Mechanisms of Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings: A Study of Perception on Sequenza VI for Viola Solo by Luciano Berio
Identifieur interne : 002758 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 002757; suivant : 002759Mechanisms of Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings: A Study of Perception on Sequenza VI for Viola Solo by Luciano Berio
Auteurs : Irene Deliege ; Abdessadek El AhnmadiSource :
- Psychology of music [ 0305-7356 ] ; 1990-04.
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Abstract
Eighteen musicians and 18 non-musicians were asked to indicate perceived segmentations in a performance of Berio's Sequenza VI. Segmentations were marked during active listening by depressing a key oil a compLitCie console. The segmentations of both musicians and non-musicians were i general agreement with a reference analysis pi-ovided bv two compposers. These segmentations had a high degree of stability over two 1istenings. J'he results are discussed in terms of a theory of cue extraction allowing identification of the beginning and end of major compositioned units
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DOI: 10.1177/0305735690181003
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Universite de Liege, Sart Tilman, B132 4000 Liege, Belgium</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>04</month><year>1990</year></pub-date><volume>18</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>18</fpage><lpage>44</lpage><abstract><p>Eighteen musicians and 18 non-musicians were asked to indicate perceived segmentations in a performance of Berio's <italic>Sequenza VI.</italic> Segmentations were marked during active listening by depressing a key oil a compLitCie console. The segmentations of both musicians and non-musicians were i general agreement with a reference analysis pi-ovided bv two compposers. These segmentations had a high degree of stability over two 1istenings. J'he results are discussed in terms of a theory of cue extraction allowing identification of the beginning and end of major compositioned units</p></abstract><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value>
R.vycholo,gy of Music, & 199() 1 the Suoc IOr o Rcs. lchr?!
1990( 18, 18-44 .s s'(zology (l' .Wuics t2tis d V1losic I f l11ch I J (1
Mechanisms of Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings: A Study
of Perception on Sequenza VI for Viola Solo
by Luciano Berio
IRENE DELIEGE and ABDESSADEK Ef AHN/AI)I
L nihW de Recherche en Psychologie (tie Ia Miqsltue, Laboralolrc +c
Psvchologie Experinientale. Univ,ersit e 1(it LieJ
Sart Tilman, B132 4000 Liege, Be! giufi;
Eighteen musicians and 18 non-musicians were asked to indicate perceived
segmentations in a performance of Berio's Sequenza VI. Segmentations
were marked during active listening by depressing a key oil a compLitCie
console. The segmentations of both musicians and non-musicians were i
general agreement with a reference analysis pi-ovided bv two compposers.
These segmentations had a high degree of stability over two 1istenings. J'he
results are discussed in terms of a theory of cue extractioi lallo)w[in
identification of the beginning and end of major compositio:ncld ulnitsh
Introduction
Preliminary Remarks
Some psychologists consider listening to music a creative act. It could evein
be considered a "composition" in so far as the listener injects elemenits into it
that derive from his or her personal preferences and imagination. In this
sense, listening-or apprehending any work of art-could never have tsxwo
identical versions, since the contributions of the subject are essentiallv
variable and related to his condition and state of mind at the precise moment
that he is in contact with the work. It is not the "icreative' listening that takes
its departure from the work that is considered here, but rather listening that
presumes a deliberate predisposition towards its reconstitution: one which
seeks to encounter the composer's project and coincide with his orientations
Can this listening, by which the listener tends towards maximum coincidence
with the work's structures, be used to reconstitute and analyse them'? ilt
seems that we are not generally capable of consciously attending to every
aspect of the auditory input (or indeed of other sensory inputs)" (Moore
1982, p. 202); except for cases of exceptional memory (Sloboda. Hermelil
O'Connor, 1985), no one will be surprised if aural analysis is considered a
simplification, or even an impoverishment, in comparison with the objective
content of the material to be perceived.
Aural analysis-the discovery of points of perceptive condensation of the
macro-structure, according to Imberty (1985)-is in continuous formation up
until the moment at which the temporal organisation of the musical object
becomes clear to the listener. Does this mean that at the end of listening, the
listener will have understood, without other recourse, what particular type ol
form is concerned? Recognising the formal characteristics of a work on
18
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings
listening to it is typically an acquired skill: such competence is inconceivable
without the help of previous information and is clearly related to learned
listening techniques. This point will not be disputed here. On the other hand,
we will be concerned with the development of the mental representation of
the object, that is, those mechanisms involved in the perception of its overall
architecture. In this sense, the demonstration will indirectly consider any
music in terms of form and will be concerned with what Apel (1972, p.
326-27) calls "form in music", i.e. the establishment of a network of relations
according to internal principles and rules of organisation, as opposed to "form
of music" which is concerned with pre-established designs on which the
composition is based.
The Cue Extraction Mechanism
Up to now, in the approach to the formation of groups on a surface level,
the impact of acoustic or temporal differences has been emphasised
(I. Deliege, 1987 b): parts of the musical discourse are marked off by contrast-
moments that signal and impose the segmentations (Fraisse, 1956, p. 11; 1982).
The stage of the forming of surface groups provide the material for
immediate retention, but cannot, alone, lead to analysis. Broadening the
groups or the constitution of regroupings of groups is put in place on a wider
and wider basis until the entire work is included: "A piece constitutes a
group" (Lerdahl and Jackendoff, 1983, p. 38). Access to this hierarchic
process of grouping presupposes the presence of elements that can be used to
demarcate longer passages and to facilitate their recognition. In a previous
study (I. Deliege, 1987a), the existence of a cue extraction mechanism
created through attentive listening was postulated; the cues would be used as
labels for the retention of groups, just like a library file (Lieury, 1980, p. 16).
At the time of retrieval, it is the cue passage alone that gives access to the
whole group. Its "signal" function is a signpost of recognition. Since it orients
attention in the progressive reconstitution of the plan of the work, the degree
of pertinence and persistence of the cues.provided by superficial characteristics
is important (Gibson, 1982). They permit active identification of structures
temporarily stored in memory. The subject listens and psychologically brings
back to the present (Fraisse, 1974, p. 75) structures that have already
disappeared. Information is never preserved as an absolute entity, but in
relative terms, ready to be "rediscussed" and re-evaluated in function of more
recent entries (Palmer, 1982). The structures are constantly recuperated and
reactualised, thus establishing new relations. In some cases, the subject can
even develop connections between what he perceives and the fruit of his
learning and previous experience.
One may wonder what constitutes a cue and its degree of pertinence.
Specific studies on this point have yet to be carried out. But on a first
approach, one can say it consists of a rather brief marker whose impact is very
clear in sound and rhythm, sufficiently significant to be able to automatically
characterise a whole sequence. However, an intuitive aspect persists in such a
definition. In the same way, it is impossible to specify the conditions for a final
order of pertinence of cues, since the number of combinations of sounds is
infinite.
19
Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
Is the organisation of the cue selection process conceivable in the course of
listening? The abbreviations of groups allow for efficient storage but their
accumulation in memory can soon result in overloading. We must understand
here that this organisation of the cues is not limited to the formationl of
surface groups, but on the contrary is part of all stages of grouping. As
broader and broader regroupings of groups are formed, a dynamic evaluatiol
of the cues is created. The more the listener circumscribes large portions ot
the music, the more the selection of cues extracted on first hearing becomes
functional. The formation of groupings of groups at different hierarchic levels
is not stored on the basis of adding together the entrance labels, but by the
elimination, in order of pertinence, of those traits that were not strong
enough to be retained, replaced by reinforcement of the most significant
markers which emerge and signal the stages of the piece
A mental representation of the form gradually develops from this point on.
Attentive listening generates a sort of "same-different" test which not only
allows one to assign a trait to a given group, but this or that group to the
"paragraph" of the work that is most appropriate because of ties of similaritv
shared with the other structures. So, on the sole basis of the organisation of
groupings, a mental image of the form can be conceived: the interplay of the
relations between cues rendering the main articulations perceptible (cf.
Fig. 1).
In sum, two organisation principles seem to function in the analytical
hearing of musical form: the principle of sameness which constitutes groups
and groupings of groups; the principle of difference which differentiates them.
The Cue and the Music-Listener Interaction
It is likely that a more or less effective interaction between music and
listener will be established as a function of the way the cues are distributed in
the structures. A combination of psycho-affective requirements are present in
the listener and they must be met if he is to adhere to the object. That is
where the cues play an important role. In addition to the relationships and ties
of similarity they inscribe in the musical development, the cues at the same
time generate memories: they create an atmosphere of familiarity, reassuring
in particular for the listener with no previous training. The total environment
of an individual, ranging from his personal development to his interaction
with his social milieu, is punctuated to a considerable extent by imitation and
repetition. Could music depart from the general rule of "universal repetition'
without prejudice to the contact that must be made with the listener? The
cognitive stages of auditory analysis are worked through in active listening
thanks to a certain voluntary effort. Without a "reward" in return, that is the
feeling of mastering the message, it is unlikely that the listener will keep
trying. On the contrary, he is likely to withdraw from an unfruitful attempt
and gradually fall back into a pre-attentive stage.
Is there, then, a theory of acceptable limits which should, in the case of a
learned musical work, be the composer's first preoccupation? Each work is of
course a specific case. Once the impact of cues has been accepted, however, it
is normal that the ties of similarity they develop in the course of the work be
the source of constructive contact between music and listener and a key for
20
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings
t p INFORMATION
0 A
S v
h s RECEPTION
e I
a V
r E rnaconitic n
A
C
T
V
E
t
0
S
s
t
e
n
| MEMORY |
AUDITIVE ANALYSIS
FIG. 1
Schematic diagram of the musical information.
the intelligibility of the general outline of the work. The use of repetition
would thus not be proof of lack on inventiveness, but a source of coherence: a
certain balance between recognised elements and unknown ones opens on to
a temporal horizon which is suitably divided into zones of expectation and of
relaxation. There is good access to the organisation of the work when this
condition is respected: it allows for satisfaction and attentiveness on the part
21
Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
of the listener. However, when the music is overburdened with repetitive
structures, as in minimalist music, time becomes static. The composer's use ot
the cue makes it too direct: that's why this kind of music has such a success.
Nothing but a minimum of expectation is demanded to assimilate the
progressive transformations inherent to the context. Buit whatevei thW
importance of those transformations, their incidence never will bc comiparable
to the weight of repetitions. Inevitably, when no effort is required. attention
progressively relaxes and listening slides into the most complete passivitv. Inl
contrast, when recognition of cues is made difficult by a too rapid accumulation
of information as well as by too few periodic structures, perpetually mobili
time offers no signposts nor rest, and the listening process gradually stifies
because of the impossibility of handling too much information within thc
time frame of the audition. A work deliberately avoiding any fornm ol
repetition would, despite its opposite position, be as devoid of factoi-s
creating a sense of expectation as one in which reiteration is overuised
(Whittall, 1980, p. 710).
The Experiment
Methodological Position
The pyschology of music has up to now barely considered investigating how
form in music is perceived. However, this now seems to be an urgent task it
our discipline hopes to reach new perspectives through cognitive processes. In
this way we could provide useful indications to composers and pedagogues
alike.
As in all research concerning musical perception, such a project etntaiks
specific methodological difficulties concerning the experimental material,
which probably justify to a certain extent the reticence of psychologists. 11e
usual practice, in our field, as in any scientific discipline, is to isolate thc
variable that one wishes to study and to incorporate it in a series of brief and
repetitive sound sequences (that are called musical), constructed bv the
psychologist for the needs of the experiment, in order to be able to identify it
afterward, in appropriate manner, in the statistical analysis of the data.
Is such an approach in an adequate conformity with its purpose'? Can Wc
seriously imagine the possibility of its topic? Who is, actually, able to asseit
he can produce an isolated musical parameter, for example: a pitch without
duration, dynamic or timbre and even articulation? Of course, preference can
be given to a determinate parameter rather than to another, but in all cases
the meaning is context dependent. Unfortunately, many studies in the field of
psychology of music scarcely achieve their aims because a musical objective is
being sought through the use of material that is both too simple and too
trivial. This problem has been considered elsewhere (I. Deliege, 1985). It is
mentioned here in order to emphasise its importance and especially because
study of the perception of a musical form is an area that justifies one's daring
to inaugurate new experimental procedures. On what basis can we undertake
this observation, if it is not through judicious questioning of subjects with
respect to authentic musical objects and judicious analysis of their answers in
relation to the musical structure? Such a procedure is doubly contrary to usual
practice: first because the proportions of a musical work are longer than the
22
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings
usual experimental stimuli, and second because real musical material, in its
essence, cannot offer dimensions that are in all points controllable and
systematically repeatable.
Confronting this problem, it has been suggested (I. Deliege, ibid.) to run
the experiment on a mixed basis, with a two-part study, one using musical
extracts from the repertory, the other with experimental stimuli. Some
qualifications must be made, however. Experience shows that the experimen-
tal part only makes sense if it is preceded by work in the sphere of music. This
observation leads to useful and musically pertinent questions which can then
be circumscribed by experiments of a more classical conception if necessary,
that is when a reason has made itself clear and if (and only if) the means exist
to contain the question within adequate and correct stimuli. As far as
investigating the perception of musical form is concerned, until proved to the
contrary, it seems to be difficult for a psychologist to "ape" the composer by
writing little experimental pieces. Suggesting such a mixed procedure is not a
proposal of principle to be applied without discernment to any research
project in the psychology of music. Only the type of question posed can
justify its use. So in this case the experiment has been limited to the
observation of subjects in confrontation with a real work of music.
The Experimental Material
In function of what has been said about the more or less valid music-listener
interaction induced by a well-balanced exploitation of repetitive elements in a
composition, it is essential, for an experiment concerning attentive listening,
to choose works that meet this requirement. Any other choice would be
unfortunate since the attention mechanisms might be less functional if they
were solicited too much or too little:
The repertoire of works conforming to this criterion is of course extensive,
but it seemed desirable to start off with a contemporary work. This is a
deliberate choice: we wished to observe the behaviour of non-musician
subjects in an unfamiliar context in order to distinguish aspects of perception
that are as free as possible from cultural imprints or any other references, and
then to compare these results with those obtained with musicians highly
accustomed to this kind of music. This repertoire, much frequented by some
and virtually unknown to others, offers a good framework for testing the
hypothesis.
We chose a work by Luciano Berio: Sequenza VI for viola, in the
interpretation by Walter Trampler (RCA SB 6846, 1971). The solo instru-
ment avoids the problem of plunging the inexperienced subject into a too
complex sea of sound. In addition, throughout his evolution, Berio has given
invariance an important place in his writing: the effect of the relations of
similarity induced in the segmentation by the grouping cues should be clearly
evident in the results.
Predictions
Just as the formation of groups and groupings is a process that has been
observed in subjects whatever their degree of acquaintance with music
(I. Deliege, 1987 b), so the mechanism of cue extraction which is the result
23
Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
should be functional for both the non-musician and the musician in alctixe
listening.
However, the results of a previous experiment (I. Deliege, ibid.) showed
the difficulty with which non-musicians mastered inequalities in the successiori
of different lengths of sound. Lengthening of a sound or a rest weirc
frequently felt as a group boundary. Non-musicians split more often the
material, therefore their grouping time-spans are reduced in comparisonl witth
those of the musicians. The same situation should be logically observed once
again in the present work.
As in any process of group formation, the demarcation on hearing of'
sections of a work is a grouping of preferential ordering. It is not necessarily
unique nor the same for everyone, and, a priori, any segmentation should be
taken into consideration: an unusual preference is not a symptom of error.
Therefore the analysis of the results will not be formulated in terms of correct
or incorrect answers. We hypothesise that few or none of the subjects will
segment as long as the flow of music retains the same cue. However, the
number of segmentations made should increase in the sections where the
composition is more characterised by contrasting structures. Internal pauses
within the main sections can reveal, not errors, since we are considering
preferential segmentation, but temporary uncertainties in the course of
listening. In this sense there should not be many of them. It is even likely that
some internal pauses which necessarily intervene in attentive listening would
be corrected afterward. However, an experimental procedure allowing for
such correction has not been envisaged here. All recorded segmentation is
definite. Corrections can only be made after the audition, if the subject has
memorised or taken note of the modifications he wishes to make, but there is
no provision for changes in the course of listening.
The Expected Auditory Analysis
Two young composers-Claude Ledoux and Gerhard Sporken-were
invited to provide a reference analysis to which the results of the two
categories of subjects were compared.
(a) Overall View. For both composers it is a piece that shows everything
that can be done with the viola's chords, and which exploits the timbre of the
instrument by using noise effects.
They gave the same general division of the work in six main sections
suggested by the maintenance of characteristic figures along with the statistical
quality of musical events, i.e. the transformations- in the overall density of
sound. It may be of interest, in this respect, to anecdotally look at the plan of
the work as it was spontaneously sketched out by a non-musician subject. It
coincides with this description on all points (Fig. 2), i.e. that sections 1 and 5.
which insist on a given figure in a tense and powerful sound context, frame the
areas 2 and 4 of average density; section 3 is characterised by single notes of
weaker intensity. A coda ends the piece (section 6) in a more and more
tenuous atmosphere.
Passages between one section and the next are often described as zones of
tiling-in the present case, of repetitions of configurations of a profile
24
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings
1 st SECTION 2d SECTION 3rd SECTION 4th SECTION 5th SECTION 6th SECTION
FIG. 2
Plan of the six sections perceived in Sequenza VI for viola solo by L. Berio,
as proposed by a non-musician subject. The height and degree of shading
of the sections correspond to the perceived volume of sound: sections
1 and 5, great intensity; sections 2 and 4, medium intensity; sections 3 and
6, feeble intensity.
analogous to the one just completed-following a break which gives the
temporary impression of a change of pace and puts off the real segmentation
until the end of the section.
(b) Description of the Sections. From the very beginning, the vibrato-
tremolo on chords is strongly inscribed (example 1). After a break (0' 15")
this loud tremolo remains characteristic, but the chords are generally "tossed
out" by sounding isolated notes beforehand in a more or less arpeggio
configuration. They create a sort of vision of the parts in their long march up
the chromatically ascending steps (example 2) to a plateau "zone" (1' 48")
which is maintained for 10" (example 3) before beginning, in a second section,
a descent in a less intense climate. Ties with the first section are created by
reminders of the vibrato-tremolo and the notes tossed out one by one before
the chord (example 4). A break (3' 38") precedes a "tiling" zone which lasts
30" (4' 06"). Real contrast is generated by a more static and less intense
atmosphere which is maintained for about two minutes (example 5). A rather
long silence (6' 26") introduces a new "tiling" zone which leads up to an
alternation of pizzicato, arco and col legno chords (6' 36") which characterise
the next section (example 6), which comes to an abrupt conclusion (7' 32").
From there we go back to the atmosphere of the beginning of the piece
(example 7). Kinds of glissandi (from 8' 26" to 8' 35") are perceived as a
flectional zone leading to a coda which brings back the atmosphere and type
of writing similar to the third section of the work (example 8).
In short, this reference analysis gives a group of subdivisions (cf. Fig. 3) in
which the composers have made a distinction between the limits of the ends of
sections (dark lines) and segmentations introducing what they called "tiling"
zones (light lines). These segmentations demonstrate the presence of cues as
described above.
Procedure
Two categories of subjects aged 20 to 30 (mean: 26 years)-18 musicians
and 18 non-musicians-took part in the experiment. The musicians are
professionally involved in contemporary music as members and/or soloists of
the "Ensemble Musique Nouvelle" in Liege. All of them were instrumentally
25
26 Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
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(b) Grouping Time-Span Evolution
(i) From the first to the second audition. The analysis shows mnuch clesicrl
what was briefly seen above, i.e. that musicians are mnore stable in their
grouping behaviour than non-musicians. Globally considered. the nlean,
grouping time-span is scarcely modified in musicians, while some broadenino.,
is met in non-musicians at second audition. The high correlation coefficienlt
(r = *991, n = 6, p < .001) between the musician's mean results shows that
both their listenings are similar. On the contrary, the two non-musicians'
auditions are less significantly correlated on this point of view (r = .817. 1i 6
p < 05): listening the piece a second time has led to Ca miiodified groupino
strategy.
It is of interest to compare Table II facing the curves of performanices ot the
subjects for each section of the piece (cf. Fig. 7). The distance between the
mean grouping time-spans in musicians and non-musicians is reduced tfot
sections 1, 2, 4 and 5, at the second listening; moreover, the two curves are
almost the same for section 4, where there is a near-equivalence betwecn
strategies during the second listening. In contrast, it gets broader for sections
3 and 6. But, in the description of the sections sketched out above (ct. point
4b), a kind of relationship between the sound atmosphere and a mnore static
writing was precisely pointed out for these two sections. 1-hus one might infei
that solidarity and coherence between musical structures is apparently less
spontaneously audible in non-musicians when the flow loses intensits.
(ii) In relation to the real duration of the sections from the piece. Another
way to insist once again about the grouping stability strategies by musicianis
and, in contrast, on a fluctuation from this point of view, in non-musicianis,
from the one to the other listening, lies in the correlation level existinlg
between the real duration of each section of the piece and the groupilng
duration perceived by the subjects for each of both auditions. Although not
significant, a "high proximity" is observed (respectively, r 643. a 6, for
the first audition, and r = *620, n - 6, for the second one) int musicians
grouping behaviour. On the contrary, in non-musicians, there could be a
training effect from the one to the other listening as the correlation levels
show a considerable "progress" (respectively, r - 15, n - 6. for the first, and
r = *512, n = 6, for the second).
Furthermore, could the duration of the sections have an influence on the
groupings perceived? Without going into details, one may notice that in
analytic listening situation, groupings seem not to be easily broader than
almost one minute, but this is no more than an hypothesis which needs furthet-
investigations.
(iii) In connection with the musical terms. Attention has been paid on the
near-equivalence in segmentation behaviour by musicians whatever the
listening. Nevertheless, some remarks in connection with particular sections
of the piece may qualify the similarity noticed between the two listenings
Indeed (cf. description, point 2, 4 b, above) the two first sections of the
Sequenza exploit very near cues. Let us mention, in this respect, that already
in the first hearing, the habituation with this kind of invariant was gixven a
broadening of the grouping time-span in musicians: from about 50" for thie
first section, their mean reaches 56" for the second one. ln addition, during
38
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings
the second hearing, their grouping time-span becomes stabilised at the level
of 56" for these two sections where near cues are perceived.
Some kind of musical structures seemed to have an increased pertinence as
cue, evidence in this respect is given by the grouping time-spans observed for
the fourth section of the piece where both categories of subjects show a
similar behaviour in the second audition.
For the sixth section, the sensation of the coda was felt, but materialised in
the segmentations given in the second audition, by musicians. There is a
broadening of the grouping time-span which reaches almost the duration of
the section itself: musicians have thus noticed and memorised retrospectively
the sense of this final section. In contrast-and this aspect has already been
noticed above (see point 1)-non-musicians have felt a different influence:
the numerous breaks introduced in the music at the end of the piece was the
reason for more chunkings, and thus, a contraction of the grouping time-
span, in the second audition. In sum, an influence of a more trained memory
is observed here in musicians which allows them to master much consciously
their perceptual analysis: as a result, the second audition takes advantage
of it.
Discussion
Cues and Grouping Time-Span
The two parts of the data analysis have let us from local aspects allowing to
locate, in the score, particular musical structures having induced a more or
less great convergence of segmentations, through more global reflections. At
the end of the part concerning the time-span aspect between the different
segmentations, one may wonder, perhaps, what the role of the cue is in the
grouping time-span. Are these two aspects to be mixed up? Grouping time-
span-it has been mentioned-has helped to grasp more exactly the contribu-
tion of music education in listening behaviour and the fast progress in non-
musicians' abilities. The mean grouping time-spans-it is true-are generally
lower than those of the sections of the piece and, regarding the hypothesis,
one believes perhaps that a correlation must be observed on this point.
Nonetheless, this aspect should not obliterate the first part of the data analysis
where the high convergence of segmentations observed at the end of the
sections (see Fig. 3, p. 30) is the evidence of the "signal" effect carried out by
the cues extraction. One may postulate on such a basis that there are
certainly hierarchical differences between the segmentations perceived.
Nothing, however, was foreseen to, give prominence to this question in the
procedure of the present work.
Conclusion and Perspectives
This experiment has allowed us to follow the establishment of a system of
relations between structures based on the evaluation of same and different as
basic principles in the organisation of perception by subjects during attentive
listening. One could, however, argue that each of the perceived section
boundaries is in function of a rest, and nothing more. There is no point in
discussing the presence nor the roles of interruptions in the perception of
segmentations: in all groups formations-it is evident-there is a superimposed
39
Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
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effect of interruption, be it subjective. However, we hacxe noticed that whcic
more numerous segmentations appear, there exists some elemeint ot sound,
other than a rest. Furthermore, rests alone cannot deteirmine thfe overall plaii
of the work: the boundaries of the "ttiling" zones that both composers noted iln
the passages between sections are proof of this. In fact, it is their funictionl sAs
indicators of groupings that allows one to consider them as belongiing to tllc
preceding section rather than the following one. Theii presence determiines
relations of similarity and creates ties of relatedness. Thev organisc tlhc
structures and by the same token grant the rests their true weight. In thrc,
structuring of the plan of a work, the weight of a rest is not lust in function ol
its length. To be convinced of this, one must only go back to examiple 7 where
the interruption that precedes the "tiling" zone is longer thani the olle that
introduces the fourth section. Three-eighth note rests (at 6' 26") are thus less
weighty than two-sixteenth rests (at 6' 36"). Such a situation. apparentlx
illogical, creates ambiguity and temporary suspension. First registered in
terms of its real impact, i.e. of its objective length, the rest's importance is
only stabilised retrospectively. Any rest followed by the continuation of the
same cue could be reinterpreted as an internal break within the sectioni. On
the contrary, the absence of the cue alerts one's attention toward a change. a
turning point in the formal organisation. The more the contrast is clear cut.
the more the break is perceived as important, whatever the real length of the
rest might be. So a conflict may be introduced at this level which finds its
solution in the similarity/contrast ratio between grouping cues. Witholut
erasing the presence of rests, the cues determine their degree of importance.
Thus they make it possible for the listener to grasp the formal organisation
The research described here is the initial part of experimentation concerning
the extraction mechanism of cues which facilitate groupings in music auial
analysis. The investigation needs now to be pursued and extended to works of
other composers and other periods in order to clarify as much as possible the
functioning of the mechanism. In this case, the only aspect einvisaged, oni tl-it
basis of the proposed hypothesis, is the perception of the divisionl of the work
in its main groupings or sections. But the representation of musical form is
not limited to this aspect alone. In particular, the next experiments will stucdv
the hierarchical organisation of groupings within a given work. In addition. a
procedure will be tested that allows a subject to "erase retrospectively
segmentation marked at a moment of temporary hesitation, or by rmistakte
The lack of familiarity with the contemporary repertory has meant that
non-musicians felt astonished and unsure of their abilities in accomplishing
the task. The reality of the results is far from this negative appreciation. OIl
the contrary, this first approach has demonstrated that there are important
similarities in the perceptive procedures of both musicians and non-musicians
Divergencies occur to the extent that the untrained listener finds it relatively
more difficult to conceive structures as unitary if there are internal interrup-
tions. Therefore, as it has been shown by the grouping time-span analysis,
groupings duration is smaller in non-musicians. But the basic aptitudes
allowing anyone to accede to music as a conscious listener are potentiallv
available. An adequate pedagogical approach that took advantage of this
potential could lead anyone to acquire mastery of the listening process-that
"musical intelligence" as Andre Souris used the term (1976. p. 251. )(4)
42
Cue Extraction in Musical Groupings 43
Notes
(1) Copyright 1985, Mark of the Unicorn, 222 Third Street, Cambridge, MA 02142.
(2) Let us notice also the eight points where the curve drops to zero, which indicates, as it has
been mentioned earlier, the segmentations not chosen by musicians and the two points (2' 10"
and 2' 30") not chosen in both auditions.
(3) Let us recall again that the LogRank test (LR) gives more weight at long duration events,
whereas the Wilcoxon test (W) reverses more or less this perspective: that is the reason why a
significant difference for the first section/first audition is observed with LR test, because of
the big amount of short groupings given by non-musicians.
(4) This study has benefited enormously from insightful remarks made by Fred Lerdahl on
reading the first draft of the paper. I would also like to thank John Sloboda, Piet Vos and an
anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on the manuscript; Marie-Isabelle Collart for help
in translation, as well as to Stephane Lejoly, Jean-Marc Sullon and Christian Vanderbeeken
for the graphics, and all those-composers, musicians of the Ensemble Musique Nouvelle
and non-musicians who participated in the experiment as subjects. My thanks go to all
of them.
Parts of this study were the subject of a paper read at the Symposium Composition et
Perception, Geneva, March 19-22, 1987, and at the Second Conference on Science and Music,
London, City University, 17-19 September 1987.
References
Apel, W. (1972). Form. In: Harvard Dictionary of Music, 326-327.
Cox, D. R. and Oakes, D. (1984-1988). Analysis of Survival Data, New York, Champan
and Hall.
Deliege, I. (1985). Perception des Formations elementaires de la Musique. Analyse Musicale, 1,
21-28.
Deliege, I. (19871a]). Le Parallelisme, Support d'une Analyse auditive de la Musique: Vers un
Modele des Parcours cognitifs de l'Information musicale. Application au SYRYNX de
Debussy. Analyse Musicale, 6, 73-79.
Deliege, I. (1987[bI). Grouping Conditions in Listening to Music: An Approach to Lerdahl and
Jackendoff's Grouping Preference Rules. Music Perception, 4(4), 325-360.
Deliege, I. (1989). A Perceptual Approach to contemporary Musical Forms. In: S. McAdams
and I. Deliege (Eds.), The Music and the Cognitive Sciences, Contemporary Music Review, 4,
213-230, London, Harwood. Translated in the French. In: La Musique et les Sciences
cognitives, Bruxelles, Pierre Mardaga, 305-326.
Deli&ge, I. and El Ahmadi, A. (1989). Mecanisme d'Extraction d'Indices dans le Groupement.
Etude de Perception sur la Sequenza VI,pour alto solo de Luciano Berio. Actes du Symposium
"Composition et Perception Musicales", Universite de Geneve, mars 1987, Contrechamps, 10,
85-104.
Fraisse, P. (1956). Les Structures rythmiques. Louvain, Publications universitaires.
Fraisse, P. (1974). La Psychologie du Rythme, Paris, PUF.
Fraisse, P. (1982). Rhythm and Tempo. In: D. Deutsch (Ed.), The Psychology of Music, New
York, Academic Press, 149-180.
Gibson, J. J. (1982). What is involved in Surface Perception? In: J. Beck (Ed.), Organisation and
Representation in Perception, Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum, 151-157.
Imberty, M. (1985). La Cathedrale Engloutie de Claude Debussy: de la Perception au Sens.
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Lerdahl, F. and Jackendoff, R. (1983). A Generative Theory of Tonal Music, Cambridge, Mass.,
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Lieury, A. (1980). Les Procedes mnemotechniques: Science ou Charlatanisme? Bruxelles, Pierre
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Moore, B. C. J. (1982). An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. New York, Academic
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Palmer, S. E. (1982). Symmetry, Transformation and the Structure of Perceptual Systems. In:
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44 Irene Deliege and Abdessadek El Ahmadi
Sloboda, J. A., Hermelin, B. and O'Connor, N. (1985). An Exceptional Musical Meemory. Ml4su
Perception, 3(2), 155-170.
Souris, A. (1976). Coniditionts de la Musique et autres Ecrits. Bruxelles, Editions dew lit U13 adld
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</meta-value> </custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><ref><citation citation-type="book" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Apel, W.</surname></name>
(<year>1972</year>). <article-title>Form</article-title>. In: <source>Harvard Dictionary of Music</source>, <fpage>326</fpage>-<lpage>327</lpage>.</citation></ref><ref><citation citation-type="book" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Cox, D. R.</surname></name>
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