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Reality-Based Music Listening in the Classroom: Considering Students' Natural Responses to Music

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Reality-Based Music Listening in the Classroom: Considering Students' Natural Responses to Music

Auteurs : Robert H. Woody

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General music today [ 1048-3713 ] ; 2004-01.

RBID : ISTEX:26E1F359C0E009D54896E249681701206812BBF6

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Teeft :
- Affective experiences, British journal, Classical music, College students, Emotional expression, Emotional response, Everyday life, Expressive content, Formal music education, Hargreaves, Hearing music, Love theme, Music activities, Music appreciation, Music education, Music education leblanc, Music recordings, Music teachers, Musicae scientiae, Musical elements, Musical preferences, Musical recordings, Musical style, Musical styles, Older students, Other activities, Preschool children, Primary purpose, Programmatic music, Second graders, Unfamiliar style, Unfamiliar styles, Young children.

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DOI: 10.1177/10483713040170020106

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Reality-Based
Music Listening in the Classroom: Considering Students' Natural Responses
to Music
SAGE Publications, Inc.2004DOI: 10.1177/10483713040170020106
Robert H. Woody
University of Nebraska School of Music, Lincoln, rwoody2@unl.edu
usic
teachers who strive to provide a broad range of experiences for their Mstudents
are usually careful to include music listening among them. Although students
have many opportunities to hear music in their everyday lives, most teachers
agree that music listening involves skills that must be taught to children.
Some might even argue that listening is the most important music skill that
students learn. Although relatively few students graduate from their school
music programs to go on to become active performers (even fewer become composers),
virtually all are involved with music as listeners for the rest of their lives.
Teachers may shy away from listening lessons in favor of what they consider
more active experiences, such as playing instruments, singing, or moving creatively.
Certainly these music-making activities are valuable to students and, in many
cases, are the most effective approach for teaching certain musical concepts.
However, listening should not be neglected. Listening experiences need not
be inactive; they too offer special opportunities for learning important music
objectives. Since the primary purpose of music—and the arts in general—is
the communication of expression and emotion, teaching to improve sensitivities
in
students'
listening skills can provide lifelong benefits to students. Over the years,
formal music education has relied on an approach to listening that often combines
playing musical recordings (usually classical music) with studying cultural
and historical facts and examining musical elements in a piece. This traditional “music
appreciation” model has been applied to instruction from elementary
school to graduate school. While most teachers would agree that this approach
is not well suited for the youngest music learners, a growing body of literature
suggests that it may not be particularly effective with older students either
(Lewis and Schmidt 1991, Mann 1999). The problem with this approach may be
that it requires people to listen to music in a way that is very different
from how they normally do it outside of a formal education setting. If this
viewpoint is correct, music teachers may be able to improve instruction by
considering how people listen to music in everyday life. A number of researchers
are studying this. They have investigated people's preferred circumstances
for listening to music, why they choose the music they do, and specifically
how their musical attitudes differ in and out of school settings. This article
reviews
33
the
findings of such research efforts and discusses their application to the way
music teachers share listening with their students. How Normal People—Including
Children—Listen to Music Those of us who chose music as a career and
have received specialized training as college music majors sometimes need
to be reminded of how “normal people” think about music. A recent
study conducted by music psychologists provides some insight into this (Sloboda,
O'Neill, and Ivaldi 2001). The researchers enlisted the help of nonmusicians
between the ages of eighteen and forty to identify what everyday music experiences
are like. These people carried electronic pagers for a week and were paged
throughout each day, prompting them to report if they had been hearing music.
They gave specific information about music heard (e.g., the media source or
the style) and indicated what effect, if any, the music had on their frame
of mind. In 44 percent of all paging episodes, participants reported that
they had been hearing music. Listening to music usually accompanied some other
main activity, such as getting dressed, doing housework, traveling somewhere,
or talking with friends. There were few instances in which music listening
was the principal focus. Additionally, people indicated that hearing music
caused their mood to become more positive and alert, especially when they
chose the music. Other studies have similarly suggested that people choose
to listen to music primarily to affect their mood or to be emotionally moved.
One team of researchers surveyed American and British adolescents, asking
them to indicate why they listen to music (Tarrant, North, and Hargreaves
2000). Some of the more popular responses related to enjoyment, relief of
stress or boredom, and the expression of feelings. Reasons related to fulfilling
emotional needs were often associated with private listening
experiences,
but the findings also emphasized the importance to young people of listening
to music in social contexts. Similar listening behaviors have been found among
young children, too. In a study of preschoolers' preferences of music activities
in school, one researcher confirmed that children prefer active musical involvement
(e.g., playing instruments or moving to music). In the case of listening to
music, however, children preferred it most for purposes of relaxing during “rest
time” and while doing other tasks such as drawing or completing puzzles
(Temmerman 2000). It seems that people of all ages enjoy listening to music
while engaged in other activities. Idly sitting and exclusively listening
to music may be a rare occurrence for most people. With even the youngest
people, the contextual setting of a music listening experience seems to be
influential. In responding emotionally to music, people rely on extramusical
stimuli to serve as cues about the expressive content of music heard (Davidson
1995). For example, the visual spectacle of a holiday parade contributes to
a child's understanding that the sounds of a marching band are meant to excite
the crowd. Consider also how the images of a movie can affect our lasting
impression of its soundtrack. By and large, people are not able to separate
the music they hear from the contexts within which they hear it. Music In
and Out of School Considering the importance of the context of music listening,
it is easy to understand why students readily distinguish musical experiences
at school from those in other realms of their lives. One obvious distinction
is musical style. Children and adolescents tend to associate classical music
with school, saying that they perform this music to please their parents and
teachers (North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill 2000). Popular music, on the other
hand, is
34
associated
with leisure time, friends, and popular media, all of which are more intrinsically
motivating. During their schooling, students may develop the belief that certain
styles of music are different from their “regular” music and therefore
are to be listened to differently. Although they are free to respond subjectively
to their preferred musical styles, they may believe that they should respond
to music at school in a more objective or analytical way. To a child, this
latter prospect might sound difficult, unpleasant, or just plain boring. A
recent research study specifically investigated the differing functions of
music listening at home and school (Boal-Palheiros and Hargreaves 2001). Upon
interviewing elementary and middle school children, researchers found that
home listening was associated with enjoyment, emotional mood, and social relationships.
Music listening in school implied difficult and passive lessons. Said one
young student, “Home has nothing to do with school. At home we listen
to music because we feel like it. At school we listen because it is a school
activity” (p. 116). Unfortunately, changing this attitude is not a simple
matter. Even the use of listening maps, a popular strategy for making classroom
listening more appealing, has been questioned. Listening maps typically consist
of graphic representations of musical elements (e.g., ascending pitch sequences
or changes in tempo). According to critics, herein lies the problem. There
is some evidence that children do not normally perceive music according to
discrete elements like pitch and tempo. In reviewing such research, Taetle
and Cuttieta (2002) assert that making fine discriminations in musical elements “may
not only be unnecessary but not useful to young children who try to make sense
of their musical world” (p. 292). They instead advocate categorizations
based on more holistic ideas of musical style and mood. Even in developing
children's
broader
awareness of musical form (e.g., phrases and sections), listening maps may
not be the best strategy. In a study of upper elementary school children,
map-reading activities were found to be significantly less effective than
an alternative kinesthetic activity in which children mirrored a teacher's
body movements that corresponded to sections of music playing (Gromko and
Poorman 1998). These students were better able to distinguish between new
and repeated motives in music. Of course, these results do not suggest that
listening maps constitute bad music instruction. The listening map approach
can make listening more interesting and engaging to students, but a limitation
may be that it requires them to listen to and think about music in an unnatural
way. Affecting Preferences through Emotional Experiences with Music To prevent
students from developing negative associations with school music, some music
educators have paid special attention to the music preferences of children.
Although most teachers will rightfully refuse to use pop music styles exclusively
to accommodate students' fondness for these, they may be more willing to consider
children's preferences for certain musical qualities that cross stylistic
boundaries. For example, some research suggests that early elementary children
prefer faster tempos to slower ones (Flowers 1988, LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary,
Sherrill, and Malin 1988). Another study found that music with noticeable
dynamic changes is particularly appealing to children (Burnsed 1998). Preferences
for expressive variations and faster tempos help explain why Grieg's “In
the Hall of the Mountain King” is usually a favorite listening selection.
Research also indicates that liking a piece of music is related to familiarity
with it or its style
35
(Hargreaves
1984). The familiarity factor can account for why preschool children usually
accept a variety of musical styles but become increasingly attached to pop
music as they grow older. They begin to prefer this style as it becomes more
familiar to them through its prominence via commercial media. On the flip
side of the same coin, unfamiliarity with a style can prevent appreciation
for it. Perhaps this is why formal music education often emphasizes classical
music, assuming that students might not otherwise be exposed to it. One study
with young children found that exposure to classical music can in fact affect
preferences (Peery and Peery 1986). In testing four- and five-year-olds before
and after a year in preschool, researchers found that children involved in
classical music oriented activities maintained their preexisting acceptance
of the style. In contrast, children without classical music in their curriculum
showed a decline in liking it. Students' receptiveness to unfamiliar styles
of music changes as they mature through childhood. The term “open-earedness” has been used to describe tolerance for a variety of musical styles. Research
shows that children's high open-earedness tends to decrease as they approach
adolescence, then rebounds upon entering young adulthood (LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola,
and Obert 1996). Because of the decline in open-earedness across the elementary
grades, music teachers may struggle when using classical music in activities.
I was recently involved in some research that suggested that students may
not embrace classical music because they do not believe it can express the
emotions they experience in their lives (Woody and Burns 2001). Perhaps the
key to appreciating classical music is being convinced of its capacity for
emotional expression. To test this theory, I surveyed 533 college students
about their past musical experiences and then had them listen to four excerpts
of highly expressive classical music (e.g., “Dies Irae” from Mozart's
Requiem and the Love Theme
from
Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet), after which they responded to questions designed
to measure their appreciation of the music. Results from the initial questionnaire
showed that classical music was the least popular style of music, and only
a small majority of students reported ever having an emotionally moving experience
with it. In the listening task, however, students generally were able to perceive
the expression of the music, indicated by usually choosing appropriate emotion
descriptors for the excerpts (e.g., peacefulness for Tchaikovsky's Love Theme).
Most interestingly, those students who reported having past emotional responses
to classical music had significantly higher scores on all measures of music
appreciation. Students who reported never having an emotional listening experience
chose the term “neutral” more often to describe the expression
of the music. To see if these results could be generalized to elementary children,
I later conducted a simplified and smaller scale version of the study with
second graders (Woody 2001). The children heard shorter excerpts of the same
pieces of classical music and circled line drawings of faces (representing
anger, joy, peacefulness, sadness, and neutral) to indicate how the music
sounded to them. They also reported how much the music made them feel that
way. Results showed that the children were sensitive to the expressive content
of each piece (e.g., the Mozart “Dies Irae” elicited more anger
faces than the other three pieces combined). Their selections of faces were
quite similar to the emotion descriptors chosen by the college students. To
get a measure of past emotional experiences with music, I asked the children
if they remembered ever hearing music that made them laugh, cry, or get goose
bumps or that made their heart beat faster or stomach feel funny. Using these
data, I found that students with greater emotional experience with music tended
to report stronger feelings elicited by the classical music excerpts. In
36
summary,
adults and children are able to perceive the expression in classical music,
but their appreciation of the music seems to be related to past emotional
experiences with music. Unfortunately, providing opportunity for emotional
response may not be a high priority in many music classrooms; Kratus (1993)
concluded that formal music education at the elementary level has little effect
on children's interpretation of emotion in music. Choosing Music for Classroom
Listening The research findings reviewed here have important implications
for general music classrooms. Because children's musical tastes and attitudes
are powerful, it is critical that teachers choose music that has some appeal
to their students. There are ways teachers can do this without surrendering
to the use of musical styles they deem inappropriate. Certainly the musical
characteristics should be a consideration. For example, it is easy to accommodate
young children's preferences for faster tempos. Beyond purely musical preferences,
teachers can rely on their knowledge of other things their students like and
consider fun. One research study found that children prefer music they find
humorous (LeBlanc, Sims, Malin, and Sherrill 1992). Because kids like to laugh,
perhaps they like music that makes them laugh. Students are more receptive
to unfamiliar musical styles when their teacher chooses a representative piece
that somehow “goes with” something they like. The extramusical
characteristics of a piece of music can also pique the interest of students.
This is why classroom classics like Saint Saëns's Carnival of the Animals
have been so successful. Programmatic music can be especially beneficial if
the object or story described by the music has a strong, expressive quality
that will impress students. For example, “The
Elephant” from Carnival of the Animals is a good choice because the familiar image of
this giant creature's slow, heavy movements can help children build appropriate
expressive associations as they listen to the pitch, tempo, and timbre. This
works directly toward what is perhaps the most important purpose of music
education: to develop students' ability to respond emotionally to the expressive
properties of sound. By the same token, teachers should not use programmatic
music exclusively. A great deal of music has no extramusical referent. Students
need opportunities to respond completely to musical expression alone. Thus,
when choosing from music that lacks a programmatic aspect, teachers would
do well to select pieces that have a strong emotional effect. In some cases,
this criterion is a definite alternative to historical significance or compositional
value. For instance, instead of choosing a piece because of its composer's
eminence or because it is an example of rondo form, teachers might opt for
a piece that always gives them chills. It is probably this kind of emotional
connection that really attracts us to a piece of music. There is reason to
think it could have similar effects with students. The expressivity achieved
by a piece of music should be considered prominently—if not preeminently—when
choosing music for students. In most cases, teachers will not rely on one
selection criterion at the expense of others. It is likely that a piece chosen
by a teacher for its emotional effect and appeal to student tastes will still
be of high compositional quality and useful for teaching a number of musical
and cultural concepts. If teachers are uncertain about what kinds of pieces
will be most effective with their students, they should consider involving
students more directly in the decision making. As indicated by some of the
research reviewed above, choosing the music they hear seems to help people's
emotional response and ultimate appreciation of it.
37
Effective
Classroom Activities From many students' perspectives, the particular music
chosen for class is not as important as how it is used. Thus, the term “listening
activities” may be a better choice than “listening lessons” to characterize a teacher's approach to sharing music recordings. Classroom
listening experiences are more effective when they include active listening.
Younger students listen best when performing overt physical movements in response
to music, such as tapping the beat on their body or performing an action each
time a cymbal crash occurs. Older students can be assigned mental activities,
such as counting the number of times a melody is stated. Especially when presenting
an unfamiliar style of music, children cannot be expected to just passively
listen. One preschooler in a previously mentioned study complained about listening
lessons being boring. “We always have to listen every day and be quiet
and sit,” she explained, “but I want to do something and dance
and play the tambourine” (Temmerman 2000, p. 57). We also need to be
careful with how we teach elements of music (e.g., tempo and dynamics) and
use listening maps in music activities. Maps and charts can provide insight
into how the musical elements are used in a piece. A visual representation
is good because it can convey information without the teacher talking over
music being played. However, teachers must guard against making music solely
an analytical experience. The most fulfilling music listening experiences
do not come when we listen for isolated musical elements, but when we take
in the sound of the “musical whole” and let it affect us emotionally.
A similar warning is appropriate when sharing cultural and historical information
about pieces of music. Certainly such facts are good for establishing context
and helping students understand the circumstances around
a
piece's creation. But we must remember when covering such information that
students are not engaged in musical thinking. True musical thinking involves
working with sound. Visual representations and other information that identify
facts about a piece of music are useful only to the extent that they enhance
students' listening experience. With the primary purpose of music being expression,
it follows that listening experiences should primarily be affective experiences.
To help children build appropriate expressive associations with music, consider
combining listening experiences with other arts-based activities. For example,
many teachers enjoy pairing children's literature and musical recordings.
Good books often have beautiful, artistic illustrations that express the story's
emotions and moods to children. By playing a suitable piece of music while
sharing the illustrated pages of the book—even without narration—children
can gain greater awareness of the expressiveness of sound. Especially with
young children, bodily movement is perhaps the best way for music listening
activities to become affective experiences in a classroom. In focusing on
the expressive nature of music, teachers may initially have students mirror
them as they perform expressive movements to music playing. They can use facial
expressions and physical gestures to communicate the emotional content of
a piece of music. This might entail trudging slowly in place with a look of
consternation as Chopin's “Funeral March” prelude plays or, conversely,
exhibiting a relaxed smile and gliding hands back and forth while hearing
the “Ode to Joy” theme from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Most children
can more readily distinguish emotion in such bodily cues than in an unfamiliar
style of music. Putting them together can help them build appropriate expressive
associations with the music. Listening experiences in the music
38
classroom
can potentially lead to the most important dimension of music learning for
students—a lifelong involvement with music as listeners. Teachers should
strive to use music recordings in a way that portrays listening as an engaging
and enjoyable activity. Especially when hearing a style that is not their “regular” music, children must be given the opportunity to listen to it in a normal
way, namely subjectively. If students are allowed to draw on their ability
and desire to respond emotionally to the music they hear at school—instead
of being asked exclusively to approach the music with an analytical ear—then
they may be more likely to appreciate all kinds of music and be receptive
to unfamiliar styles as they progress through their musical lives.
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39
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	Serveur d'exploration Dies iræ
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Serveur d'exploration Dies iræ

Reality-Based Music Listening in the Classroom: Considering Students' Natural Responses to Music

Reality-Based Music Listening in the Classroom: Considering Students' Natural Responses to Music

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