Musical contracts: fostering student participation in the instructional process
Identifieur interne : 000685 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000684; suivant : 000686Musical contracts: fostering student participation in the instructional process
Auteurs : Bernard W. AndrewsSource :
- International journal of music education [ 0255-7614 ] ; 2004-12.
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- Adult education, American association, American journal, Andrews, Canadian music educator, Carolina state, Class time, Classroom environment, Clinical education, Community colleges, Course outcomes, Curriculum materials, Deakin university, Distance education, Document reproduction service, Educational resources information catalogue, Evaluation system, Hall bonnabeau, High school, Instructional process, International journal, International society, Knowles, Laidlaw foundation, Middle school, Music education, Music educators journal, Music instruction, Music program, Music programs, Music teacher, Musical contracts, Nursing education, Odyssey project, Ontario institute, Ottawa, Performance criteria, Pharmaceutical education, Presentation modes, Principal themes, Remedial tool, School music, Student participation, Student teachers, Study centres, Teacher agreement, Technical report, White greenwood, Young people.
Abstract
Contract learning is an approach to classroom instruction that emphasizes teacher-student collaboration in the teaching-learning process. Participation in instructional decision-making encourages students to take responsibility for what happens to them, and it engenders a greater sense of commitment to the outcomes of the music program. In music education, where large group performance-based instruction is prevalent, students often feel that they are alienated, and the programs do not meet their personal needs. This article illustrates how the strategy can be adapted for music instruction, and outlines the benefits that contract learning offers for fostering student participation in the instructional process.
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DOI: 10.1177/0255761404047398
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ISTEX:77038BFC73949AEC55270C9304ACB3370B34CA24Le document en format XML
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<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Andrews</surname><given-names>Bernard W.</given-names></name><aff>University of Ottawa, Canada, <email xlink:type="simple">Andrews@uottawa.ca</email></aff></contrib></contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>12</month><year>2004</year></pub-date><volume>22</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>219</fpage><lpage>229</lpage><abstract>
<p>Contract learning is an approach to classroom instruction that emphasizes teacher-student collaboration in the teaching-learning process. Participation in instructional decision-making encourages students to take responsibility for what happens to them, and it engenders a greater sense of commitment to the outcomes of the music program. In music education, where large group performance-based instruction is prevalent, students often feel that they are alienated, and the programs do not meet their personal needs. This article illustrates how the strategy can be adapted for music instruction, and outlines the benefits that contract learning offers for fostering student participation in the instructional process.</p>
</abstract><kwd-group><kwd>contract learning</kwd><kwd>music instruction</kwd><kwd>student decision-making</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value> Musical contracts: fostering student participation in the instructional process BERNARD W. ANDREWS University of Ottawa, Canada Abstract Contract learning is an approach to classroom instruction that emphasizes teacherstudent collaboration in the teachinglearning process. Participation in instructional decision- making encourages students to take responsibility for what happens to them, and it engenders a greater sense of commitment to the outcomes of the music program. In music education, where large group performance-based instruction is prevalent, students often feel that they are alienated, and the programs do not meet their personal needs. This article illustrates how the strategy can be adapted for music instruction, and outlines the benefits that contract learning offers for fostering student participation in the instructional process. Key words contract learning, music instruction, student decision-making Introduction The traditional instrumental or vocal class is often a large performing ensemble process where students must pay close attention to the teacher-conductor, master the assigned musical skills, and undergo performance testing (Benner, 1972; Kelly, 2002; Roberts, 1991). The music teacher is concerned with selecting and organizing content, transmitting skills as efficiently as possible, and evaluating student achievement (Erbes, 1978; Regelski, 1997; Whitener, 1983). Across the school curriculum, individualized instruction, small-group teaching, whole-class discussion and computer-assisted learning are prevalent in a variety of subject areas. With these approaches, students are encouraged to interact with each other, reflect on their learning, and render an opinion. In contrast, the emphasis on large-group instruction in classroom music does not often promote individual curiosity and independ- ence of judgement (Andrews, 2000; Rose, 1990; Shepherd, 1983) or personal musical creativity (Moore, 1990; Regelski, 1997; Webster, 1990). Many students are alienated from school music: they do not believe that the discipline recognizes their voices or values per- sonal expression (Ross, 1995; Shepherd & Vulliamy, 1983; Stubley, 2000). Students seldom INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright © 2004 International Society for Music Education Vol 22(3) 219-229 [(200412)22:3] 10.1177/0255761404047398 www.sagepub.com connect experiences in the music class to music outside of schools, and, at best, it is a tenuous link (Durrant, 2001; Kelly, 2002). Others simply accept that institutional music is a closed system, and they pursue their own musical interests and create their own musical sub-cultures outside of class time (Roberts, 1991; Willis, 1990). To reverse the alienation of many music students, the music education profession must create a classroom environment that is student-centred rather than solely teacher-directed (Andrews, 1997; Bergee, 1989). It must provide learning experiences that personally shape and affect the lives of young people (Ball, 1990), and organize programs to respond to individual student needs (Finney & Tymoczko, 2003). The music student must be viewed as an active learner rather than a passive one (Upitis, 1997), and someone who is capable of participating more fully in the educational enterprise (Dodson, 1989; Jorgensen, 2003). Contract learning: an overview Malcolm Knowles developed a comprehensive approach to individualized learning that is designed to assist students diagnose their own needs, translate these needs into outcomes, match materials to outcomes, and validate their own learning (Knowles, 1975, 1980, 1986). Knowles views a learning contract as a 'process structure'. This involves setting the climate for learning, making decisions, undertaking a needs diagnosis, selecting outcomes, formu- lating a learning design, developing performance criteria, and choosing an evaluation system. In his model, a climate is established that is warm and supportive. He views students as resources rather than recipients of knowledge, and actively involves class members in decision-making through group consensus, voting, or committee recommendations. The diagnosis stage involves identifying needs, and translating these needs into outcomes. The learning design (e.g. a project, presentation, production, etc.) emerges as the participants match appropriate activities to the outcomes. Once a design has been selected, an accept- able performance criteria and evaluation system are then established by mutual agreement. Knowles firmly believes that outcomes should be clear, understandable, and formulated in such a way that they are measurable (i.e. differentiated levels of performance). For exam- ple, a student required to demonstrate technical proficiency by accurately performing a scale at a tempo of a quarter note equal to 120 beats per minute (* = 120) would receive an A for the correct tempo, B for a range less than the required tempo (e.g. * = 100120), C for a slower tempo (e.g. * = 80100), and F for an unacceptable tempo (e.g. * < 80). The learning design should be feasible and utilize available resources, and outcomes need to be relevant and of value to the students' development. Evaluation must be appropriate to the task assigned, and acceptable levels of performance should be clearly specified. In this way, students obtain a clear understanding of how they were evaluated, and why they received a certain grade. The teacher does not abdicate responsibility for instruction in contract learning: one sets the climate, decides on groupings, and establishes a range of course outcomes. The students impact on the instruction by providing input on the selection of outcomes, the learning design, performance criteria and evaluation procedures. There are five steps in the contract learning strategy: 1. A list of outcomes and supporting materials is provided by the teacher. 2. The teacher outlines the performance criteria for each of the outcomes. 3. In consultation with the teacher, students provide input on the selection of outcomes and the establishment of performance criteria. 220 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 22(3) 4. Students pursue their contracts by undertaking selected activities, collecting and validating evidence, and renegotiating their contract when necessary. 5. Findings are presented to the class for evaluation. Related literature There are four basic assumptions underlying contract learning: growth of self-concept, value of one's experience, readiness to undertake a task, and the importance of immediate appli- cation (Barnard, 1981). Individuals shift from total dependency in childhood to autonomy in adulthood. Education that stifles this growth process tends to create tensions, leading to resentment and resistance. Individuals define themselves by the meanings they attach to their experiences. Teaching that ignores these experiences seems to be a rejection of the individual, whereas including and valuing convey respect. As students mature, they learn in developmental phases dependence, self-delineation, mutuality and autonomy. If instruc- tion is to be effective, it requires learner participation that coincides with these phases. As people grow and develop, their time perspective also alters from one of postponed application to coping directly with current life problems. Consequently, instruction must increasingly focus on that which is personally meaningful, and also ensure that new skills and knowledge are relevant. Contract learning has been employed successfully in a variety of subjects across the curriculum: English (Kasworm, 1983; Nufrio, 1989), poetry (Greenfield Junior High, 1983), technical writing (Matulich, 1983), reading (Greenwood, 1985, 1988; Peryon, 1981), alcohol and drug awareness (North Carolina State, 1988), biology (Kurvinck, 1993), and electronics (Eggett, 1982). It has been adopted in clinical supervision (Solomon, 1992) and parentteacher partnerships (NCCE, 1983). Contracts have also been introduced into a broad range of programs within education: teacher education (Burley, 1985), distance education (Gough, 1980; Hall & Bonnabeau, 1993; King, 1980; Weingartz, 1991), middle- school education (White & Greenwood, 1992), career education (Curl, 1980), nursing education (Brown & Martin, 1984; Eagleton, 1984; Henfield & Waldron, 1988; Lowry, 1989), medical education (Bing-You, Bertsch, & Thompson, 1998; Meyer, 1983), pharma- ceutical education (Berger & Felkey, 1987; Hardigan, 1994), radiology (Renner, Stritter, & Wong, 1993), physiotherapy (Boyd, 1979), and management training in both traditional (Kantor, 1994) and non-traditional settings (Israel, 1994). Contracts have been shown to increase the achievement levels of undergraduates (Adams, 1985), and to help minority groups persist in their studies (Howard, 1989). The strategy has also proven successful in both adult education (Clark, 1989) and undergraduate studies (Chickering, & Gamson, 1987). Contract learning offers students a specific learning experience within a particular time- frame (Barnard, 1981), and it provides them with the opportunity to manage their own learning and relate it to practice (Button & Davis, 1996). It provides students with an oppor- tunity to write their own competence statements (Daloz, 1978; White & Greenwood, 1992), and the strategy allows them to take responsibility for what happens to them (Griffin, 1983). Students using contracts spend more time on learning, feel more responsible, and are more successful at changing attitudes and behaviours, in comparison to their experiences under traditional teaching approaches (Armstrong, 1980; Christiano, 1993). Adult students seem to learn more because contracts allow their course work to more closely resemble their real- life learning (Knowles, 1986; Tough, 1979), and they tend to complete their studies more readily when contracts are used (Hall & Bonnabeau, 1993). Andrews Musical contracts 221 A musical contract strategy In an article in the Music Educators Journal in February 1975, it was suggested that contract learning might offer an alternative to the traditionally teacher-directed classroom environment (Peotter, 1975). However, the writer admitted that such an approach would require extensive planning and the provision of a variety of materials (which mitigated against its widespread usage). Subsequently, a contract system of evaluation based on a progress chart was recommended (Lane, 1978). In this version, the music teacher and the student agreed on what was to be evaluated, the criteria for assessing the work, and the grade earned for the level of accomplishment. This system of evaluation allowed students with less ability to earn a high grade by fulfilling a contract designed personally for them. However, it did not provide for significant input into the planning or implementation of the contract. As a consequence, it was viewed as strictly a remedial tool and not widely utilized across the curriculum. This section presents a contract learning strategy for music instruction designed to foster student participation in the instructional process. Using 'integrated inquiry' (Andrews, 1993, 2004), a multiple measures methodology, contract learning was adapted and refined for music instruction. This methodology involves the examination of curricular issues from different perspectives, and the combining of data in the tradition of mixed methodologies (Cresswell, 2002). Multiple measures may be nested within the same instrument (Andrews, 2002a), interdependent instruments within the same study (Andrews, 2001, 2002b, 2002c), or in a series of interrelated studies with related instruments examining an issue over time (Andrews, 1999). In this inquiry, the contract learning strategy was developed and refined through a synthesis of data from the field experiences of this writer, colleagues and student teachers implementing musical contracts in performance-based programs. The field notes of the writer, the observations of colleagues, and the reflective journals of student teachers, in addition to sample student contracts, provided the multiple data sources (see Figure 1). In education, teachers must ensure that their students achieve those course outcomes mandated by the government authority over their jurisdiction. Further, music teachers must also meet school and community expectations that their students perform in concerts and 222 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 22(3) Figure 1 Integrated inquiry. Studentteacher reflective journals Student contracts Music colleagues' observations Writer's field notes recitals, and also participate in festivals. In Canada, vocal, Kodály, Orff, and recorder pro- grams predominate in elementary schools (kindergarten through to grade 6). Instrumental programs (band, strings, keyboard or guitar) generally commence in middle school (grades 7 and 8) or high school (grades 9 through to 12). Consequently, music instruction in schools predominately involves skill acquisition; that is, learning to read music notation and to sing or play a musical instrument within a large-group format. By field testing contracts in instru- mental, vocal and guitar programs from grades 7 through 12, this writer, colleagues and teacher-candidates found contract learning could be implemented in a variety of ways. Teachers instructing in beginning music programs, both in grade 7 middle school or grade 9 high school, employed contracts as a device to foster home practice. Those teaching in the upper grades, that is, grades 11 and 12, found contracts useful to motivate their students to undertake solo performances and independent research. Teacher-candidates used contracts at various grade levels in the middle and high schools as a remedial tool to assist their students overcome learning challenges, such as reading music notation, perform- ing complex rhythms, or orchestrating transposing instruments. There was a consensus that the strategy was most effective when student decision-making was delimited to the selection of activities, choice of mode of presentation, and the use of self-evaluation. This refinement for music programs fostered student participation in the instructional process, while at the same time ensuring that all students focused on a common set of course out- comes that could be evaluated consistently. Similarly, Wolfson (1997) found that in business education programs with performance-based outcomes, contracts were most effective when student decision-making was delimited. Consequently, the contracting process for music involves the following steps: 1. A contract is provided by the teacher listing outcomes, activities and modes of presentation. 2. The evaluation system, a combination of performance criteria (teacher) and self- evaluation (student), is outlined by the teacher. 3. Students design their contracts through negotiation with the teacher by selecting activities and modes of presentation. 4. Students undertake their contracts by undertaking their selected activities, collecting and validating evidence, and practising their presentations. 5. Findings are presented to the class for teacher evaluation, and students provide a self- evaluation. When using contract learning, the teacher introduces the outcomes of the contract (overall and specific) and the range of possible activities and presentation modes (step 1 as outlined above). For example, the teacher requests students to identify the orchestration of the prin- cipal themes of orchestral works (outcome) by critically listening to a musical recording (activity) and presenting their findings (mode of presentation) (see Table 1). Several compo- sitions are suggested from the school's music library. In addition, students are encouraged to submit orchestral recordings from their own collection for inclusion on the list (with teacher agreement). The evaluation system, comprising performance criteria (teacher assess- ment of the accuracy of analysis and validity of comparison) and self-evaluation (student self-assessment of the effort expended and achievement of outcome), is next outlined by the teacher (step 2). Each student then has the opportunity to select an activity and mode of presentation that meets his or her own interests and needs in consultation with the teacher (step 3). The student's task is detailed in a contract outlining the outcome, activity, mode of presentation, and self-evaluation (refer to Table 2). Once the students obtain their contracts, Andrews Musical contracts 223 they complete the assignment through home study, after school, or at a listening centre during class time (step 4). The students are responsible for the initiation, pacing and timing of their learning, for achieving the outcome of the contract, and for consulting with the teacher when difficulties arise with the assignment. Once the assignment is completed, the students present their findings to the class to test their conclusions for accuracy and validity. They also submit a self-evaluation on their level of effort and achievement (step 5). Both student and teacher have the opportunity to provide comments within the evaluation system (Table 2). The final grade is a combination of teacher and student evaluation. 224 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 22(3) Table 1 Contract outline Outcome Activity Presentation Mode Evaluation Overall outcome Listen to the first (i) Play musical recordings Performance criteria · Identify, analyse two minutes of two of the works; and evaluate of the following Teacher rating musical works works and identify or through listening and compare Accuracy of analysis orchestration of the (ii) Perform the works on 1 2 3 4 5 Specific outcome melodies: the piano; · Analyse and Validity of compare the use (i) Claude Debussy, or comparison of specific Prelude to the 1 2 3 4 5 aspects of musical Afternoon in the (iii) Perform the works structure Life of a Faun; with the class; Student or self-evaluation (ii) Charles Dukas, and ... The Sorcerer's Effort expended Apprentice; Compare the 1 2 3 4 5 or orchestration of the (iii) Richard Strauss, principal themes: Achievement of Don Juan; outcomes or (i) Verbally with 1 2 3 4 5 (iv) Igor Stravinsky, explanations on the Symphonies of Wind blackboard; Instruments; or or (v) Serge Prokofiev, Classical Symphony; (ii) On an overhead using or a standard line graph; (vi) Other (student selections with or teacher agreement). (iii) On a handout using a bar graph. Coda In contract learning, the music teacher shares responsibility for learning with his or her students. The teacher establishes the learning outcomes and provides a range of activities and modes of presentation. The students select activities and presentation modes in consul- tation with the music teacher; they complete the work on an individual basis using the teacher as a resource; and they provide input into the grading of the assignment through Andrews Musical contracts 225 Table 2 Music contract Name: ...................................................................................................................................... Course: .................................................................................................................................... Contract number: .................................................................................................................... Outcome: .............................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................ Activity: ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................ Present mode: ...................................................................................................................... Date due: ............................................................................................................................... Teacher evaluation Low High Accuracy of analysis 1 2 3 4 5 Validity of comparison 1 2 3 4 5 Total: 10 Self-evaluation Low High Effort expended 1 2 3 4 5 Achievement of outcome 1 2 3 4 5 Total: 10 Comments: ................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................. self-evaluation. For the teacher, the sharing of responsibility with his or her students decreases the burden of instruction. However, music contracts can be problematic if expectations are not clearly articulated in the contract, or student work is undertaken without feedback. The key ingredient is the element of trust. It is essential that the participants are honest about their real needs in a learning situation, realistic about their capabilities, and objective about their effort and level of achievement. Contract learning offers the potential in music education for meeting individual needs and developing rapport between teacher and students. The teacher has the opportunity to function in the role of tutor and facilitate learning, rather than to constantly operate as a conductor-lecturer and solely direct the learning activities. Most importantly, the strategy provides music students with the opportunity to participate directly in the instructional process. This involvement increases the likelihood of a commitment by the students to the outcomes of the music program and to their own personal musical development. However, it is recognized that the articulation of a contract strategy appropriate for music instruction is only the first step. Further studies will be required to refine the strategy and assess its effectiveness for fostering in-depth learning. References Adams, C. (1985). Improving retention and performance: A case of useable attention. Paper presented at the Association for the Study of Higher Education Conference, Chicago, IL. Andrews, B. W. (1993). The birth of reflexive inquiry. In B. A. Roberts (Ed.), Our research in music education (pp. 1143). St John's, NF: Binder's Press. Andrews, B. W. (1997). A rite of passage: Developing music curricula through partnership development. Canadian Music Educator, 39(1), 1922. Andrews, B. W. (1999). Side by side: Evaluating a partnership program in arts teacher education. International Electronic Journal of Leadership in Learning, 3(16). Retrieved 24 October 2003 from www.ucalgary.ca/~iejll/ Andrews, B. W. (2000). Curricular reference points for changing teacher practices in arts education. In. B. Gregory (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Society for Music Education Bi-annual Conference (pp. 456461). Edmonton, AB: International Society for Music Education. Andrews, B. W. (2001). Through the looking glass, ArtsSmarts evaluation, year 3: Report on the findings. Report prepared for the Canadian Conference of the Arts, Ottawa, ON. Andrews, B. W. (2002a). Governance and accountability: Improving the effectiveness of provided teacher university-in-service. International Electronic Journal of Leadership in Learning, 6(8). Retrieved 15 September 2003 from www.ucalgary.ca/~iejll/ Andrews, B. W. (2002b). The Odyssey Project: Teachers' reflections on their personal arts learning. Technical Report No. 1. Report prepared for the Laidlaw Foundation and the University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON. Andrews, B. W. (2002c). The Odyssey Project: A case study of integrated inquiry. Technical Report No. 2. Report prepared for the Laidlaw Foundation and the University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON. Andrews, B. W. (2004). Integrated inquiry: Transforming multiple research perspectives. In S. Kouritzin, N. Piquemal, & R. Norman (Eds.), Qualitative research: Challenging the orthodoxies. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum. Armstrong, J. (1980). The use of time contracts in formal education. Paper presented at the Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning Conference, Dallas, TX. Ball, C. (1990). Education's missed opportunities. Design for Arts in Education, 91(6), 4952. Barnard, B. (1981). Putting it together. In R. Herman (Ed.), The design of self-directed learning. Toronto, ON: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Benner, C. H. (1972). From research to the music classroom (No. 2). Washington, DC: Music Educators National Conference. Bergee, M. (1989). Reform for the band program. Music Educators Journal, 75(9), 1822. Berger, B., & Felkey, B. (1987). Use of contract grading in a required pharmacy communications course. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 51, 121126. Bing-You, R. G., Bertsch, T., & Thompson, J. (1998). Coaching medical students in receiving effective feedback. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 10(4), 228231. 226 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 22(3) Boyd, E. (1979). Contract learning. Physiotherapy, 59, 278281. Brown, S., & Martin, C. (1984). Contract learning: A leadership experience for the RN student in a BSN program. East Carolina: School of Nursing, East Carolina University. Burley, J. (1985). Andragogy: Implications for preserviceinservice training. Viewpoints paper, Pennsylvania. (Educational Resources Information Catalogue (ERIC) Document Reproduction Service, ED 264386.) Button, D., & Davis, S. (1996). Experiences of encouraging student-centered learning within a wellness- oriented curriculum. Nurse Education Today, 16(6), 407412. Chickering, A., & Gamson, Z. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. American Association for Higher Education Bulletin, 39(7), 37. Christiano, M. (1993). I want to learn what I want to learn in the way I choose to learn it: Using learning contracts. Paper presented at the Western States Communication Association in Great Ideas for Teaching Speech, Community College Interest Group. Clark, B. (1989). Comparison of self-directed learning readiness of five executives and public managers to the norm. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova University, Florida, USA. Cresswell, J. W. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Curl, M. (1980). The introduction of careers in the intermediate grades. Report prepared by the Area Education Agency Number Seven, Cedar Falls, IA. Daloz, L. (1978). Now they're competent ... so what? Educational Technology, 18(10), 2226. Dodson, T. (1989). Are students learning music in band? Music Educators Journal, 76(3), 2529. Durrant, C. (2001). The genesis of musical behaviour: Implications for adolescent music education. International Journal of Education and the Arts, 2(5). Retrieved 10 November 2003 from ijea.asu.edu/articles.html Eagleton, B. (1984). Contract learning: An effective teacherlearning strategy. Critical Care, 11, 1823. Eggett, A. (1982). Basic electricity/electronics learning guides (Competency-based individualized vocational education packages). Curriculum materials prepared by the Vermillion Occupational Technical Education Center, Danville, IL. Erbes, R. (1978). I used to direct my rehearsals like a drill sergeant! Music Educators Journal, 65(2), 5053. Finney, J., & Tymoczko, M. (2003). Secondary school students as leaders: Examining the potential for transforming music education. Music Education International, 2, 2250. Gough, J. (1980). Study centres in distance education. Report to the Tertiary Education Commission on the use of study centres in four distance education systems, Deakin University, Greelong, Australia. Greenfield Junior High. (1983). You be the poet. Curriculum materials prepared by Greenfield Union Elementary School District, Bakersfield, CA. Greenwood, S. C. (1985). Use of contracts to motivate and manage your secondary reading class. Journal of Reading, 28, 487491. Greenwood, S. C. (1988). Combining basal instruction with learning contracts in middle school developmental reading classes. The Clearing House, 61, 184187. Griffin, V. (1983). Self-directed adult learners and learning. Panel resource paper no. 3. Prepared for the National Society for Internship and Experiential Education, Raleigh, NC. (Educational Resources Information Catalogue (ERIC) Document Reproduction Service, ED 260639.) Hall, J. W., & Bonnabeau, R. F. (1993). Empire State College. New Directions for Higher Education, 82, 5566. Hardigan, P. (1994). Investigation of learning contracts in pharmaceutical education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 58(4), 386390. Henfield, V., & Waldron, H. (1988). The use of competency statements to facilitate individualized learning. Nursing Education, 8, 205211. Howard, B. (1989). Learning to persist: Persisting to learn. Washington, DC: American University Press. Israel, C. A. (1994). New frontiers: Non-traditional customized training. New Directions for Community Colleges, 22(1), 93100. Jorgensen, E. (2003). Transforming music education. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Kantor, S. (1994). Training for customized training: Learning to teach the fully employed learner in the workplace. New Directions for Community Colleges, 22(1), 511. Kasworm, C. (1983). An examination of self-directed contract learning as an institutional strategy. Innovative Higher Education, 8(1), 4554. Kelly, S. N. (2002). A sociological basis for music education. International Journal of Music Education, 39, 4049. King, B. (1980). Support systems in distance education. Occasional paper no. 3. Deakin University, Geelong, Australia. Andrews Musical contracts 227 Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Chicago, IL: Follett. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Knowles, M. (1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Kurvinck, K. (1993). Contracting as a motivational teaching tool. Journal of College Science Teaching, 22(5), 310312. Lane, W. (1978). The secondary school music laboratory. West Nyack, NY: Parker. Lowry, C. (1989). Supporting and facilitating self-directed learning. ERIC Digest no. 8, ERIC Clearing House on Adult, Career and Vocational Education, Columbus, OH. Matulich, L. (1983). Contract learning in traditional technical writing class. Paper presented at the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges Conference, New Orleans, LA. Meyer, R. (1983). Medical assisting: A learning guide. Competency-based curriculum materials prepared by the Lake County Area Vocational Center, Grayslake, IL. Moore, B. R. (1990). The relationship between curriculum and the learner: Music composition and learning style. Journal of Research in Music Education, 38(1), 2438. NCCE (National Committee for Citizens in Education). (1983). The learning contract: Agreement between parents, teachers and students. Developed by the NCCE, Columbia, MD. North Carolina State. (1988). Training program to assist students deal with alcohol and drug abuse. Program developed by the Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, NC. Nufrio, R. (1989). English literature: A contract grading approach. Educational Document Retrieval Service (ED 300838). Ohio, USA. Peotter, J. (1975). Contracts. Music Educators Journal, 61(1), 9699. Peryon, C. (1981). Proceedings of the annual symposium on reading. Mangilao, Guam: University of Guam. Regelski, T. A. (1997). Musicians, teachers and the social construction of reality. In R. Rideout (Ed.), On the sociology of music education (pp. 95111). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. Renner, J., Stritter, F., & Wong, H. (1993). Learning contracts in clinical education. Radiology Education, 64, 358363. Roberts, B. (1991). Musician: A question of labelling. St John's, NF: Binder's Press. Rose, A. (1990). Music in education: A critical analysis of reproduction, production and hegemony. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. Ross, M. (1995). What's wrong with school music? British Journal of Music Education, 12(30), 185201. Shepherd, J. (1983). Conflict in patterns of socialization: The role of the classroom music teacher. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 20, 2243. Shepherd, J., & Vulliamy, G. (1983). A comparative sociology of school knowledge. Journal of Sociology of Education, 4(1), 318. Solomon, P. (1992). Learning contracts in clinical education: Evaluation by clinical supervisors. Medicine and Teaching, 14, 205210. Stubley, E. (2000). The great divide: Classical versus popular music. Canadian Music Educator, 42(2), 513. Tough, A. (1979). The learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning. Toronto, ON: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Upitis, R. (1997). The craft of composition: Helping children create music with computer tools. Psychomusicology, 8(2), 151162. Webster, P. J. (1990). Creativity as creative thinking. Music Educators Journal, 76(9), 2228. Weingartz, M. (1991). Contract learning: A contribution to promoting autonomous learning. Paper present- ed at the International Symposium on Distance Education, Hagen, Germany. White, G. P., & Greenwood, S. C. (1992). Empowering middle level students through the use of learning contracts. Middle School Journal, 23(5), 1520. Whitener, W. (1983). Comparison of two approaches to teaching Band. Journal of Research in Music Education, 31(1), 513. Willis, P. (1990). Moving culture: An enquiry into the cultural activities of young people. London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. Wolfson, J. W. (1997). Improving adult performance in business education. Business Education Forum, 52(2), 1820. Bernard Andrews is a member of the Faculty of Education at the University of Ottawa. He has experience as a professional composer and performer, and in teaching and administra- tion at elementary and secondary levels. Currently, Bernie teaches music certification 228 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 22(3) courses, graduate curriculum theory and program evaluation courses, and supervises thesis students. His research, published in such journals as the Canadian Journal of Research in Music Education, Canadian University Music Review, McGill Journal of Education and International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, focuses on artistteacher collaboration, arts education partnerships, interactive teaching strategies for music education, and alternative approaches to research and evaluation. He is a founding member of the International Cultural Research Network (ICRN), founding president of Arts Researchers and Teachers Society (ARTS) within the Canadian Society for Studies in Education (CSSE), and most recently served as the national evaluator for the cross-Canada ArtsSmarts and New Music for Young Musicians projects. Address: Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, 145 Jean-Jacques Lussier, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5. [email: Andrews@uottawa.ca] Abstracts Musikalische Vereinbarungen: Förderung der Beteiligung von Schülern am Erziehungsprozess Lernen auf der Grundlage von Vereinbarungen ist der Versuch, die Zusammenarbeit von Lehrern und Schülern in den Lehr-Lern-Prozess einzuführen. Die Beteiligung an Entscheidungen ermutigt die Schüler, sich mitverantwortlich zu fühlen, was mit ihnen geschieht, und es ruft ein Verantwortungsbewusstsein für die Ergebnisse des Musikunterrichts hervor. Denn im vorherrschenden Unterricht von großen instrumentalprak- tischen Gruppen fühlen sich die Schüler oft entfremdet; der Unterricht entspricht nicht ihren persönlichen Bedürfnissen. In diesem Beitrag zeigt der Autor, wie die oben genannte Strategie auf den Musikunterricht übertragen werden kann, und er führt die Vorteile aus, die ein solches Unterrichtskonzept bietet, die Schüler an den Unterrichtsentscheidungen zu beteiligen. Contratos musicales: Alentando la participación estudiantil en el proceso de instrucción El aprendizaje por contrato es una aproximación para al enseñanza en el aula que enfatiza la colaboración entre el maestro y el alumno en el proceso de enseñanzaaprendizaje. La participación en las tomas de decisiones relacionadas con la instrucción, incentiva a los estu- diantes a tomar responsabilidades en cuanto a lo que a ellos les sucede, y genera un mayor sentido de compromiso hacia los resultados del programa de música. En la educación musi- cal, donde prevalece la enseñanza basada en la ejecución de grandes grupos, los estudiantes se sienten, a menudo, alienados y consideran que el programa no satisface sus necesidades personales. En este artículo, el autor ilustra como la estrategia puede ser adaptada para la enseñanza musical, y esboza los beneficios que el contrato de aprendizaje ofrece para alentar la participación de los estudiantes en el proceso de enseñanza. 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</ref-list></back></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Musical contracts: fostering student participation in the instructional process</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>Musical contracts: fostering student participation in the instructional process</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Bernard W.</namePart><namePart type="family">Andrews</namePart><affiliation>University of Ottawa, Canada,</affiliation><affiliation>E-mail: Andrews@uottawa.ca</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>Sage Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2004-12</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2004</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><abstract lang="en">Contract learning is an approach to classroom instruction that emphasizes teacher-student collaboration in the teaching-learning process. Participation in instructional decision-making encourages students to take responsibility for what happens to them, and it engenders a greater sense of commitment to the outcomes of the music program. In music education, where large group performance-based instruction is prevalent, students often feel that they are alienated, and the programs do not meet their personal needs. This article illustrates how the strategy can be adapted for music instruction, and outlines the benefits that contract learning offers for fostering student participation in the instructional process.</abstract><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>contract learning</topic><topic>music instruction</topic><topic>student decision-making</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>International journal of music education</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0255-7614</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1744-795X</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">IJM</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spijm</identifier><part><date>2004</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>22</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>3</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>219</start><end>229</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">77038BFC73949AEC55270C9304ACB3370B34CA24</identifier><identifier type="ark">ark:/67375/M70-46X44F6V-W</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1177/0255761404047398</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1177_0255761404047398</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-0J1N7DQT-B">sage</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods><json:item><extension>json</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/json</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/77038BFC73949AEC55270C9304ACB3370B34CA24/metadata/json</uri></json:item></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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