, S. (1999). Scenes. In B. Horner and T. Swiss (Eds.), Key terms             in popular music and culture (pp. 239250). Malden, MA/Oxford: Blackwell. Comhaltas.             (200002). Retrieved from www.comhaltas.com Dionyssiou, Z. (2003). The contribution of             education in the preservation of Greek traditional music. In Preservation of traditional             music: Report of the Asia-Europe Training Programme (pp. 181197). Beijing: Chinese             Academy of Arts/Asia-Europe Foundation. Ellis, C. J. (1985). Aboriginal music: Education             for living. St Lucia/London/New York: University of Queensland Press. Elliott, D.             (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York: Oxford University             Press. Floyd, M. (1996). (Ed.) World musics in education. Aldershot: Scolar Press.             Green, L. (2001). How popular musicians learn: A way ahead for music education.             Aldershot: Ashgate. Hargreaves, D., & North, A. C. (2001) (Eds.). Musical             development and learning: The international perspective. London: Continuum. Hood, M.             (1960). The challenge of bi-musicality. Ethnomusicology, 4(2), 5559. Howe, M.,             Davidson, J., & Sloboda, J. (1998). Innate talents: Reality or myth? Behavioural             and Brain Sciences, 21, 399442. Irish Traditional Music Archive. (n.d.). Retrieved from             www.itma.ie O'Flynn Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music education 201 Jaffurs, S.             E. (2004). The impact of informal music practices in the classroom, or how I learned to             teach from a garage band. International Journal of Music Education, 22(3), 189200.             Lundquist, B., & Szego, C. K. (1998). (Eds.) Musics of the world's cultures.             Perth, Australia: Callaway International Resource Centre for Music             Education/International Society for Music Education. McCarthy, M. (2004). Changing             cultural landscapes: The co-existence of musical genres in Irish culture and education.             Irish Studies Review, 12(1), 5161. Mertz, M. (1998). Some thoughts on music education             in a global culture. International Journal of Music Education, 32(1), 7277. Middleton,             R. (1990). Studying popular music. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Monson, I.             (1996). Saying something: Jazz improvisation and interaction. Chicago and London:             Chicago University Press. Nettl, B. (1983). The Study of ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine             issues and concepts. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Ng, Alan (200103). Tips for             learning Irish music. Retrieved from alan-ng.net/irish/learning O'Flynn, J. (in press) A             critical examination of the idea of bimusicality: Its relevance to music education in             contemporary Irish society. In V. Rogers, D. Symons, & S. Leong (Eds.),             Musicculturesociety (pp. 192205). Perth: University of Western Australia. Ó             Súilleabháin, M. (1994). 'All our central fire': Music, mediation and the Irish psyche.             Irish Journal of Psychology, 15(2/3), 331353. Primos, K. (2001). Africa. In D.             Hargreaves & A. C. North (Eds.), Musical development and learning: The             international perspective (pp. 113). London: Continuum. Reimer, B. (1993). Music             education in our multimusical culture. Music Educator's Journal, 79(7), 2126. Santos,             R. (1994). Authenticity and change in intercultural music teaching. In H. Lees (Ed.),             Musical connections: Tradition and change (pp. 2534). Auckland: International Society             for Music Education. Slobin, M. (1993). Subcultural sounds: Micromusics of the West.             Wesley, New England: Wesleyan University Press. Small, C. (1977).             Musiceducationsociety. London: John Calder. Swanwick, K. (1988). Music, mind and             education. London: Routledge. Wade, B. (2004). Thinking musically: Experiencing music,             expressing culture. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Walker, R. (1996).             Music education freed from colonialism: A new praxis. International Journal of Music             Education, 27, 215. Whelan, B. (1995). Riverdance: Music from the Show [audio CD].             Celtic Heartbeat. KCD38002. Winter, N. (2004). The learning of popular music: A             pedagogical model for music educators. International Journal of Music Education, 22(3)             237247. John O'Flynn is a lecturer and course director for undergraduate and             postgraduate music education studies at Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick,             Ireland. He has many years' teaching experience at primary, conservatoire and university             levels, has worked extensively for teachers' in-career music development, and has been             centrally involved in advocacy for music education in Ireland. Research interests             include music education practice, the sociology of music, and Irish popular music. He             has contributed to international publications in the areas of national identity and             music, popular music, and intercultural music education, and has presented papers and             keynote addresses at conferences in Ireland, UK, Australia, China and Italy. Address:             Department of Music, Mary Immaculate College, South Circular Road, Limerick, Ireland.             [email: John.Oflynn@mic.ul.ie] Abstracts Neubewertung von Vorstellungen zur Musikalität             im interkulturellen Kontext der Musikerziehung Der Beitrag untersucht Vorstellungen von             Musikalität, soweit sie in lokalen, nationalen und interkulturellen Kontexten Geltung             haben. Vorstellungen einer multikulturellen Musikerzie- 202 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF             MUSIC EDUCATION 23(3) hung werden im Licht alternativer Zugänge zur Musik betrachtet,             die aus musikethnologischer Sicht stammen. Obwohl neuere Curricula in vielen Ländern             gegenüber früher eine pluralistischere Sicht der Musik und Musikerziehung bieten, können             sie doch ein interkulturelles Modell von Schule und Lehrern verfehlen. Interkulturelle             Musikerziehung müsste zusätzlich zu einer Erweiterung der Wertvorstellungen im             Zusammenhang mit den betreffenden musikalischen Systemen eine Vielfalt von Musizier- und             Lernweisen zur Folge haben. Vorstellungen von Bimusikalität und Intermusikalität könnten             nicht nur auf unser Verständnis von individuellen Lernern und Musik Ausübenden             übertragen werden, sondern auch auf die professionelle Lehrerbildung, auf die             Curriculum-Entwicklung und auf die Entwicklung musikalischer Infrastrukturen in unseren             heutigen Gesellschaften. Revalorar las ideas sobre la musicalidad en contextos             multiculturales de educación musical Este artículo examina las ideas sobre la             musicalidad en su aplicación a contextos de educación musical locales, nacionales e             interculturales. Las concepciones sobre educación musical intercultural son exploradas a             la luz de enfoques alternativos sobre la musicalidad, adaptados de perspectivas             etnomusicológicas. Se sostiene que mientras los currículos musicales recientemente             publicados en muchos países parecen ofrecer un punto de vista más plural que en el             pasado sobre la música y la educación musical, pueden fallar en ofrecer modelos             interculturales para los profesores y las escuelas. Una educación musical intercultural             crítica se basará en una variedad de prácticas de interpretación y aprendizaje, además             de una gama de creencias y valores pertinentes para los sistemas musicales en cuestión.             Las ideas de bimusicalidad e intermusicalidad pueden ser adaptadas no sólo para nuestra             comprensión de aprendices y ejecutantes individuales, sino también para la preparación             profesional de los profesores, para el diseño de los currículos musicales y para el             desarrollo de infraestructuras musicales en las sociedades contemporáneas. O'Flynn             Re-appraising ideas of musicality in music education 203</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-wrap>
</article-meta>
</front>
<back><notes>         
         <p>1. An earlier version of this article comprised a keynote address given at The             International Symposium on Multicultural Music Education in the World, Nanjing Normal             University, China, 16 October 2004.</p>         
         <p>2. Even in countries where broadcast music is periodically banned – for             example, Afghanistan during the Taliban regime – such acts of censorship of             themselves acknowledge the cultural significance of music.</p>         
         <p>3. The designation of ‘official’ nationalities in the case of both             countries does not of course correspond with an equivalent set of homogenous, ethnic             and/or sociocultural categories.</p>         
         <p>4. It is worth noting that this statement was published two years after its adoption by             the ISME Board in 1996. The assertion in relation to western classical music was             immediately criticized by the ISME’s Community Music Commission following             publication of the document in 1998. At the time of writing, a special working committee             of ISME was engaged in a review of the policy statement.</p>         
         <p>5. For some cultures, music education is not considered as something in its own right;             rather, music is at the very core of ‘education for living’ (see             Ellis, 1985).</p>         
         <p>6. For a fuller discussion around these issues see O’Flynn (in press).</p>         
         <p>7. Baily (2003) proposes the alternative term of ‘intermusability’ to             describe the ability of some musicians to perform in more than one kind of music.</p>         
         <p>8. <italic>Riverdance</italic>
(composer Bill Whelan) originated as a music and dance interval act             for the Eurovision Song Contest held in Dublin, 1994 (Whelan, 1995).</p>     
      </notes>
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<mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education</title>
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<titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education</title>
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<name type="personal"><namePart type="given">John</namePart>
<namePart type="family">O’flynn</namePart>
<affiliation>University of Limerick, Ireland</affiliation>
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<dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2005-12</dateIssued>
<copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2005</copyrightDate>
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<language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm>
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<abstract lang="en">This article examines ideas of musicality as they may apply to local, national and intercultural contexts of music education. Conceptions of multicultural music education are explored in the light of alternative approaches to musicality adapted from ethnomusicological perspectives. It is argued that while recently published music curricula in many countries appear to offer a more pluralistic view of music and music education than previously, these may fall short of providing an intercultural model for teachers and schools. Critically, an intercultural music education will draw on a variety of performing and learning practices, in addition to a range of beliefs and values that are pertinent to the musical systems in question. Ideas of bimusicalityand intermusicalitycan be adapted not only to our understanding of individual learners and performers, but also to the professional preparation of teachers, to the design of music curricula and to the development of musical infrastructures in contemporary societies.</abstract>
<subject><genre>keywords</genre>
<topic>bimusicality</topic>
<topic>intermusicality</topic>
<topic>multicultural</topic>
</subject>
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<identifier type="eISSN">1744-795X</identifier>
<identifier type="PublisherID">IJM</identifier>
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<part><date>2005</date>
<detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption>
<number>23</number>
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<detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption>
<number>3</number>
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<extent unit="pages"><start>191</start>
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Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education

Re-appraising ideas of musicality in intercultural contexts of music education

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