DebussyV1, Istex, Corpus, bibRecord, 001510

The Accentuation Principle of Visual Organization and the Illusion of Musical Suspension

Identifieur interne : 001510 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001509; suivant : 001511

The Accentuation Principle of Visual Organization and the Illusion of Musical Suspension

Auteurs : Baingio Pinna ; Luca Sirigu

Source :

Seeing and Perceiving [ 1878-4755 ] ; 2011.

RBID : ISTEX:E9613A3C85034554A2B52D81254EFA9A267CD8A7

English descriptors

Teeft :
- Accent, Accentuation, Accentuation principle, Caption, Cortical circuits, Deutsch, Downbeat, Downbeat emphasis, Downbeat illusion, Empty circles, Gestalt, Gestalt psychologists, Gestalt theory, Grossberg, Grouping, Grouping principle, Grouping principles, Gure, Gure caption, Gures, Laminar, Laminar circuits, Laminart model, Lled, Lled circle, Lowest note, Manifests properties, Musical accents, Musical domain, Musical illusions, Musical stimuli, Musical suspension, Neural dynamics, Next sections, Opposite effect, Other gestalt principles, Other principles, Other words, Percept, Perceptual grouping, Perceptual organization, Phenomenological, Phenomenological task, Pinna, Pointedness, Raizada, Right hand, Same kind, Second notes, Shape formation, Sidedness, Similarity principle, Sirigu, Small circles, Sound recording, Sound recordings, Spatial vision, Stroboscopic conditions, Suspension effect, Suspension illusion, Syncopation, Terminal point, Vectorial properties, Virtual circle, Visual cortex, Visual illusions, Whole form.

Url:

https://api.istex.fr/document/E9613A3C85034554A2B52D81254EFA9A267CD8A7/fulltext/pdf

DOI: 10.1163/187847611X603747

Links to Exploration step

ISTEX:E9613A3C85034554A2B52D81254EFA9A267CD8A7

Le document en format XML

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		<p>Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 brill.nl/sp The Accentuation Principle of Visual Organization and the Illusion of Musical Suspension ∗ Baingio Pinna ∗∗ and Luca Sirigu Department of Architecture, Design and Planning, University of Sassari at Alghero, Palazzo del Pou Salit, Piazza Duomo 6, 07041 Alghero (SS), Italy Received 31 January 2011; accepted 29 August 2011 Abstract The aim of this work is to demonstrate a new principle of grouping and shape formation that we called the accentuation principle , stating that, all else being equal, the elements tend to group in the same oriented direction of the element discontinuity placed within a whole set of continuous/homogeneous components. The discontinuous element is like an accent, i.e., a visual emphasis within a whole. We showed that this principle is independent from other gestalt principles. In fact, it shows vectorial properties not present in the other principles. It can be pitted against them. Furthermore, it is not only a grouping principle but it also influences shape formation, by inducing effects like the square/diamond and the rectangle illusions. Finally, the accentuation operates under stroboscopic conditions and manifests filling-in properties and long range effects. Through experimental phenomenology, it was shown that the accentuation principle can influence group- ing and shape formation not only in space but also in time and, therefore, not only in vision but also in music perception. This was suggested by phenomenally linking visual and musical accents and by demonstrating a new illusion of musical suspension, related with its opposite effect, the downbeat illusion. This kind of illusions can be appreciated in two solo piano compositions respectively by Debussy and Chopin — Rêverie and Nocturne, op. 27 no. 1 . Variations in the note where the accent is placed and in the kind of accent demonstrated their basic role in inducing the illusion of musical suspension. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2011 Keywords Shape perception, time perception, perceptual organization, visual and musical illusions, Gestalt psychology * This article is part of the Multisensorial Perception collection, guest edited by S. Wuerger, D. Alais and M. Gondan. ** To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: baingio@uniss.it © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2011 DOI:10.1163/187847611X603747</p>

		<p>596 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 1. Introduction Wertheimer in 1923 started the studies of perceptual grouping that is one of the basic problems of vision science. The main questions were: how do the elements in the visual field ‘go together’ to form a holistic percept (Gestalt)? How do individ- ual elements group into wholes separated from others? Through phenomenological experiments, he suggested some general grouping principles defining what deter- mines the emerging whole when all else is equal. They are: proximity, similarity, good continuation, closure, symmetry, convexity, Prägnanz , past experience, com- mon fate and parallelism. Furthermore, a number of new principles have been more recently discovered. These are: common region (Palmer, 1992), synchrony (Palmer, 1999), element connectedness (Palmer, 1999; Palmer and Rock, 1994) and asym- metric luminance contrast (Pinna, 2005, 2008; Pinna and Reeves, 2006). The purpose of this work is to introduce a new principle of perceptual group- ing and shape formation that we call ‘accentuation’ and to report some new effects derived from it. Finally, we extended this principle to the musical domain by sug- gesting the illusion of musical suspension. Like Wertheimer, we used the phenomenological approach by first describing what we see (next General Methods sections), then defining the conditions under which the effects here suggested occur (all the next sections). The principle of ac- centuation is consistent with the Gestalt usage of the term ‘principle’ that does not necessarily concern causes and effects. Nevertheless, like other principles govern- ing other scientific fields, the accentuation principle subsumes regularities for all practical purposes that apply to certain classes of phenomena (e.g., grouping) or generalizations based on recurring facts or events. In other words, it describes re- lationships that are observed to be invariable between or among phenomena for all cases in which the specified conditions are met. It is worthwhile underlining that both the accentuation and the grouping princi- ples can be considered as ‘principles’ in the sense of distinct brain design principles. They require to be explained as all other regularities and the explanation does, how- ever, depend on the properties of laminar visual cortical circuits. In our work we will explain the effects related to the accentuation principle in the light of the FA- CADE (Grossberg, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2003) and the LAMINART (Grossberg and Raizada, 2000; Grossberg and Swaminathan, 2004; Grossberg and Yazdanbakhsh, 2005; Raizada and Grossberg, 2003) neural models of 3-D vision and grouping, no- tably of how complementary cortical boundary and surface representations interact with spatial attention to generate conscious percepts of grouping and 3-D form. 2. General Methods 2.1. Subjects Groups of 10 undergraduate students of linguistics, art, music, literature, archi- tecture and design participated in the visual and musical experiments. They were</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 597 different for each kind of stimulus, illustrated in the next sections, and for the two methods adopted and described in the Procedure section. Subjects had some ba- sic knowledge of Gestalt psychology, visual illusions and classical music, but they were naive both to the phenomena studied and to the purpose of the experiments. They were both male and female undergraduates and all had normal or corrected- to-normal vision and normal hearing. The authors also served as extra subjects. 2.2. Stimuli The stimuli were the figures (visual stimuli) and the sound recordings (musical stimuli) shown in the Results section (see supplementary online material at http: //media.brill.nl/sp). The overall sizes of the visual stimuli were ∼ 5 ◦ . The luminance of the white background was 122.3 cd/m 2 . Black shapes had a luminance value of 2.6 cd/m 2 . The figures were shown on a computer screen with ambient illumination from an Osram Daylight fluorescent light (250 lux, 5600 ◦ K). Stimuli were displayed on a 33 cm color CRT monitor (Sony GDM-F520 1600 × 1200 pixels, refresh rate 100 Hz), driven by a MacBook Pro computer with an NVIDIA GeForce 8600M GT. Viewing was binocular in the frontoparallel plane at a distance of 50 cm from the monitor. The sound signals of the musical stimuli were generated and played by a Mac- Book Pro computer by using Sibelius 6 software. The output was passed through a Crown amplifier and presented to subjects binaurally through Sony headphones at a level of approximately 70 dB SPL. 2.3. Procedure In order to appropriately study the phenomena here presented two methods were used: one more qualitative (phenomenological task) similar to those used by Gestalt psychologists and another more quantitative (scaling task). 2.3.1. Phenomenological Task The task of the subjects was to report spontaneously what they perceived for each stimulus by giving, as much as possible, an exhaustive description of the main vi- sual and musical property perceived. The descriptions were provided by no less than 8 out of 10 subjects and were reported in the next sections within the main text to aid the reader in the stream of argumentations. The descriptions were judged and summarized by three graduate students of linguistics, naive as to the hypotheses, to provide a fair representation of the ones given by the observers. 2.3.2. Scaling Task The phenomenological free-report method is complemented by a more quantita- tive one, based on magnitude estimation. The subjects were instructed to rate (in percent) the descriptions of the specific attribute obtained in the phenomenologi- cal experiments. A new group of 10 subjects was instructed to scale the relative strength or salience (in percent) of the descriptions of the phenomenological task:</p>

		<p>598 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 ‘please rate whether this statement is an accurate reflection of your perception of the stimulus, on a scale from 100 (perfect agreement) to 0 (complete disagreement)’. Throughout this paper, each description is followed by the results of the magni- tude estimation (mean rating): the figures given in parentheses therefore represent percentages. All subjects were tested individually and in a soundproof room. During the experiment, observation and listening time was unlimited. Reports for visual and musical stimuli occurred spontaneously and fast. Subjects were allowed: to make free comparisons, confrontations, afterthoughts; to see and listen in different ways; to match the stimulus with others, etc. The subjects could also receive sugges- tions/questions such as: what is the shape of each component? What is the whole shape? All the variations and possible comparisons occurring during the free explo- ration were noted down by the experimenter. For further details about these tasks and procedure see Pinna (2010b). 3. Results (For the Movies and Sound Recordings, see supplementary online material at http: //media.brill.nl/sp/.) 3.1. A New Principle of Visual Organization: The Accentuation In Fig. 1(a), a large square shape made up of small circles is perceived (96). The circles do not show any preferential direction in the inner organization but appear organized as a lattice of small circles (92). By shifting visual attention two alter- native groupings in rows or columns can be easily switched, however they appear unstable and reversible (91). Grouping the elements obliquely (45 or 135 ◦ ) is much more difficult or nearly impossible (90). This result is due to the Gestalt grouping principle of proximity (Wertheimer, 1923) stating that, all else being equal, the nearest elements are grouped together. Because the shortest distances among the elements are those in the vertical and horizontal directions, the circles group more easily along these directions. The perceptual grouping by proximity may be explained as a boundary com- pletion process. Such a process has been modeled by, for example, the Boundary Contour System that has been introduced by Grossberg and colleagues (Cohen and Grossberg, 1984; Grossberg, 1994, 2003; Grossberg and Mingolla, 1985a, 1985b; Grossberg and Todorovic, 1988) and, more recently, by the LAMINART model (Grossberg and Raizada, 2000; Grossberg and Swaminathan, 2004; Grossberg and Yazdanbakhsh, 2005; Raizada and Grossberg, 2001, 2003), which proposes how laminar visual cortical circuits help us to form such perceptual groupings. Gross- berg et al. (1997) simulated effects, similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 1(a), as a combination of collinear bipole grouping and explored how it controls competi- tive interactions between all possible groupings, selecting winning groupings that have the most cooperative support. The main point is that there is not a ‘principle’</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 599 Figure 1. (a) A large square shape made up of small circles. The circles do not show any prefer- ential direction in the inner organization. (b) The rotation of (a) by 45 ◦ emphasize the grouping of the elements placed in the longest distances and induce the square–diamond illusion. (c and d) The square–diamond illusion. of proximity. There is a ‘property’ of proximity. The ‘principles’ that have been used to explain such properties, in a unified way, concern how and why particular cooperative–competitive mechanisms control perceptual grouping. There is a way to emphasize the oblique directions and, therefore, the grouping of the elements placed in the longest distances. This can be accomplished by rotat- ing the whole square by 45 ◦ (Fig. 1(b)). This rotation induces the square–diamond illusion as illustrated in Fig. 1(c) and (d) (Da Pos and Zambianchi, 1996; Mach, 1914/1959; Schumann, 1900), according to which the same geometrical figure is perceived as a square when its sides are vertical and horizontal, but as a diamond when its sides are diagonal (93). Moreover, the area of the diamond appears larger than the one of the square. According to Schumann (1900), this result can be related to the attention given to the vertical–horizontal directions that are clearly longer in the diamond than in the square. This property may be related to the greater sensitiv- ity of the cortex to horizontal and vertical orientations due to their greater frequency in many scenes. In other words, there may be a pre-attentive effect that triggers a preferred vertical organization, which, in turn, attracts boundary attention as a con- sequence, not a cause. An early example of how preferential cortical development of horizontal and vertical orientations may influence perception is the line neutral- ization illusion of Gibson (1933) and Gibson and Radner (1937), which is modeled in Levine and Grossberg (1976). In Fig. 1(a) and (b), the square–diamond illusion is related to other effects: the circles forming the diamond appear larger than those of the square (91) and, as</p>

		<p>600 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 2. If one of the circles of Fig. 1(b) is filled with black, it is perceived as an accent falling on a specific element within a whole and emphasizing the ‘pointedness’ (left) and the ‘sidedness’ (right) of that shape. Phenomenally, the two figures appear respectively like a diamond and a square rotated by 45 ◦ . previously suggested, the circles group more easily against proximity in the case of the diamond than of the square (93). These results imply that the vertical/horizontal direction of the whole figure influences the organization of its elements in terms of grouping, size and shape. The role of the main directions of space was described by gestalt psychologists in several well-known visual effects and, particularly, by Rubin (1915, 1921), who considered them as a figure–ground segregation factor, clearly exemplified through a Maltese cross, a vertical/horizontal cross which, all else being equal, tends to appear as a figure against the oblique cross that appears as a background. There are other more efficient ways to accentuate and, therefore, to create a specific organization of elements and shapes independently from the well-known factors of grouping and figure–ground segregation. In Fig. 2, one of the circles of Fig. 1(b) is filled with black. This variation is perceived as an accent (94) falling on a specific element within a whole and emphasizing (90) a particular location and a component within a shape and, more generally, within the space. Geometrically and phenomenally, different locations and components within a form and a shape manifest different properties. For example, in the case of a square and a diamond, different locations are more or less related by highlighting, geo- metrically, sides or angles and phenomenally properties such as ‘pointedness’ and ‘sidedness’. The pointedness can be perceived in Fig. 2(left), where the accent on the top vertex polarizes the directions of the elements and the whole diamond shape inducing a vertical elongation and making it appear univocally as a diamond (94). The accent enhances its perceptual pointedness. These results are perceived more clearly when they are compared with those of Fig. 1(b) (89). By changing the position of the accent within the whole form, as illustrated in Fig. 2(right), the sidedness appears now stressed and the shape is described as a square rotated by 45 ◦ (95). These last results cannot be reconsidered in the light of the square–diamond illusion. In fact, the accent, placed on the side, elicits the perception of a rotated square against what is expected on the basis of the square– diamond effect.</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 601 The phenomenal differences between a diamond and a square rotated by 45 ◦ are considerable. On the basis of the previous remarks, the differences can be summa- rized as follows: in a diamond the phenomenal emphasis is placed on the vertex showing its pointedness, whereas in the rotated square the emphasis is placed on the side showing its sidedness. This suggests that diamonds and squares rotated by 45 ◦ are two different figures, not only because they have two different names, but, mostly, because they show opposite properties. This shape change is not a minor difference but a variation of the perceptual meaning (see Pinna, 2010a) similar to a word that can totally change its meaning depending on the accent put on one or another vowel. These phenomenal remarks are supported by the next figures. Each accent, shown in the previous and in the next conditions, appears as the converging point and the sense of the direction it emphasizes (89). In other words, it appears phenomenally like the tip of the arrow or the terminal point of the ori- ented direction induced by it (90). The starting point of the oriented direction is placed on the circle located at the opposite pole from the accent. The direction, the starting and ending points of the accent likely depend on the directional symmetry induced by it. The directional symmetry has been already considered as a principle of shape formation (see Pinna, 2010a), derived by the known grouping principles, like similarity, but also by the accent, here also considered as a new grouping princi- ple (see below). In summary, the accents behave like Euclidean vectors considered in the same acceptation used in physics. All the vectorial properties of the accent can be easily perceived in Fig. 3, where the accents of Fig. 2 are now relocated in the main positions of the figure and in their opposite poles. Under these conditions, the diamond and the rotated square, emerging when the accents are placed respectively on one vertex (showing the pointedness) or on one side (showing the sidedness) of the figure, are reoriented in the opposite sense when the accent falls on one or the opposite pole (93). For instance, the same rotated squares are perceived when their accents are placed on opposite sides of the figures but they appear pointing in opposite senses, which are determined by the spatial position of their accent (95). This formation of oriented directions occurs for all the figures here illustrated. The strength of the accent to influence grouping and shape formation (as con- cerns the distinction between the form of grouping and the form of shape, see Pinna, 2010a) can also be appreciated under stroboscopic conditions as shown in Movies 1 and 2. In Movie 1, a diamond of empty circles like the one illustrated in Fig. 1(b) is perceived to jump or to appear and disappear in different random locations of the screen (92). By filling one of the circles (see Movie 2), placed alternately on one of the sides or on one of the vertexes (therefore creating an accent), the jump of the whole form is accompanied by the rotation of the form in the sense of the filled circle (91) and the perceived form can alternately appear as a diamond or as a rotated square according to the previous results (93). In Movie 3, the diamond of empty circles of Movie 1 is perceived rotating clockwise around a virtual circle (90). By adding the same accent of Movie 2 in alternated positions (side or vertex),</p>

		<p>602 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 3. Several figures showing the role of the accent, due to the filled circle within each of the figures. The accent shows vectorial properties that reorient the direction of the grouping and the shape formation (diamonds or rotated squares) in the sense of the accent that appears like a terminal point. as shown in Movie 4, the perceived rotating form switches from a diamond to a rotated square (90). Therefore, there are two kinds of rotations: a clockwise one around a virtual circle and another, again clockwise, going from one position of the accent to the next (91). By emphasizing the directions of the whole figure, the accent also induces the lengthening of a square shape made up of circles in the direction polarized by its vectorial properties (see Fig. 4): the whole square of circles of Fig. 4(left) appears slightly like a vertical rectangle, while the one of Fig. 4(right) like a horizontal rectangle (89). Different examples of this rectangle illusion are reported in Pinna (2010a). It is worth noticing that, under the previous conditions, the discontinuity of the accent can be considered as a special case of the similarity grouping principle (Wertheimer, 1923), i.e., apparently as some kind of dissimilarity. As such, the accentuation effect may be brought back to the similarity principle (see Luchins and Luchins, 1998; Vicario, 1975, 1998). Despite this, the accentuation of group-</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 603 Figure 4. The rectangle illusion: the whole squares of circles appear slightly like a vertical rectan- gle (left) or like a horizontal rectangle (right). ing and shape formation can be considered as an autonomous principle for several reasons. First of all, it is autonomous because the accents can be of many different kinds and do not necessarily have to be included within the group of elements to be accentuated, but they can also be located outside them, as shown in Fig. 5. The resulting effects are very similar to those described for Fig. 2: diamond or rotated square, and grouping against proximity (92). These kinds of variations of the ac- cent cannot be brought back, either to the similarity principle or to proximity or to any other gestalt principle. On the contrary, under these conditions, the principle of accentuation operates autonomously and against similarity and proximity. On the basis of these results, in Fig. 2 we omitted the letters as tags to define and to name single figures within the whole group of them and used simply ‘left’ and ‘right’ within the text. The letters, placed outside the figures and in different positions, behave like accents (93) and, ipso facto , can influence the perceived shape and grouping (see Fig. 5, last row). Second, the principle of accentuation is autonomous because it affects more com- plex properties than those induced by the similarity principle or other principles. If the accentuation principle can be considered as a particular case of the similarity principle, then what we expect from the previous results is no more than the seg- regation in two different groups: some empty circles and the filled one. This is not our case. As we said, the filled circle appears as an accent not segregated but as part of the whole group. Furthermore, in the previous figures the grouping and the shape induced is not synergistic with similarity but depends on the location of the accent or on the element where the accent falls. The following figures demonstrate these points: the position of the accent, illustrated in Fig. 6 and based on the reversed contrast, changes the direction of the organization and, as a consequence, the way the single letters are read: Z in Fig. 6(top) (90) and N in Fig. 6(bottom) (92). It is worthwhile noticing that the results of these two figures were perceived more reversible than those of the previous ones. However, these outcomes occurred only if attention was focused only on the single white character. While, by spreading attention in the whole configuration and, therefore, in the emerging direction of the figure elicited by the accentuation of the white character (resp., top-left or top-right side of the diamonds), the reversibility between Z and N is much reduced and very similar in strength to the previous figures. These results can be interpreted accord- ing to the fact that, under these conditions, the reading process is also involved, a process that requires a size of the focus of attention smaller than the one required</p>

		<p>604 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 5. Different examples demonstrating that the accents can be of many different kinds and do not necessarily have to be included within the group of elements to be accentuated, but they can also be located outside them. in the previous conditions where reading does not occur. This suggests that the ac- centuation principle occurs at a global level as is demonstrated by the following conditions.</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 605 Figure 5. (Continued.) Third, the principle of accentuation is different from the others because it man- ifests filling-in properties and long-range effects. In Fig. 7, the accent, placed in the central component, spreads its effects in the other elements placed all around: the accent induces the same kind of shape property ((a) sidedness and (b) pointed- ness) and groups the circles, according to the accent of the central figure, also in the groups of circles surrounding the central one (91). As a consequence, in Fig. 7(a) the whole figure of each group of circles and the grouping of their elements are perceived as rotated squares (90), while in Fig. 7(b) as diamonds. These results are expected by virtue of what an accent is supposed to do, i.e., to emphasize the whole starting from a single component. Nevertheless, in the case of the rotated squares (Fig. 7(a)), this result is unexpected on the basis of the configural orientation effect studied by Attneave (1968), Palmer (1980, 1989) and Palmer and Bucher (1981). They demonstrated that the perception of local spatial orientation is determined by the global spatial orientational structure. Since the global orientational structure fol- lows the vertexes of each figure, the expected results should be ‘diamonds’ rather than rotated squares as it actually happens. Why was this principle defined ‘accentuation’? The main properties shown in the previous figures can answer this question. Firstly, this principle operates like an accent because phenomenally it appears as such within a group of elements: the filled circle appears similar to an accent mark emphasizing specific properties</p>

		<p>606 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 6. The position of the accent, based on the reversed contrast, changes the direction of the organization and, as a consequence, the way the single letters are read: Z (top) and N (bottom). of a whole object (sidedness and pointedness) or on specific grouping directions (vertical/horizontal or oblique). Secondly, the accent falls on a single element that belongs to a group of elements: the accentuated element does not appear as something else, segregated as a figure from the background of the non-accentuated elements, but it appears as part of them. This is one of the basic properties of an accent. In fact, it is something placed at another perceptual level, like a meta-property or a sign, whose purpose is to enhance a part within a whole without becoming itself another object. Thirdly, the accentuation changes or determines the organization and the shape of the group of elements similarly to the accents in linguistics, where grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, or in music, where the accent determines the articulation and prosody of the performance of a musical phrase.</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 607 (a) Figure 7. The accent, placed in the central component, spreads its effects in the other elements placed all around: the whole figure of each group of circles are perceived as diamonds (a) or rotated squares (b). Just as the accentuation principle can change grouping and shape perception un- der the spatial conditions previously considered, so it can change grouping and shape perception in time. To understand how this principle works in time, by pro- ducing similar effects, a new musical illusion is suggested in the next section. 3.2. The Illusion of Musical Suspension The accentuation principle plays a role also in time, by defining some of its prop- erties, such as its prosody, rhythm and shape. This can be perceived in music in the starting five measures of Rêverie (1890, Fig. 8 and Sound Recording 1), a solo piano piece by Debussy (1862–1918). The starting measures represent an outstanding in- troduction to a daydream by virtue of the upbeat suspension effect perceived when the right hand strikes up. Though the effect is already present in the first measure, it is not immediately perceptible. The illusion emerges clearly at the beginning of the third measure with the cue of the note G in the upper staff, through a mismatch be-</p>

		<p>608 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 (b) Figure 7. (Continued.) Figure 8. The illusion of musical suspension: in Debussy’s Rêverie an illusion emerges clearly at the beginning of the third measure with the cue of the note G in the upper staff, through a mismatch between the beat visually perceived in the piano score and the upbeat heard (listen Sound Recording 1). tween the beat visually perceived in the piano score and the upbeat heard (92). We call this effect ‘the illusion of musical suspension’. This illusion is not related with other well-known musical illusions (Deutsch, 1975, 1992a, 1992b, 1999, 2009a, 2009b; Vicario, 2005).</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 609 Figure 9. The downbeat illusion: this is the opposite of the illusion of musical suspension. The note G is heard falling on the downbeat even if it actually falls on the upbeat (listen Sound Recording 2). (a) (b) Figure 10. Two kinds (a) and (b) of syncopated Rêverie are perceived without the suspension illusion (listen Sound Recording 3(a) and (b)). In order to understand the role of the accents in producing this effect, we first analyze some of the properties of the illusion of musical suspension and the main conditions under which it occurs. What follows is a preliminary study of the illusion and of the role of the accentuation principle based more on qualitative than on quantitative judgments. The illusion can be perceived in the opposite way, i.e., through the advancing of the cue of the right hand with G of one-eighth value (Fig. 9 and Sound Recording 2). Under these conditions the illusion of suspension is absent, but the opposite effect emerges, i.e., something like a downbeat illusion , where the note G is heard falling on the downbeat even if it actually falls on the upbeat (92). The illusion of suspension shows several offbeat syncopations, although it is not perceived as syncopation with the regular shifting of each beat in the measured pattern, but mostly as an agogic accent and a suspension in time of the singing of the right hand due to its apparent delay. Syncopation, common in ragtime and jazz, is not illusory per se . It does not usually show the physical–perceptual discrep- ancy typical of illusions. In Fig. 10(a) and (b) and Sound Recording 3(a) and (b), two kinds of syncopated Rêverie are perceived without the suspension illusion. In these scores, the syncopations emphasize rather than destroy the general scheme of measures and meters (90). These results demonstrate that syncopation alone is not</p>

		<p>610 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 11. The illusion of musical suspension persists unaltered by removing the notes in the up and down arpeggio and by keeping only the rhythm (listen to Sound Recording 4). Figure 12. The illusion of musical suspension is absent when all the beats of the left hand are stressed in the same way, so that they are perceived homogeneous (listen to Sound Recording 5). sufficient to produce the illusion. In spite of these limits, syncopation, as used by Debussy in Rêverie , plays a role in inducing the illusion of suspension by virtue of the fact that under our conditions it behaves like an agogic accent. From the previous remarks it follows that the illusion persists unaltered by re- moving the notes in the up and down arpeggio and by keeping only the rhythm as shown in Fig. 11 and Sound Recording 4 (93). In music, time is articulated by alternations of stressed and unstressed beats (strong or weak) representing the pulse sequence of the measures. The downbeat is the pulse occurring at the beginning of a measure and carrying the strongest ac- cent. If the downbeat is not emphasized like in a weak stress, the syncopation is perceived. In the regular organization of music in 4 / 4 time, the first beat of the measure (down-beat) is usually the strongest accent, the third is the next strongest (on-beats), while the second and fourth are weaker (off-beats). If all the four beats are stressed in the same way, so that they are perceived homogeneous, the suspen- sion effect is absent (Fig. 12 and Sound Recording 5) similarly to the visual results perceived in Fig. 1(a) and in Movies 1 and 3 (94). In order to obtain the maximum of homogeneity the bar lines were removed. However, by playing marcato accents (i.e., by emphasizing the beginning and then taper off rather quickly) with the left hand as shown in the score of Fig. 13 and Sound Recording 6, thus emphasizing and giving a shape and a prosody to the time, the illusion of suspension emerges again (92). The accents restore the illusion of musical suspension, because the accents of the left hand fall in the second notes that are usually weak beats. Under these conditions, the note G is played in between two strong accents. The articulation of beats through the accents organizes the time</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 611 Figure 13. The illusion of musical suspension is restored when marcato accents of the left hand fall in the second notes that are usually weak beats (listen to Sound Recording 6). Figure 14. By placing the marcato accents in positions that are usually stressed beats, the illusion of musical suspension is cancelled and the downbeat effect is even enhanced (listen to Sound Record- ing 7). similarly to the way in which the filled circles, studied in the previous section, organize the space. The accents give a shape both to space and time. By using the same kind of accents, but placing them in different positions that are usually stressed beats, as demonstrated in Fig. 14 and Sound Recording 7, the illusion is cancelled and the downbeat is even enhanced and perceived stronger than the one of Fig. 12 and Sound Recording 5, where the homogeneity of the beats only cancels the illusion (92). Figures 12–14 and Sound Recordings 5–7 clearly demonstrate the role of the accents in producing the illusion. Other kinds of accents (tonic, dynamic, agogic and staccato, staccatissimo, tenuto) generate the effect with a similar strength to those previously described. More generally, many kinds of musical discontinuities produce, like in the visual domain, a structure that operates similarly to the accents, thus producing the illusion of musical suspension (88). In Figs 15–18 and Sound Recordings 8–11, some of these discontinuities are presented with the controls. These results suggest that several kinds of discontinuities induce the grouping of the notes and, hence, their structure and shape formation in time that elicit both the musical suspension and the downbeat emphasis in the controls. The discontinu- ities, here considered, are related to at least three fundamentals of music: intensity (Figs 13 and 14 and Sound Recordings 6 and 7), pitch (Figs 15 and 16 and Sound Recordings 8 and 9) and timbre (Figs 17 and 18 and Sound Recordings 10 and 11). The resulting effects are in the following order of strength: intensity of the sound (much stronger), pitch and timbre (weaker and weaker) (91). It was not among the</p>

		<p>612 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 15. Pitch discontinuities in the second notes that are usually weak beats induce the suspension illusion (listen Sound Recording 8). Figure 16. Control for Fig. 15. The illusion is annulled and the downbeat enhanced (listen to Sound Recording 9). Figure 17. Timbre discontinuities in the second notes, usually weak beats, induce the suspension illusion (listen to Sound Recording 10). aims of this work to measure the relative strength of these fundamentals and of different kinds of discontinuities and accents. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile lingering over the role of pitch, which shows a su- perior complexity when compared with the other two fundamentals. This means that it is not sufficient to use a ‘higher’ pitch to determine the accent in that particular note. To demonstrate the complexity of this property, physically related to the fre- quency in cycles per second (hertz), Fig. 19 and Sound Recording 12 show the first four measures of Chopin’s (1810–1849) Nocturne , op. 27 no. 1 (1835), where an illusion of musical suspension similar in quality but weaker than Debussy’s Rêverie is perceived (93).</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 613 Figure 18. Control for Fig. 17. The illusion is annulled and the downbeat enhanced (listen to Sound Recording 11). Figure 19. Eight measures of Chopin’s Nocturne, op. 27 n. 1 , where an illusion of musical suspension similar in quality but weaker than Debussy’s Rêverie is perceived (listen to Sound Recording 12). Aside from other musical attributes that we consider less important, the main effect is here related to the movement of pitches during the arpeggio and, more particularly, to the lower note in pitch preceding the cue of the E note with the right hand. The accent is perceived in the lowest note C# and, therefore, the starting of the upward movement with the G# note seems to sweep away and delay the cue of the right hand, thus creating the suspension illusion (90). To demonstrate the role of this arpeggio movement we suggest the following two Figs 20 and 21 and Sound Recordings 13 and 14.</p>

		<p>614 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 Figure 20. Rêverie rewritten in Chopin’s style showing the same kind of suspension effect (listen to Sound Recording 13). Figure 21. Rêverie rewritten in Chopin’s style but with the lowest note of the arpeggio coinciding in time with the cue of the right hand, thus inducing the downbeat emphasis (listen to Sound Record- ing 14). In the first condition, Rêverie was rewritten in Chopin’s style showing the same kind of suspension effect (91), while in the second condition the lowest note of the arpeggio coincides in time with the cue of the right hand, inducing the downbeat emphasis (93). In brief, the results of this section demonstrated that the illusion of musical sus- pension, clearly perceived in Debussy’s Rêverie , depends on the three kinds of musical accents: dynamic (emphasis using louder sounds), tonic (emphasis on a note due to its higher pitch) and agogic (emphasis due to its longer duration). They are also related to the music fundamentals but only when they create a discontinuity, i.e., when they operate as the accentuation principle. 4. Discussion and Conclusions In the previous sections we demonstrated a new factor of grouping and shape for- mation that, in the same spirit of gestalt psychologists (Metzger, 1963), we called the accentuation principle , stating that, all else being equal, the elements tend to group in the same oriented direction of the element discontinuity placed within a whole set of continuous/homogeneous components. The discontinuous element is like an accent, i.e., a visual emphasis within a whole. It was shown that the phenomenal accentuation within a group of elements op- erate as an oriented direction (Euclidean vector) with three main attributes: the magnitude or length (e.g., the different intensities presented in Fig. 5), the direction of the grouping and shape formation and the sense connecting an initial point A with a terminal point B. We showed that this principle is autonomous with respect to the other gestalt principles. In fact, it shows vectorial properties not present in the other principles</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 615 and it can be pitted against them. Furthermore, it is not only a grouping principle but it also influences shape formation, by inducing effects like the square/diamond and the rectangle illusions. Finally, the accentuation operates under stroboscopic conditions and manifests filling-in properties and long range effects. We also demonstrated that this principle, like other gestalt principles (see also Deutsch, 1975, 1992a, 1992b, 1999, 2009a, 2009b), can influence grouping and shape formation not only in space but also in time and, therefore, not only in vision but also in music perception. This was suggested by phenomenally linking visual and musical accents and by demonstrating a new illusion of musical suspension, related with its opposite effect, the downbeat illusion. This kind of illusions can be appreciated in two solo piano compositions respectively by Debussy and Chopin — Rêverie and Nocturne, op. 27 no. 1 . Variations in the note where the accent is placed and in the kind of accent demonstrated their basic role in inducing the illusion of musical suspension. On the basis of these results, we suggested that, just as the square/diamond shape, studied in Section 3.1, showed alternated phenomenal properties (sidedness and pointedness) all around its perimeter, so the sequence of measures in time creates an alternation and a modulation of strong and weak accents and of downbeats vs. upbeats. In fact, in musical perception a measure is a natural sequence of accents, normally strong in the downbeat and weaker and weaker in the other compound me- ters of the same measure. This parallelism suggests strong phenomenal similarities and connections between the visual and the musical domain and between sidedness vs. pointedness of the visual domain and downbeatedness vs. upbeatedness of the musical one. We suggest that these two phenomenal properties define the prosody of a musical phrase, i.e., its rhythm, stress and intonation, and as a consequence the grouping and shape formation in music and time. A clear example of upbeatedness property played constantly in a complete musical score is Lux Aeterna (1966) by György Ligeti (1923–2006). Examples of downbeatedness are quite common and present in folk music, ragtime and so on. In spite of these similarities, there are also some differences that do not disprove or weaken the basic idea of the principle of accentuation. In fact, these differences depend again on the nature of accents in the visual and musical domains. They are shortly presented in the next Figs 22 and 23 and Sound Recordings 15 and 16. We have seen in Fig. 5 (first row) that a missing circle induces a clear accentuation in the whole shapes, polarizing the oriented directions and the shape formation. In music, the rest (interval of silence) is conceptually and phenomenally equivalent to the missing element of Fig. 5. Nevertheless, it does not produce the same effect but the opposite (92), when the rest is located in the second beats that are usually weak (Fig. 22(a) and Sound Recording 15(a)), and, ipso facto , the opposite of the opposite (91), when the rest is placed in the first beat of every measure (Fig. 22(b) and Sound Recording 15(b)). In fact, a rest is musically related to a weak beat and, thus, to the weakest dynamic accent or to the total absence of an accent. However, if this is true, it does agree with and corroborate the notion of accentuation principle.</p>

		<p>616 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 (a) (b) Figure 22. The rest does not produce the same effect of the missing circle of Fig. 5, but the opposite, when (a) the rest is located in the second beats that are usually weak, and the same when (b) it is placed in the first beat of every measure (listen to Sound Recording 15(a) and (b)). Figure 23. The musical suspension effect persists only for a half note value and then decays (listen to Sound Recording 16). A second difference is related to the filling-in and the long-range effect clearly visible in Fig. 7, but weak in the musical domain (Fig. 23 and Sound Record- ing 16). The musical suspension effect persists only for a half note value and then decays (92). In Rêverie , this result likely depends on the second cue of the right hand with the D note that imposes a new prosody and, therefore, a new accent structure. Furthermore, it is also related to the movement of notes in time sequence occurring only in the musical domain and not in the visual one, where the elements can be perceived phenomenally at a glance. In order to create in vision, conditions that are similar to the musical ones, we presented the groups of circles of Fig. 7 in temporal sequence (see Movie 5). The results are similar to those of Fig. 23 and Sound Recording 16, showing a fast decay of the filling-in effect in time (91). In conclusion, these dissimilar effects of the musical domain with the visual one do not weaken the role of the principle of accentuation, but, on the contrary, cor- roborate its role.</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 617 How can the accentuation principle be explained in terms of properties of laminar visual cortical circuits? FACADE theory (Grossberg, 1994, 1997) proposes expla- nations of how the brain creates 3-D object representations through interactions of boundary grouping and surface filling-in processes within the cortical interblob and blob streams, respectively, through cortical areas V1–V4. These boundary and surface processes have been shown to exhibit computationally complementary properties (Grossberg, 2000) and their interactions generate a consistent percep- tual representation that overcomes the complementary deficiencies of each stream acting on its own. Boundaries form inwardly between pairs or greater numbers of inducers, are oriented, and are insensitive to contrast polarity; that is, boundaries pool contrast information at each position from opposite contrast polarities. Surfaces fill-in out- wardly from individual lightness or color inducers in an unoriented fashion using a process that is sensitive to contrast polarity, which enables surfaces to embody visible colors and lightness percepts. These boundary and surface formation rules are complementary. Boundary grouping and surface filling-in were first modeled by the Boundary Contour System (BCS) and Feature Contour System (FCS), respectively (Cohen and Grossberg, 1984; Grossberg and Mingolla, 1985a, 1985b; Grossberg and Todor- ovic, 1988). The term ‘boundary’ is aimed to emphasize that perceptual groupings can form in response to combinations of edge, texture, depth, and shading informa- tion, not merely edge information. This property is important for the accentuation principle. In fact, boundaries are amodal and do not, at least within the interblob cortical stream, carry visible lightness and color information. The amodal property of boundaries is due to their pooling of opposite contrast polarities at each position, which occurs no later than the complex cells of V1. This pooling operation enables boundaries to form around objects on textured backgrounds whose contrast relative to the object may reverse as the object boundary is traversed. Pooling of signals from opposite polarities and colors, however, prevents the boundary system from representing visible, or modal, visual features. We have seen that, in Fig. 2, a black disk serves as an accent that can select the orientation of the perceived grouping. This is the main property of the accentuation principle. Its explanation seems to depend on a subtle property of laminar visual cortical circuits. In particular, the black disk attracts attention as a pop-out cue. This pop-out can itself be explained by the 3D LAMINART model (Grossberg and Raizada, 2000; Grossberg and Swaminathan, 2004; Grossberg and Yazdanbakhsh, 2005; Raizada and Grossberg, 2003). However, the main design principle concerns how attention and grouping interact, and how collinear groupings can form, in lam- inar visual cortical circuits to enable attention to flow along a preferred boundary grouping and give it a competitive advantage over other groupings. This sort of property has been used to simulate neurophysiological data about attentional flow along groupings (Grossberg and Raizada, 2000).</p>

		<p>618 B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 The main question is therefore: given an understanding of how attention and grouping can interact, why does the pop-out cue group in a particular orientation? For example, in the case in Fig. 2(right panel), one factor is that, when the eye is drawn to the center of the square, attention can also enhance the center of the square. Then there are two enhanced locations. Together, these attentionally en- hanced locations can preferentially cause collinear grouping between them, via the usual bipole grouping mechanisms (Grossberg, 1994), leading to a preferred group- ing from one side of the square to the other which goes through the center of the square. This preferred grouping organizes the short-range competition around it- self in a way that breaks possible perpendicular groupings and disinhibits parallel groupings throughout the square (see also Grossberg et al. , 1997). In other words, this is an example of ‘good continuation’, which is, like proximity, a property of per- ceptual grouping. Within this model, a similar set of perceptual mechanisms seem to be able to explain all the grouping principles (Grossberg et al. , 1997; Grossberg and Swaminathan, 2004; Grossberg and Yazdanbakhsh, 2005). In summary, the de- sign ‘principles’ that explain these effects are related to how attention and grouping can interact within the laminar circuits of visual cortex. Such an interaction is ex- plained in the 3-D LAMINART model as a manifestation of how the cortex can develop and learn in a stable way, in particular, how intracortical circuits can stably develop even before intercortical top–down attention can also help to stabilize them (Grossberg, 1999). Many of the accentuation principle demos can be explained in a similar way. The effects illustrated in Fig. 5 have the same explanation, except this time the attentional focus is due to a cue outside the square itself. Everything else goes through as before. The long-range effects in Fig. 7 have a similar explanation, but in this case long-range bipole propagation may occur across squares. Finally, stressed beats in audition play much the same role in the temporal do- main as do the accents in the spatial domain in setting up the direction and strength of the flow of apparent motion among notes (see Grossberg and Rudd, 1989, 1992). Captions of Movies and Sound Recordings Movie 1 . A diamond of empty circles is perceived to jump or to appear and disappear in different random locations. Movie 2 . The jump of the whole form is accompanied by the rotation of the form in the sense of the filled circle, thus the perceived form can alternately appear as a diamond or as a rotated square. Movie 3 . A diamond of empty circles is perceived rotating clockwise around a virtual circle. Movie 4 . The perceived rotating form switches from a diamond to a rotated square. Movie 5 . (a and b) When the groups of circles of Fig. 7(a) and (b) are presented in temporal sequence, the results are similar to those of Fig. 23 and Sound Record- ing 16, showing a fast decay of the filling-in effect in time.</p>

		<p>B. Pinna, L. Sirigu / Seeing and Perceiving 24 (2011) 595–621 619 Sound Recording 1 . This sound recording refers to Fig. 8 and to the illusion of musical suspension. Sound Recording 2 . This sound recording refers to Fig. 9 and to the downbeat illusion. Sound Recording 3 . (a and b) These sound recordings refer to Fig. 10(a) and (b), where syncopated Rêverie performances are perceived without the suspension illusion. Sound Recording 4 . Sound recording of Fig. 11 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 5 . Sound recording of Fig. 12 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 6 . Sound recording of Fig. 13 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 7 . Sound recording of Fig. 14 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 8 . Sound recording of Fig. 15 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 9 . Sound recording of Fig. 16 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 10 . Sound recording of Fig. 17 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 11 . Sound recording of Fig. 18 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 12 . Sound recording of Fig. 19 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 13 . Sound recording of Fig. 20 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 14 . Sound recording of Fig. 21 (see its figure caption). Sound Recording 15 . (a and b) Sound recordings of Fig. 22(a) and (b) (see their figure caption). Sound Recording 16 . Sound recording of Fig. 23 (see its figure caption). Acknowledgements Supported by Finanziamento della Regione Autonoma della Sardegna, ai sensi della L.R. 7 agosto 2007, n. 7, Fondo d’Ateneo (ex 60%) and Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (to BP). We thank Stephen Grossberg, the Editor and the two Reviewers for their suggestions that greatly improved the paper. References Attneave, F. (1968). Triangles as ambiguous figures, Amer. J. Psychol. 81 , 447–453. Cohen, M. A. and Grossberg, S. (1984). Neural dynamics of brightness perception: features, bound- aries, diffusion, and resonance, Percept. Psychophys. 36 , 428–456. Da Pos, O. and Zambianchi, E. (1996). Visual Illusions and Effects . Guerini, Milano, Italy. Deutsch, D. (1975). Musical illusions, Sci. Amer. 233 , 92–104. Deutsch, D. (1992a). Some new pitch paradoxes and their implications, Auditory Processing of Com- plex Sounds, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 336 , 391–397. Deutsch, D. (1992b). Paradoxes of musical pitch, Sci. Amer. 267 , 88–95. Deutsch, D. (1999). Grouping mechanisms in music, in: Psychology of Music , 2nd edn, D. Deutsch (Ed.), pp. 299–348. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA. Deutsch, D. (2009a). Auditory illusions, in: Encyclopedia of Perception , E. B. Goldstein (Ed.), pp. 160–164. SAGE Publications, London. Deutsch, D. (2009b). Musical illusions, in: Encyclopedia of Neuroscience , L. R. Squire (Ed.), Vol. 5, pp. 1159–1167. Academic Press, Oxford, UK.</p>

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Serveur d'exploration Debussy

The Accentuation Principle of Visual Organization and the Illusion of Musical Suspension

The Accentuation Principle of Visual Organization and the Illusion of Musical Suspension

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