The Crystallizing Experience: A Study in Musical Precocity
Identifieur interne : 001869 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001868; suivant : 001870The Crystallizing Experience: A Study in Musical Precocity
Auteurs : Cathy FreemanSource :
- The Gifted child quarterly [ 0016-9862 ] ; 1999-04.
English descriptors
- Teeft :
- Affective aspects, Affective phase, Cambridge university press, Case study research, Cathy freeman, Charness, Child prodigies, Choir school, Chorus master, Cogent argument, Cognitive structures, Common phenomenon, Common theme, Consent letter, Conversational tone, Creative people, Data analysis, Data analysis process, Data collection, Different ways, Domain, Early exposure, Emergent themes, English teacher, Ericsson, Exceptional abilities, Exceptional opportunities, Expert performance, Explanatory framework, Feldman, Findings support, First step, First time, Focus group, Focus groups, Fourth movement, Future research, Gardner, General affinity, General observations, Gifted child, Gifted children, Gifted education, Gifted students, Giftedness, Happy birthday, Hard work, Heterogeneous sample, High achievement, High degree, High level, Individual interviews, Innate talent, Intelligence profile, Intensive practice, Long term commitment, Louis persinger, Memorable contact, Middle boys, Mind moments, More insight, Multiple intelligence, Multiple intelligences, Musical ability, Musical aptitude, Musical instrument, Musical intelligence, Musical precocity, Other words, Parental support, Particular domain, Particular event, Particular instrument, Pathetique sonata, Personal communication, Personal goals, Potential area, Precocious, Precocious boys, Precocity, Present investigation, Present research, Present study, Previous findings, Proper exposure, Protracted process, Qualitative interviews, Refining, Refining experience, Research questions, Research site, Single conception, Single interviews, Special interest, Specific circumstances, Strong case, Sudden illumination, Summer institute, Talented education, Teacher nominations, Thomas choir school, Thomas church, Trial week, Unusual talent, Walters gardner, Young life.
Abstract
This study examines the nature of musical precocity and the mechanisms that mediate a “crystallizing experience.” Howard Gardner (1983) has made a cogent argument for the inclusion of musical intelligence in the spectrum of human intelligences. lie has proposed that this musical ability may evolve in different ways. One of these is the “crystallizing experience,” a dramatic event in a person's life that makes manifest inherent giftedness. The crystallizing experience may serve as a useful constrict for explaining how certain talented individuals first commit themselves to an area of giftedness. The present study involved 24 musically precocious boys of middle school age who were asked questions, individually and in focus groups, regarding the nature of crystallizing experiences. This study of the crystallizing experience revealed important implications for understanding the structure and composition of extraordinary performance.
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DOI: 10.1177/001698629904300204
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ISTEX:DFD553FDAF943F16328064E8C61A6B2EB8AAA537Le document en format XML
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One of these is the “crystallizing experience,” a dramatic event in a person's life that makes manifest inherent giftedness. The crystallizing experience may serve as a useful constrict for explaining how certain talented individuals first commit themselves to an area of giftedness. The present study involved 24 musically precocious boys of middle school age who were asked questions, individually and in focus groups, regarding the nature of crystallizing experiences. 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<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Freeman</surname><given-names>Cathy</given-names></name><aff>Teachers College, Columbia University</aff></contrib></contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>04</month><year>1999</year></pub-date><volume>43</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>75</fpage><lpage>85</lpage><abstract>
<p>This study examines the nature of musical precocity and the mechanisms that mediate a “crystallizing experience.” Howard Gardner (1983) has made a cogent argument for the inclusion of musical intelligence in the spectrum of human intelligences. lie has proposed that this musical ability may evolve in different ways. One of these is the “crystallizing experience,” <bold>a</bold> dramatic event in a person's life that makes manifest inherent giftedness. The crystallizing experience may serve as a useful constrict for explaining how certain talented individuals first commit themselves to an area of giftedness. The present study involved 24 musically precocious boys of middle school age who were asked questions, individually and in focus groups, regarding the nature of crystallizing experiences. This study of the crystallizing experience revealed important implications for understanding the structure and composition of extraordinary performance.</p>
</abstract><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>cover-date</meta-name><meta-value>Spring 1999</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value> The Crystallizing Experience: A Study in Musical Precocity Cathy Freeman Teachers College, Columbia University ABSTRA(CT This study examines the nature of musical precoc- ity and the micelchanisms that mediate a "crxrstalliz- ing experience." Howard Gardner (1983) has made a cogent argument for the inclusion of musical intelligence in the spectrum of human intelli- gences. lie has proposed that this musica] ability may evolve in different ways. One of these is the "crystallizing experience," a dramatic event in a person's life that makes manifest inherent gifted- ness. The crystallizing experience may serve as a useful constrict for explaining how certain tal- ented individuals first commit themselves to an area of gftedness. The present study involved 24 musically precocious boys of middle school age who were asked questions, individually and in focus groups, regarding the nature of crystallizing experiences. This study of the crystllizing experi- ence revealed important implications for under- standing the structure and composition of extraordinary performance What do we mean when we say that someone is "musi- cally intelligent"? What propels a child toward high achievement in music? These questions have intrigued and baffled psychologists and educators for years. In the last decade and a half, research on outstand- ing achievement and exceptional performance has pro- liferated (e.g., Ericeson & Charness, 1994; Howe, 1990; Simonton, 1988), and numerous books have been pub- lished on the topic of giftedness and multiple concep- tions of talent (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Gardner, 1983; Gruber & Wallace, 1989; Feldman, 1980/1994). Of these, the work with the greatest relevance to the questions posed above is Gardner's Frames of Mind: Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983), which introduces the term musi- cal intelligence. Gardner makes a cogent argument for the inclusion of musical intelligence in a constellation of seven dis- tinct human intelligences of equal significance in human affairs. With this provocative combination of the terms music and intelligence, Gardner provides a new vocabulary and a promising conceptual frame- work for discussing and thinking about the nature and origins of musical talent and precocity. Precocious musical talent can now be seen as a manifestation of a high level of a separate and distinct human intelli- gence. Gardner views emerging abilities as domain-specific, and he argues that exceptional talent results from a close match between an individual's intelligence profile GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 PUTTING THE RESEARCH TO USE This manuscript contributes to the research litera- ture on "crystallizing experiences," as defined by Walters and Gardner (1986). These findings sup- port the notion of the crystallizing experience as a common phenomenon among the musically preco- cious. Of special interest are the reported long- term effects of the crystallizing experience on self-concept. The crystallizing experience can serve as a useful construct in identifying a poten- tial area of giftedness or talent within a particular domain. Moreover, this construct could be useful in gaining insight into what students find intrinsi- cally motivating, thereby optimizing the attain- ment of personal goals. This study also supports a trend toward multiple criteria for giftedness, in particular, Multiple Intelligence Theory approaches. Gifted and talented education is multi-dimensional, and the single conception of giftedness is indefensible. Asking children about the crystallizing experience opens up a new mode of inquiry and offers a new way of looking at what we do and how to meet the individual needs of gifted students. 75 CATHY FREEMAN and the demands of a particular domain. Gardner believes that exceptional talent can evolve in different ways. One pivotal factor in this evolution is the phe- nomenon known as the crystallizing experience (e.g., Walters & Gardner, 1986). The Crystallizing Experience Following David Henry Feldman's earlier work on crystallizers of cognitive structures (Feldman, 1971, 1980/1994), Walters and Gardner (1986) defined the crystallizing experience as "a remarkable and memo- rable contact between a person with unusual talent or potential and the materials in the field in which the tal- ent will be manifested" (p. 308). In other words, the person has a sudden moment of insight that sets the person on his or her life's course, a sudden illumination that dramatically affects the person's view of his or her ability within a given domain. For example, Debussy began his formal study at the age of 9, and by 14 he had won a prize for piano. During the first years, he did not show any interest in composition; however, all that changed when he listened to the music of Wagner (Walters & Gardner, 1986). Gardner wrote, "In speak- ing about crystallizing experiences, I have in mind moments when individuals have discovered their call- ing-something that is sufficiently sustaining so that they make a long term commitment to it" (personal communication, August 26, 1997). Walters and Gardner studied biographical informa- tion about eminent individuals in mathematics, music, and the visual arts and interviewed teachers of talented students to identify trends and patterns that occur in the lives of creative people. Through their study of the lives of Galileo, Renoir, Debussy, and other great thinkers and artists, they uncovered a number of com- mon characteristics and experiences. In many cases, the individual discovered an important aspect of his ability, or underwent a crystallizing experience, that seemed to yield a long-term change in his view of his ability within a given domain. Although it seems that these experiences can take on various forms, they generally occur early in life and signal an affinity between an individual and some large- scale domain of interest. Walters and Gardner (1986) termed this the "initial crystallizing experience." Other experiences, or "refining crystallizing experiences," occur after an individual has undergone an initial attraction to the domain. In any case, Walters and Gardner reported that the dramatic nature of the crys- tallizing experience focuses the individual's attention on a specific kind of experience, and the individual is subsequently motivated to revisit these occasions in the future in order to reshape his or her self-concept on the basis of this experience. Walters and Gardner's findings provide support for the construct of the crystallizing experience as a fre- quent phenomenon among the talented. However, it is possible to achieve a high level of talent in a domain like music through other means, such as an integration of biological heritage and intense training, as in the case of Mozart (Walters & Gardner, 1986). In short, Walters and Gardner did not prescribe the crystallizing experience as an inevitable antecedent or precursor of high achievement within a domain. However, it can serve as a useful construct for explaining how certain individuals may first discover their areas of giftedness and proceed to achieve at an exceptional level within a field. The Crystallizing Experience and Gifted Education Research on talent development and expert perfor- mance is highly relevant to the field of gifted education, especially as reflected in expanded conceptions of gift- edness, such as the 1993 report from the National Office of Education. Research indicates that adult cre- ativity is often foreshadowed by precocity in childhood and is sometimes concentrated in certain areas (Ochse, 1990), although most child prodigies never attain exceptional levels of performance as adults (Ericcson & Charness, 1994). These recent advances in understanding exceptional performance have, to date, had little impact on educational practice; they do not, for example, tell us how an individual may first dis- cover potential talent. The field of gifted education has yet to study in-depth a community of learners who are musically precocious and may have had crystallizing experiences. Such a study would do much to help us understand the condi- tions that precipitate and accompany the occurrence of experiences that, as Walters and Gardner (1986) argued, often play such a vital role in the development of domain-specific giftedness for some individuals. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research is to determine whether crystallizing experiences were a common occurrence among a group of musically precocious boys, and, if so, what the nature, antecedents, and con- sequences of those crystallizing experiences were. Of 76 GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 THE CRYSTALLIZING EXPERIENCE particular interest and relevance to the present investi- gation is a strong, yet empirically untested conviction that the crystallizing experience has a dramatic lifelong impact on self-concept. The individual is subsequently motivated to revisit these occasions and make a long- term commitment based on these experiences. Specifically, I attempt to answer the following research questions: 1. Is the crystallizing experience a common phenome- non among the musically precocious; is it typical or atypical? 2. What kind of effect does this have on a young indi- vidual's life; is it one that is sufficiently sustaining to bring about an improvement in self-concept or an increase in ability within a given domain? 3. What is the nature of these experiences or their rai- son d'etre? In other words, what are their internal structure, motivational aspects, and affective aspects? 4. What specific circumstances surround this particular event, and how does the initial crystallizing experi- ence, which signals an affinity with a particular domain, differ from the refined crystallizing experi- ence, which occurs later in life and marks the discov- ery of a particular instrument or style within a field? Method The present research employed data gathered from both qualitative interviews of individuals and focus groups to develop explanations and conclusions con- cerning the crystallizing experience as it relates to musical precocity. The research design used multiple methods of inquiry that contributed to the method- ological rigor (Patton, 1990) of the study. This is in contrast to most studies that have assessed musical ability and its developments through standardized and criterion-referenced tests, measured through simple paper and pencil activities. Miles and Huberman (1994) contend that good qualitative data are more likely to lead to serendipitous findings and to new inte- grations. In the present research, I sought to allow dominant themes to emerge regarding the crystallizing experience, and in it I present retrospective accounts from the perspective of the student. Research Site St. Thomas Choir School is an independent school in New York City that was founded in 1919. The choir is governed by the rector and vestry of the St. Thomas Church and administered by the headmaster, who formerly served as headmaster of the Westminster Abbey Choir School in London, England. The Choir School was founded at the request of Dr. T. Noble, for- merly an organist and chorus master at York Minster. Modeled on an English choir school, the St. Thomas Choir School marries the English choir school tradi- tion to an American independent school and is the only church-affiliated boarding choir school in the U.S. and one of three remaining in the world. St. Thomas is not just a music school, but a fully accred- ited academic institution with an outstanding acade- mic curriculum. In addition to preparing more than 400 pieces of music each year for six weekly choral services at St. Thomas Church on Fifth Avenue, the choir presents four or more annual concerts of major choral works with full orchestra. Religious and musi- cal activities are important parts of the daily program. The choir, which has appeared on television at Lincoln Center and at Carnegie Hall, rehearses for 90 minutes each day. Identification and admission are based on musical aptitude, scholastic ability, and probable adaptability to the life of the school, echoing somewhat Renzulli's (1986) definition of giftedness as above-average abil- ity, creativity, and task commitment. Once a child applies for admission, the chorus master arranges a private audition, and qualified candidates are invited to spend a trial week at the school. The first step in the admissions process is the vocal and instrumental audi- tion with the choir director, which serves as one of the measures for assessment of musical precocity. Academic and intelligence tests are administered after a trial week. Ten students who demonstrate high aca- demic ability, unusual musical aptitude, and social- emotional ability strong enough to meet the rigorous demands that may befall children in a choir school set- ting are selected from a pool of students from the fifth grade. Sample The participants in this study were 24 middle school boys from the Choir School, ranging in age from 10 to 14, with a mean age of 12. The majority were Caucasian and of middle- to upper-middle class back- grounds. As described in the previous paragraph, musi- cal precocity is defined by a superior ability in both vocal and instrumental domains; this includes previous musical training in at least one instrument and the pos- session of a trainable soprano voice. As an admission requirement to the school, the stu- GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 77 CATHY FREEMAN dents were given the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition. The mean full-scale IQ for 24 children in the sample was 128. Other methods of aca- demic assessment, such as previous achievement scores, were equally weighted in the students' overall academic profiles. The school screened and selected these students on their ability to meet the strong acad- emic demands of the school. Sample Selection For the individual interviews and the focus groups, the participants were selected on the basis of a purposive sampling process, or what LeCompte and Preissle (1993) called criterion based selection. The sample was purposive "based on the assumption that one wants to discover, understand, gain insight; therefore one needs to select a sample from which one can learn the most" (Merriman, 1998, p. 48). The students were selected on the basis of their work, their musical apti- tude, and what they could contribute to the questions being studied. For the individual interviews, the head- master, music teacher, English teacher, and the author nominated seven students. For the focus groups, students from grades 6 and 8 were nominated based on the same set of criteria. A consent letter was sent to the parents of the students selected for the study. After receiving a signed consent letter from the student's parents, informants were chosen for the indi- vidual interviews. Confidentiality was secured by using a numbering system so that the student's anonymity was maintained. Data Collection The data for this study were collected over a three- month period and were derived from the following sources, 1) three 1-hour general observations at the research site; 2) single interviews with seven students; 3) two focus groups with intact English classes; and 4) conversations with parents to verify findings. Any doc- uments and archival data that could illuminate the events that surround this particular event were reviewed. These consisted of admission files; admission test scores; report cards; teacher and parent com- ments; standardized scores; alternative measures of musical ability; correspondence; faculty memoranda; official correspondence between the school and par- ents; official school documents, such as school philos- ophy; the school publication, Cantate; newspaper articles; and examples of students' work. The following methods served as a foundation for collecting the data and triangulating methods for the study: three general observations as a nonparticipant observer in the classroom (one hour each) augmented by a review of the site documents, school records, and evaluations; qualitative interviews (45-minute open interviews) with seven selected students; two focus group sessions (one hour each); and parent conversa- tions to verify the students' statements. The multiple sources of evidence allowed for the "developing of con- verging lines of inquiry" (Yin, 1994, p. 92), one of the benefits of the process of triangulation. General Observations The first source of data included three hours of class- room observations and interviews with the classroom teachers. By working in the school on a full-time basis, I had unlimited access to the research site and school documents. I observed the students on three separate occasions and wrote field notes, which I later tran- scribed in a narrative text and studied for emergent themes. Interviews. For the second source of data, seven boys were purposefully selected for the individual inter- views by teacher nominations. The teachers selected the students based on their musical aptitude and their academic ability. The individual interviews provided an opportunity for deeper analysis and a chance to gain access to the subjectivity of the crystallizing experi- ence. The students were interviewed individually in a quiet room in their school, and a friendly, conversa- tional tone was maintained during the interviews. The questions were scripted, and the students were asked the most important questions first, what Spradley (1979) referred to as the "grand tour" ques- tion. Following Patton's (1990) suggestion, I used open- ended, nondichotomous questions. Interview questions were structured before the single interviews and focus groups to guide the interview process. Breaking down questions and asking children about each component separately resolved difficulty in interpretation. To maintain consistency, the same language and terms were used in both the individual interviews and focus groups to describe the crystallizing experience. All sin- gle interviews were transcribed; none were tape- recorded. It was felt that the tape recorder might have diminished the quality of the conversational tone. The students were given a typed copy of the follow- ing definition of the crystallizing experience: "A crystal- lizing experience is an experience that involves remarkable and memorable contact between a person with unusual talent or potential and the material in the 78 GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 THE CRYSTALLIZING EXPERIENCE field in which the talent will manifest" (Walters & Gardner, 1986, p. 308). When the students required fur- ther explanation, I explained that it was a memory that was sufficiently sustaining, one where they felt com- pelled to make a commitment to their musical ability. Questions consisted of inquiries such as: a. Have you ever had a crystallizing experience and how is it similar or different to the one described? b. What kind of feeling did you encounter? c. Who was present? d. Is there musical ability in your family? e. Did the crystallizing experience have a profound effect on your life? Did it change you in any way? Focus groups. Following the individual interviews, two focus groups were conducted with two groups of 10 students in each (the mean age was 12). Three of the six boys from the single interviews were in the focus groups. The focus groups included students from both the eighth-grade and the sixth-grade English classes. Both the single interviews and the focus groups met for approximately 45 minutes and were guided by a simi- lar set of questions. LeCompte and Preissle (1993) recommended this method for discovering variation in people's responses and for revealing significant controversies among natu- rally bonded groups. Group interactions in this case tend to elicit more candid and explicit interpretations regarding the crystallizing experience. LeCompte and Preissle (1993) suggested that the researcher should create a permissive environment in the focus group, which serves to nurture different per- ceptions and points of view without pressuring the par- ticipants to reach a consensus. Thus, at the beginning of each session, an effort was made to encourage com- ments of all types, both positive and negative. I was careful not to make judgments about the responses that might indicate approval or disapproval. The English teacher co-moderated the session by documenting key words and phrases. These notes were transcribed in narrative form and compared with my notes to ensure consistency of findings. The focus groups were tape- recorded, transcribed verbatim, and used for analytic induction (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Emergent themes were coded to ascertain the commonality in the crystallizing experience. Data Analysis In qualitative research, data analysis occurs throughout the study rather than during a period fol- lowing the data collection. Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). Miles and Huberman (1994) advocated a process-ori- ented approach called "Analytical Abstraction." Step one involves coding the data or packaging of the data, writing the analytical notes and linkages, followed by reconstructing interview tapes and written notes. Step two involves aggregating the data, identifying the themes and the trends in the data. Step three tests the propositions to construct an explanatory framework. In other words, one begins with a text, codes the cate- gories, identifies themes and trends, and then tests one's findings by creating an explanatory framework. The present study employed the three-step process cited above: coding the data, aggregating themes, and recoding. This process was used in both the interview and focus group situations. In the first step, three copies of the data were made for both the single interviews and focus groups. The first set of copies were filed without notations to maintain an original in case it was needed later. Notes were written on the second set of copies of the individual interviews and transcribed notes from the focus groups. Such notes included questions that needed further probing and common themes that emerged. In the second step of the data analysis process, the data were coded to identify overall themes and trends. Notations were made in the margins to find emphases and gaps in the data. The third step of the data analysis process involved cross checking the data with the third set of copies for tentative findings. This procedure was used during data analysis to see patterns emerge through the use of triangulation. The triangulation of the data requires the researcher to test one source of data to confirm or refute the value of the data's explanatory power. This technique helped to construct concepts, ideas and themes surrounding the crystallizing experience. Different typologies of the crystallizing experience and the relationship of the crystallizing experience to musical precocity were doc- umented. To facilitate presentation of the findings, field note recording forms captured the dialogue and were cata- logued according to the questions. Synthesis was done by integrating the data into one explanatory frame- work. Under each question that guided the interview and focus groups, a section was provided for a brief summary, key points, and notable quotes to delineate major concepts and themes. Results This exploratory study examined the nature of the crystallizing experience and the mechanisms that GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 79 CATHY FREEMAN mediate its occurrence. Several themes emerged regarding the experience, both individually from the interviews and collectively from the focus groups. The results of the analyses of the crystallizing expe- rience confirm previous findings that the crystalliz- ing experience is a common phenomenon among the musically precocious. Of special interest are the reported long-term effects on the student's self-con- cept. Research Questions * Is the crystallizing experience a common phenome- non among the musically precocious? The findings support the notion of the crystallizing experience as a common phenomenon among the musically precocious. Without exception, all seven boys in the individual interviews reported a crystalliz- ing experience. Most of the boys in the focus group had a crystallizing experience. One student described his crystallizing experience as follows, "The most crystal- lizing experience for me was when I nailed the fourth movement of The Pathetique Sonata." Another stu- dent, describing his crystallizing experience, stated, "Well, music's biggest impact hit when I was six years old. I'll never forget it-the director told my parents that I had strong ability in the area of music." When asked how it felt, the student responded, "I don't think I could survive without listening or being around music. It felt like it was crystallized, glued to my body forever." * What kind of effect does this have on a young indi- vidual's life; is it one that is sufficiently sustaining to bring about an improvement in self-concept or an increase in ability within a given domain? Gardner wrote, "In speaking about crystallizing experiences I have in mind moments when an individ- ual feels they have discovered their calling-something that is sufficiently sustaining so that they make a long term commitment to it" (personal communication, August 26, 1997). The most overt enthusiasm was given to the effect of this particularly powerful mem- ory. When asked how it felt, the boys said, "Sometimes words can't describe it." One boy said, "It was like the light opened up. I'll never forget it." Another boy said, with tears in his eyes, "the experience was with my mom, it was just love ... there is no other way to describe it." Arguably, it's a memory that has a dra- matic effect; many boys felt the experience was pro- found, if not spiritual. Of special interest are the reported long-term effects of the crystallizing experience on self-concept. When asked, most of the boys were eager to describe the experience. All of the boys in the groups, with the exception of one boy, reported having a crystallizing experience and stated that it improved their self-con- cept. Comments included, "From that moment, I knew I could do anything" and "I felt protected, secure, I'll never forget it." Statements such as, "I felt confident," "It increased my confidence," and "I felt I could do anything" were typical of the comments found in the interviews. As one student described it, "It's like when you fall on the ice with hockey equipment. You go down hard, but you feel protected; it's a weird feeling." Using another metaphor to describe the crystallizing experience, one boy said it was like "the Big Bang Theory." * What are its motivational or affective aspects? The construct of the crystallizing experience could be useful in gaining more insight into what students find intrinsically motivating. More important, this study suggests that the crystallizing experience may reveal potential areas of giftedness in certain domains that would have gone unnoticed in more traditional settings. The boys' accounts revealed an area of poten- tial giftedness and an intrinsic desire to excel within a given domain. Six of the seven boys in the individual interviews had a crystallizing experience in the area of music, and one boy had it in the area of athletics. Interestingly, the boy who had a crystallizing experi- ence in the area of sports demonstrated unusual ability in athletics. Walters and Gardner (1986) contended that it is consistent with the theory that many, if not most, will experience the affective phase of the crystal- lizing experience, especially if an individual is "at promise" within a particular domain. It is unlikely, according to Walters and Gardner (1986), that the experience will have a dramatic or lasting effect if the individual does not have some facility within the domain. * What specific circumstances surround this partic- ular event and how does the initial differ from the refined crystallizing experience? Walters and Gardner (1986) hypothesized that the crystallizing experience can take on different forms. One is the initial crystallizing experience, which occurs early in a child's career and signals a general affinity between the individual and some domain of ability. One example is a three-year-old student who, after hearing "Happy Birthday" for the first time, played the initial chords an octave higher. The second is the refining crystallizing experience, which occurs later in life and helps the individual discover his or her 80 GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 THE CRYSTALLIZING EXPERIENCE own particular metier within a given domain of ability. The refining crystallizing experience is illustrated by the young adolescent who, while playing the piano, mastered the fourth movement of the Pathetique Sonata. The findings of this study suggest that, while the refining experience occurs later in training and typ- ically under self-instruction, the initial crystallizing experience requires many resources, especially parental influence and early exposure to a musical instrument. Consistent with previous findings, the initial crystal- lizing experience can serve as a way for an individual to enter a domain and, with the right conditions, achieve mastery of the domain, while the refining experience occurs after the individual has been attracted to the domain. Parental support, practice, and exposure. Mastery of this ability is largely achieved through many hours of practice, exposure to the instrument, and parental support. Without these elements, the initial or refined crystallizing experience may not occur. Most of the boys agreed that their achievement had much to do with a combination of innate ability, practice, and hard work. Exposure to music and parental encour- agement were germane to the initial crystallizing expe- rience, while intensive practice was associated with the refining crystallizing experience. Several students indicated that the initial crystallizing experience would probably not have occurred without the support and encouragement of their mother, father, or teacher. They described parents who were supportive and encouraging of their talents. Comments such as "I remember my mom smiling at me" or "My dad was right there, I remember" were common in the inter- views. Most of the boys in this study came from musical backgrounds and were exposed to early training. Encouragement from a parental figure was a common theme when explaining the crystallizing experience in both the interviews and focus groups. However, praise or reinforcement was accepted only when the boys viewed it as honest and constructive. One boy who claimed that he did not have a crystallizing experience had memories of a demanding father. He stated, "I just wanted to get the piece over with." It seems possible that harsh memories can stifle the occurrence of the crystallizing experience. Walters and Gardner (1986) wrote: The crystallizing experience is a fragile phenomenon that occurs principally when circumstances combine inborn tal- ent, self teaching, and proper exposure to a set of materials in a particular way. Finally, in those circumstances where there is a strong predisposition to excel with a given material and where there is some but not exceptional opportunities, a crys- tallizing experience is most likely to occur (p. 330) Consistent with Gardner's findings, this study sug- gests that the crystallizing experience was a nearly ubiquitous phenomenon among these musically preco- cious boys. It should be highlighted as an extension of Gardner's previous findings that the boys were exposed to not only some, but to exceptional opportunities, which presaged the crystallizing experience. The role of maximal parental support and early instruction seems to be more important than innate talent (see Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Feldman, 1991; Howe, 1990). Evidence from systematic research on prodigies pro- vides little evidence for innate talent as the sole explanatory factor and demonstrates that exceptional abilities are often acquired under optimal environmen- tal conditions. Feldman (1991, 1980/1994) argued that most child prodigies do not fulfill their potential in adult life because extreme talent, environmental sup- port, the proper instructor, and chance rarely coincide. Talent is necessary but not sufficient for exceptional achievement in music; it cannot develop without extensive support, appropriate resources, and so forth (Feldman, 1991). The musical instrument. An affinity with a particu- lar instrument was a common theme in this present study and in previous research. Comments included, "I remember when I was playing a piano or violin ..." One boy's crystallizing experience occurred when playing a piece by Beethoven at the piano. Another boy viewed his voice as an instrument. It seems the instrument represents the object of their inner expression. One boy said, "It just comes from inside. I can't help myself from singing." During a one-to-one interview, a student reported that his revelation occurred during a piano recital while his mother and piano instructor were pre- sent. The second experience occurred once while he played the clarinet. He said, "I'll never forget it. I was with my mother. We played Etude Rose in C major. My mom was there, I was, my teacher; the three of us were on stage." Walters and Gardner (1986) discussed the impor- tance of choosing an instrument, which can be con- sidered fine tuning of a domain or finding a niche within a field. Several of these experiences described by the students sound like crystallizations themselves. In some instances, the boys described a moment in which they first came into contact with an instrument or the first time they came to the school and heard the GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 81 CATHY FREEMAN choir. It was a moment that was so dramatic and sus- taining that they made choices based on its single occurrence. Hearing the instrument sometimes crys- tallizes the sense of musicianship at a time prior to for- mal training. The Earlier Recollections: The 10-Year Rule. The boys who had earlier recollections seemed to have dis- tinctively unusual talent and demonstrated advanced musical aptitude based on teacher nominations and student comments. For example, one student stated, "When I was three years old, for my birthday, my mother played 'Happy Birthday.' I played the first cou- ple of notes a few octaves higher." This student started to play his improvisations on the piano and began composing at the age of eight. He is currently writing an opera. Athough he plays both the piano and cello, he feels more comfortable with the piano. Another boy, who is number one in choir, reported that his mother said she played classical music the day his par- ents brought him home from the hospital. One boy who plays the music of Mozart with superior skill was told that his mother played it continually before he was born. All reports were confirmed by the students' parents. A further analysis revealed that each of the five boys who had recollections as early as three years of age have had almost 10 years of practice in music. Ericsson and Charness (1994) found that about 10 years of intense practice was necessary to achieve expert per- formance. Gardner (1983) contended that, irrespective of domain, it takes about 10 years of intensive practice to master a high degree of performance. Feldman (1980/1994) contends that a period of at least 10 years of work must occur before one achieves high levels of performance. Feldman (1991, 1980/1994) wrote, "For the music prodigy, the years from three to five are almost always crucial" (p. 54). Limitations of the Study There were some limitations to the present investi- gation. There is a potential bias in the sample selected. The students are musically precocious, mid- dle school-age boys who come from unusually sup- portive backgrounds, which makes generalization difficult to students who are musically precocious with less supportive backgrounds. Future research should include a heterogeneous sample and other intellectual domains of ability. Additionally, the stu- dents are not only musically precocious boys, but are enrolled in a church-affiliated choir school. This pre- sents an unusual challenge in terms of their fluency and ability to communicate such a private affair as the crystallizing experience. Unlike most middle school-aged boys, the boys studied here expressed their interpretations openly and treated the crystal- lizing experience as an epiphany or some dream-like revelation. The willingness of the participants to report the crystallizing experience may have been an indirect consequence of the context created in this highly unusual setting. This study is also limited by the reliance on self- reports. It may have been possible that their descrip- tions were what they wished rather than what really happened. However, this seems unlikely, since parents, teachers, and friends confirmed the reports. Implications Implications for Theory Walters and Gardner's interest in crystallizing expe- riences grew out of the Theory of Multiple Intelligence. The Theory of Multiple Intelligence (MI), as stated before, does not prescribe the existence or the impor- tance of the crystallizing experience. However, it does suggest that these experiences occur across a variety of domains yielding sudden, powerful, long-term effects (Walters & Gardner, 1986). More recent publications have challenged the legit- imacy of these reports as memories that have become dramatized in the retelling due to their retrospective nature. Educators and psychologists have long been interested in the "Aha" experience. Howard Gruber (1981) presented a conceptually rich treatment of the "Aha" experience, which illuminated its complex inner structure. He viewed insight as a part of a pro- tracted process, and he believed this process is regu- lated by purposeful work. In Gruber's study on "Aha" experiences, he measured insight through frequency, magnitude, and duration. He found, first, the occur- rence of insight indicates a certain degree of mastery of the domain; insights often represent a moment of consolidation or confirmation. When the insight occurs, it is effectively laden in a way that accentu- ates the experience. Gruber questioned the validity of telescoping the essence of the creative process into a single moment or act such as the crystallizing experi- ence. Walters and Gardner (1986) described and listed exciting crystallizing experiences that set creative indi- viduals on their life courses. These experiences came 82 GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 THE CRYSTALLIZING EXPERIENCE through contact with master teachers, parents, or, in some cases, exposure to an instrument (Ochse, 1990). According to Feldman (personal communication, June 10, 1998), the "Aha" experiences come in relation to solving a specific problem or resolving a specific conun- drum. The essence of the crystallizing experience is similar, but not identical, to the "Aha" experience. Additional research is needed to determine whether Gardner's account of the crystallizing experience or Gruber's account of the "Aha" experience is the truer one, or whether each exists as a means of gaining insight. The findings of this research provide evidence of the importance of examining the theorized instantaneous nature of the crystallizing experience. Although the students described this singular moment as one that was dramatic, a strong case can be made against the immediacy of such occurrences. Most students reported that their talent was largely due to vigilance, sacrifice, and hard work, and they felt that, without proper exposure, the initial crystallizing experience would not have occurred. This brings us to the perennial question of talent versus training and how it applies to the crystallizing experience. Researchers in the development of expertise (e.g., Ericsson & Charnes, 1994) question the occurrence of the crystallizing experience and argue that differences in performance are altered by the amount of training received. In studying the lives of expert performers, they identify the central role of extensive focused training or deliberate practice. Gardner (1983; Walters & Gardner, 1986) argued that exceptional performance results from a close match between the individual's intelligence profile and the demands of a particular domain. According to the MI Theory, gifted children are children with a high degree of "raw" intelligence in a specific field who, under certain circumstances, demonstrate evi- dence of that intelligence before they are engaged in any kind of training regime (Walters & Gardner, 1986). Recent evidence for the effects of training (e.g., Ericsson & Charnes, 1994) has prompted some to question whether innate talents and specific gifts are necessary conditions for attaining the highest level of performance within a domain. Ericsson and Charness found that extended training alters the cognitive and physiological processes of experts to a greater degree than is commonly believed. Walters and Gardner (1986) and Feldman (1991) posited that the develop- ment of raw intelligence into the focus domain of expertise is as much a function of training as of raw intelligence. Similarly, Bereiter and Scardamalia (1994) acknowledged that talent influences the capac- ity to become expert, but they emphasized, along with Ericsson and Charness (1994), the time and effort needed to become an expert. While it may not be necessary to demonstrate a genetic proclivity for attaining a high level of perfor- mance, the crystallizing experience can serve as a use- ful construct in identifying a potential area of giftedness or talent. Researchers in expert perfor- mance may question the utility of the initial crystal- lizing experience; however, a strong case can be made for the centrality of the refining crystallizing experi- ence that occurs later in life after considerable train- ing. The students in this study, however, also make a compelling case for the initial crystallizing experience as a genuine phenomenon that occurs early in one's musical career and signals a general affinity with some intellectual domain. Most students will experience the affective phase if they are at promise within a given domain. Thus, on one hand it can be stated that early expo- sure to music is a prerequisite to the initial crystalliz- ing experience. Through the initial crystallizing experience the individual's interest and motivation in a domain become manifest in a commitment to instruction. The refining crystallizing experience, on the other hand, acts as a catalyst for further musical instruction, which may ultimately lead to the develop- ment of a very high level of expertise. For example, Yehudi Menuhin's crystallizing experience occurred when he was three years old. He was taken to concerts of the San Francisco Symphony regularly. "Upon hear- ing the sound of the orchestra and the violin played by Louis Persinger, he said, 'I asked for a violin for my fourth birthday, and Louis Persinger to teach me to play it.' He got both" (Walters & Gardner, 1986, p. 314). The crystallizing experience, according to Walters and Gardner (1986), assesses the utility of multiple intelligences and brings that theory into contact with such issues as the inception of giftedness and how one achieves mastery within a domain. Implications for Future Research This study is the first step in providing information about the extent and nature of the crystallizing experi- ence with musically precocious boys. Future research in other realms of intelligence and artistic domains and with heterogeneous samples would help extend the GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 83 CATHY FREEMAN research reported here. Although Walters and Gardner (1986) contended that its occurrence varies across domains, further in-depth qualitative research is needed to ascertain the conditions that lead to a crys- tallizing experience. An important research strategy in identifying the crystallizing experience would empha- size the case study method. This type of retrospective account would allow for dialogue and a description of the process and conditions that give rise to creative insights. Future research could focus on four primary objec- tives: 1) demonstrating a fit between the body of data for this study and understanding the crystallizing expe- rience as it relates to a broader population or hetero- geneous sample; 2) generating hypotheses about crystallizing experiences that are useful in identifying students potentially gifted in music and other domains of ability; 3) differentiating between what are termed initial and refining crystallizing experiences; and 4) examining further the inner structure of the crystalliz- ing experience; is it revealed in a sudden illumination or is it part of a protracted process? Implications for Practice Educators would benefit if they viewed the student as able to achieve a crystallizing experience, which could thereby optimize the attainment of personal goals. Roeper (1996) wrote: Educators and experts in gifted education today see the gifted child in terms of what they [sic] do or are able to do and not who they are-not how their emotions differ from those of other children. They do not look at what motivates the child. (p. 18) The concept of a crystallizing experience itself has a sense of "magic" that students are compelled to talk about. This construct could serve in gaining more insight and knowledge into the students' interests, hopes, and desires. Roeper (1996) contended that "the gifted child has a complex self that is driven by his or her agenda" (p.18). The crystallizing experience cogently captures what a student finds intrinsically motivating. Gifted children tend to develop an early internal locus of control, which tends to awaken this moment of clarity. It would be good pedagogy to question children about their crys- tallizing experiences, not for the good of society, but for the attainment of a personal goal. Our field needs to recognize that the practice of gifted and talented education is multidimensional and that a single conception of giftedness is indefensible. Asking children about the crystallizing experience opens up a mode of inquiry and offers a new way of looking at what we do and how programs could be organized to meet the individual needs of gifted stu- dents. References Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers: The roots of success and failure. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49, 725-747. Feldman, D. H. (1971). Map understanding as a possible crystallizer of cognitive structures. American Educational Research Journal, 8, 485-501. Feldman, D. H. (1980/1994). Beyond universals in cognitive devel- opment. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Feldman, D. H. (1991). Nature's gambit: Child prodigies and the development of human potential. New York: Teachers College Press. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelli- gences. New York: Basic Books. Gruber, H. E. (1981). On the relation between "Aha experiences" and the construction of ideas. Historical Science, 19, 306-324. Gruber, H. E., & Wallace, D. B. (1989). Creative people at work. New York: Oxford University Press. Howe, M. J. (1990). The origins of exceptional abilities. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. LeCompte, M. D., & Preissle, J. (1993). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. New York: Academic Press. Merriman, S. (1998). Case study research in education: A qualita- tive approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ochse, R. (1990). Before the gates of excellence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Renzulli, J. S. (1986). Systems and modelsfor developing programs for the gifted and talented. Mansfield Centre, CT: Creative Learning Press. Roeper, A. (1996). A personal statement of philosophy of George and Annemarie Roeper. Roeper Review, 19, 18-19. Simonton, D. K. (1988). Scientific genius: A psychology of science. New York: Cambridge University Press. Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Walters, J., & Gardner, H. (1986). The crystallizing experience: Discovering an intellectual gift. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp. 306-330). New York: Cambridge University Press. Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 84 GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 THE CRYSTALLIZING EXPERIENCE Author's Note I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. James H. Borland and Kimber Lee Wellons for their critique of this manuscript. GIFTED CHILD QUARTERLY * VOLUME 43, NO. 2 * SPRING 1999 The Summer Institute For The Gifted A RESIDENTIAL CO-EDUCATIONAL ACADEMIC CAMP FOR GIFTED STUDENTS GRADES 4-11 Bryn Mawr College * Vassar Collegea Drew University * Denison Universitya Pacific Lutheran University * George School Full spectrum of challenging academic courses taught by college professors and experts in their fields. Complete recreational program. Many cultural opportunities. Educational and social evening entertainment performances. Saturday off-campus trips. Sunday on-campus creativity programs. MUCH MORE! The Summer Institute for the Gifted has been conducting sessions of their academic camping program since 1984. For further information contact: ~ College Gifted Programs 120 Littleton Road, Suite 201 Parsippany NJ 07054-1803 Phone: (973) 334-6991 Fax: (973) 334-9756 http://www.cgp-sig.com e-mail: info@cgp-sig.com 85 </meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front><back><ref-list>
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</ref-list></back></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>The Crystallizing Experience: A Study in Musical Precocity</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>The Crystallizing Experience: A Study in Musical Precocity</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Cathy</namePart><namePart type="family">Freeman</namePart><affiliation>Teachers College, Columbia University</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>Sage Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">1999-04</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">1999</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><abstract lang="en">This study examines the nature of musical precocity and the mechanisms that mediate a “crystallizing experience.” Howard Gardner (1983) has made a cogent argument for the inclusion of musical intelligence in the spectrum of human intelligences. lie has proposed that this musical ability may evolve in different ways. One of these is the “crystallizing experience,” a dramatic event in a person's life that makes manifest inherent giftedness. The crystallizing experience may serve as a useful constrict for explaining how certain talented individuals first commit themselves to an area of giftedness. The present study involved 24 musically precocious boys of middle school age who were asked questions, individually and in focus groups, regarding the nature of crystallizing experiences. This study of the crystallizing experience revealed important implications for understanding the structure and composition of extraordinary performance.</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>The Gifted child quarterly</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0016-9862</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1934-9041</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">GCQ</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spgcq</identifier><part><date>1999</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>43</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>2</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>75</start><end>85</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">DFD553FDAF943F16328064E8C61A6B2EB8AAA537</identifier><identifier type="ark">ark:/67375/M70-TNGNP36X-W</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1177/001698629904300204</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1177_001698629904300204</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-0J1N7DQT-B">sage</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods><json:item><extension>json</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/json</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/DFD553FDAF943F16328064E8C61A6B2EB8AAA537/metadata/json</uri></json:item></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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