Slit Logs and Sacred Cows: The History of the Drum
Identifieur interne : 000D43 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000D42; suivant : 000D44Slit Logs and Sacred Cows: The History of the Drum
Auteurs : Dolores A. KundaSource :
- Music Educators Journal [ 0027-4321 ] ; 1979-09.
English descriptors
- Teeft :
- Choral society, Different pitch, Drum, Drumhead, Earliest drums, Earliest type, Eliot elisofon, Eliot elisofon archives, Higher pitch, Kettledrum, Lacing, Late middle ages, Lower pitch, Military instrument, Music instruments, Musical instruments, Orchestral timpani, Photo courtesy, Pitch change, Royal drums, Seventeenth century, Sumerian drums, Tension screws, Timpani, Vellum.
Abstract
The information in this article was drawn primarily from James Blades's Percussion Instruments and Their History (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1970), David Reck's Music of the Whole Earth (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977), and Curt Sachs's The History of Musical Instruments (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940).
Url:
DOI: 10.2307/3395719
Links to Exploration step
ISTEX:314BCBA95AC9D9CE46A2305E7CAEF2C921C89994Le document en format XML
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<pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>09</month><year>1979</year></pub-date><volume>66</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>56</fpage><lpage>65</lpage><abstract>
<p>The information in this article was drawn primarily from James Blades's Percussion Instruments and Their History (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1970), David Reck's Music of the Whole Earth (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977), and Curt Sachs's The History of Musical Instruments (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940).</p>
</abstract><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value> Slit Logs and Sacred Cows: The History of the Drum The drum is one of the oldest instruments in history. Its sound is basic, and its beginning is rooted in the cultural traditions and heritage of the ancient peoples of Africa and the East. In Western European music the drum has been considered a pariah, referred to as a noisemaker, a “Rumpelfesser”(a rumbling tub), and an instrument of the devil It is only relatively recently that the drum has come into its own in the West as an important part of orchestral literature and as a solo instrument. Although the drum may be considered a cylinder with material stretched over one or both of the openings, the instrument has been historically constructed in a variety of shapes that adapt it for a particular use or sound. The earliest type of resonating drum was probably the idiophone, a nonmembrane instrument with a hollow resonating chamber that was struck with a stick or the hands. The slit drum, a felled log with carved trenches of varying depths producing different pitches when struck, is an example of an idiophone. Conventional drums with resonating chambers covered by skin or membrane are membranophones. The three basic membranophone shapes are all related to materials that were readily available in antiquity. The tubular drum, which resembles the slit log drum, is cylindrical with openings for the placement of one or two drumheads. The kettle- or pot-shaped drum, with the membrane covering the open end or mouth, is the second basic shape. A frame or hoop is the third. The frame shape is most closely associated with small, portable instruments such as the tambourine, but evidence exists of large frame drums (perhaps more than six feet high) in early Sumer-ian culture. Deviations from these three basic shapes are numerous. Some popular variations include the hourglass, goblet, cone, and footed shapes. Each culture has adapted the drum to its own use, thus giving drum shape a regional distribution. The frame drum is the most widely distributed, appearing in such diverse cultures as that of the Middle East, East Asia, Europe, the Arctic, and the Americas. It may be single- or double-headed, and round, square, or triangular in shape. The kettledrum is indigenous to Asia and is common in India, the Middle East, and Turkey. Immigrating to Europe as the timpani, the kettledrum became an integral part of the large modern orchestra. The barrel- and cone-shaped drums emerged as part of the Congo set in Latin America and the Caribbean, while the basic tubular drum became popular in Europe. Acoustics of the drum While shape does affect the tone and sound a drum will produce, the most effective way of changing pitch is to tighten or loosen the drumhead itself. The drumhead or vellum can be directly attached to the body by tacking or gluing it to the drum's mouth. A cord can be The History o the Drum wrapped around the drumhead as another form of direct lacing. The drumhead also can be attached indirectly by lacing the vellum to a hoop, with the hoop laced to another hoop or pegs. If a drumhead is dampened, the skin will become softer and looser, thus producing a lower pitch. If the skin is heated, it contracts and produces a higher pitch. A pitch change can be effected in a directly laced drum by the application of heat or moisture or by removing the lacings, stretching the vellum, and relacing or reattaching it. If a single-headed, indirectly laced drum's hoop is moved downward by screws or pegs, it creates greater tension on the vellum and produces a higher The information in this article was drawn primarily from James Blades's Percussion Instruments and Their History (New York: Frederick A Praeger, Publishers, 1970), David Reek's Music of the Whole Earth (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977), and Curt Sachs's The History of Musical Instruments (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940). pitch. A double-headed drum, with lacings running the length of the instrument, can have its pitch changed by forcing wedges under the lacings, tightening the tension of the strings on the hoop, and stretching the drumhead to produce a higher sound. Moving tuning rings attached to the lacings also can change the tension on the strings and the pitch of the instrument. With an hourglass-shaped drum such as the kalengo, the “talking drum”of Africa, the tribesman holds the instrument under his arm and causes it to “talk”by squeezing the lacings to change the pitch. While the sound that a drum produces can be regulated by the tension on the drumhead, it also can be regulated by the tool used to beat the drum. The most common, and certainly historically the first, object used to beat a drum is the hand. All ten fingers or any variation thereof can be used in sequence or separately to produce any number of sounds. In India, an 1 This wooden slit drum from New Hebrides is an example of an idio-phone. 2 An example of a tubular drum, this instrument was made by the Pueblo Indians of North America. 3 A detail from a second-century Roman sarcophagus, this drum is illustrative of the frame shape. 4 This tombak/rora Iran, an example of a kettle- or pot-shaped drum, is inlaid with a poetic inscription in Persian. 5 Producing the strong rhythmic line that is popular in African drumming, the Congo drum of Puerto Rico is an example of the barrel-shaped drum of Latin America and the Caribbean. 6 Imitating human inflection, the kalengo can be used to send messages and signals within a twenty-mile radius. This instrument is from Ghana. vV. ** & instrumentalist's fingers are wrapped in cloths hardened with lime to obtain a unique sound. A mallet or stick serves as an extension of the hand. Like the tensioning of the drumhead, the type of mallet used to strike the vellum influences the sound that is produced. A drumstick can be made of wood, ivory, bone (some tribal civilizations use human tibia), and, more recently, synthetic material. Modern drumsticks fall into several categories: beaters with handles of wood or cane and rounded or elliptical heads or ends; sticks with slightly shaped heads; mallets with hammer-like heads; round wooden sticks without a head; and switches, which are sticks with a flexible head. Drumsticks can be wrapped in felt or other material to soften the sound. Berlioz preferred sponge-tipped drumsticks for their velvet sound and regarded the specification of a particular drumstick in a composition as crucial to the scoring of the percussion. Ancient drums The earliest drums were mostly made of wood, a material readily available to ancient people. Since wood is a perishable material, most of the evidence for the use and age of the earliest drums comes from pictorial references and anthropological study. The pygmies of New Guinea have provided evidence for an early type—the drum of the earth. This instrument is made by digging two parallel holes with a connecting underground tunnel in the earth. The person “playing”the instrument produces the sound by beating on the bridge of earth above the tunnel. An early pictorial representation of another kind of drum is the depiction of a Sumeri-an drum on a plaque from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, Dating back to 2,500 B.C., the instrument looks surprisingly modern. It is probably a frame drum; its vellum was attached with nails. As with anything that was an enigma to ancient civilizations, the sound reasonating from early drums was considered spiritual, mythological, and something to be revered. The civilizations of Africa and Asia were the first to develop music instruments, and their use and treatment of the instruments reflected the belief that music was a gift of the gods. The rituals associated with African drum making encompassed sacred and religious rites that varied from tribe to tribe. Photographs by Eliot Elisofon, Museum of African Art, Eliot Elisofon Archives 7 This Sumerian plaque from the Royal Cemetery of Urprovides archaeological evidence for the existence of drums as far back as 2,500 B.C. 8 Numerous ritual symbols adorn the base of this female drum from a choral society oftheAshanti tribe of Ghana. 9 Standing nearly four feet tall, this elaborately carved drum is from the Lulua tribe of Zaire. 10 Tension pegs adjust the pitch of this laced drum from the Ashanti of Ghana. The wood for an African drum often had to be hard and free from blemish. When a tree was chosen, offerings might have been made to it. In some tribes, the drum maker had to adhere to specific dietary habits while the drum was being fashioned; in others, the wood fibers for a drumhead had to grow in a specified direction. In most African cultures the drum maker was a man of the gods. He was revered by the community, both tribes-people and royalty alike, and was afforded certain privileges. The Banyankole of East Africa had such reverence for their drums that their royal drums were believed to be the manifestations of the spirits of the gods. The royal drums were kept in a special house or hut with a guardian assigned to their care. The people of the tribe brought offerings of milk from sacred cows to the drums, and a woman was chosen as the wife of the drums. Her duty was the care of the daily offerings of milk. She churned butter that was smeared on the drumheads, and she covered with cloth the chief drums that lay on pallets in the hut. In addition to the daily milk offerings, the chiefs of the tribe presented offerings of beer or cattle for events requiring thanks to the gods. Once an offering was made to the drums, only the guardian could partake of the meat and beverages, after the drums had taken their essence from it. The drum pen itself was considered holy land, and a criminal could find refuge from punishment as long as he or she remained safely within its confines. While the drums of Africa are those most thought of when exploring the beginnings of drums and drumming, Asia was also a center of drum culture. Although Sumerian drums were associated with religion and ritual, the instruments also were played for pleasure and entertainment. Ancient Sumerian writings describe how a king's granddaughter was appointed to serve as the drummer in rites to worship the moon. Like the African drums, Sumerian drums were subject to rituals associated with their making, but while African rites typically were directed to the tree that was to become the drum body, Sumeri- Photograph by Eliot Elisofon, Museum of African Art, Eliot Elisofon Archives Photo courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889 11 This wooden drum and carrier is from a choral society of the Ashanti tribe of East Ghana. 12 Cawed from camphor wood and lacquered red and gold, this mo kugyo is a Japanese slit drum. The instrument is struck to emphasize important moments in temple services. 13 Photographed at the Meiji shrine in Tokyo, this da-daiko is part of the gagaku instrumental ensemble of the Imperial Palace court musicians. Played only during dance works, the drum is struck in an alternate rhythm pattern with lacquered beaters. 14 A print of Japanese print-maker Koriusai (1710-80) illustrates what is believed to be an uta daiko used for theater and orchestra performances. 15 & 16 Both the tablasttf (lowerpair) and the mrdanga are instruments whose drumheads consist of three layered heads. The dark spots in the centers of the drums are iron filings combined with rice flour for a variety of sounds. 14 Print courtesy of the Davison Print Collection, Wesleyan University. Mid diet own, Connecticut; photo by Carol Reck 1975 an rites were centered on the drumhead. The bull chosen for the honor of becoming a drumhead had to be of a particular color with a special spot configuration. Various offerings were made to the bull before the animal was killed and skinned, its heart burned, and its skin treated with oils and stretched over the body of the drum. Music in ancient China and the Far East was considered a vital part of every person's spiritual growth. Music was thought to bring a person's spirit into balance. The harmony of the universe was considered dependent upon the relationship of time, space, matter, music, and force as represented by the seasons, directional points, earthly substances, music instruments, and natural elements. The drum was associated with winter, North, skin, and water. The earliest type of Chinese drum was a double-headed instrument filled with rice hulls and played by temple musicians. The Chinese drum also was important as a military instrument. Military drums were consecrated with the blood of war prisoners, thus bringing luck and victory to the army. Associated with rites of death and resurrection and used for prayers for rain, the mu yu or mo kugyo was a slit drum from China and Japan. This drum was carved in the shape of a fish and was played with a stick. Since the fish had no eyelids, it was symbolic of attention; when the instrument was played, it was said to attract the attention of the gods. Music in ancient India also was held as a harmonizing element for the universe and a gift of the gods. Lingo, a Hindu god considered to be the first musician, was shown playing eighteen instruments; each corresponded to the basic instruments of a tribe. One ancient Hindu record ascribes magic powers to a drum: when one side was beaten, aggressors were banished; when the other side was beaten, enemies became friends. The most common drums used in India today are the tabid and the mrdanga. The tabid are a pair of drums played by one performer. They are used in northern India both as accompaniment for a soloist and for solo improvisations. Simi- larly, the mrdanga provides the accompaniment to vocal and instrumental music in the south. The two drums in the tabid set and the mrdanga are tuned differently and the drumheads are made of a variety of vellums to obtain the proper tones. In performance instruments follow the soloist closely and their role is considered to be much more important than that of the European drum. Western drums Europe's recognition of the drum lagged far behind Africa's and Asia's. The drum did not appear throughout Europe until the twelfth century. There are virtually no surviving nonmetallic percussion instruments from the early Middle Ages, and evidence for the use of the drum during this period comes from sculptures and other works of art. The most common drum was the pipe and tabor, a combination flute and drum that was played simultaneously. The Middle High German name of the tabor was “sumber,1’ which meant grain measure (perhaps a throwback to the Chinese custom of putting grain in the drum). Percussion instruments traveled to Europe from the Middle East by way of the Moors and returning Crusaders, but the drum remained unimportant until it became useful as a military instrument in the late Middle Ages. The prerequisites of military instruments were high volume and the ability to inform soldiers of commands. The drum fit these requirements exactly. The tabor evolved from an instrument played with a flute mainly for entertainment to the military side drum, an indispensable part of any infantry, used to keep order and relay commands. A second drum popular during the late Middle Ages was the naker, originating with the naqqara of Arabia and probably introduced to Europe by returning Crusaders. The naker was a pair of small kettledrums considered to be an instrument of the aristocracy and frequently played at royal tournaments and entertainments. The larger kettledrums, which also originated in Arabia, were originally cavalry kettledrums and were mounted on either side of the performer's camel. During the sixteenth century, large kettledrums made of copper were associated, like the naker, with aris- tocracy. They became favorites of the German and Hungarian nobility, and the kettledrummers played their instruments with a pompous arrogance befitting their royal masters. By the seventeenth century, the kettledrummer or timpanist was so revered in Germany that im- 17 These South Indian street musicians from Madras are taking part in a procession in worship of the goddess Mariamtnan, deity for the prevention of smallpox. perial decrees led to the establishment of an Imperial Guild of Trumpeters and Kettledrummers in 1623. Only members of the Guild were permitted to play the instruments, and punishment for infringing on the privileges of guild members was severe. The kettledrums continued to be played in royal settings, and when they were used in orchestras, it was only as a reinforcement for wind instruments. By the middle of the seventeenth century, however, timpani gained general acceptance into the orchestra. The first use of or- chestral timpani is attributed to Lul-ly in his opera Thesee (1675). In these early orchestral works, the drums were used in pairs and were tuned in fourths to the tonic and dominant of the key of the work. Pitch was changed by individual manipulation of each of the tension screws on the drumhead. An average of seven screws per drum had to be individually tuned by the tim-panist before he or she could obtain a different pitch from the drums. Because of this time-consuming method for varying pitch, compositions requiring changes had to allow the timpanist time to tune the instrument, thus prohibiting a pitch change during a given movement. As acceptance of the kettledrums continued to grow, the instrument attracted the attention of many Baroque composers. Both J. S. Bach and Handel wrote solo passages for drums, Bach in the beginning of his Christmas Oratorio (1734), and Handel in Semele (1743). Beethoven was an innovator in the use of octave tuning (F and f) and two-note chords, using them to great effect, for example, in his Symphony No. 8 in FMajor (1812) mdSym-phony No. 9 in D Minor (published in 1826). Structural innovations As composers began to write more demanding passages for drums, drum manufacturers devised faster methods of changing pitch. In 1812, Gerhard Cramer, a German drum maker, devised a system by which all of the tension screws could be tightened at the same time by using a hand-turned crank. The rotating tension head was introduced by J. C. N. Stumpff of Holland in 1821. The pitch was changed on this instrument by rotating the drum bowl itself—clockwise to tighten the drumhead and obtain a higher pitch, counterclockwise to loosen the drumhead for a lower pitch. Timpani tuned by foot pedals were introduced in Germany in 1843. These instruments changed pitch not by stretching and loosening the vellum, but by re- 18 This detail of a plate by Filippo Bonanni shows a Turkish drummer playing a pair ofnakers that are hung from the shoulders of a servant. 19 In this detail of a Currier & Ives print, the heroes of 1776 are shown marching to war. The drum's importance as a military* instrument hastened its acceptance in the orchestra. 20 Early examples of orchestral kettledrums, these instruments had their pitch changed by screw tension. 21 Modern pedal-tuned timpani are imposing instruments that can change pitch quickly and easily. 22 Capable of producing sounds from rock to classical, the modem drum set consists of a variety of instruments that gives the player flexibility unheard of in the early days of orchestral timpani. stricting the area of vibration of the drumhead. The pedal operated a number of concentric rings in the interior of the drum; when a different pitch was wanted, the tim-panist used the pedal to raise a specific ring so that it pressed against the underside of the vellum, restricted the vibration of the drumhead, and changed the pitch. A basic problem with all of these methods was that it was difficult to obtain even tensioning, and poor sound quality often resulted. Although previous composers had written various passages for the drum, the one composer who did most to further the use of orchestral timpani was Hector Berlioz. Berlioz saw the tuning difficulties prohibiting the wide use of timpani as only a minor problem. By using more drums, Berlioz was able to obtain the rapid changes and the ranges in pitch he required. In his Requiem (1837), the composer used eight pairs of timpani and ten players. He showed what a versatile instrument the drum could be and continued to write more demanding works for orchestral timpani. The impossibility of hand-tuning the tension screws fast enough to keep up with these demanding changes in pitch led to a rapid improvement in pedal-tuned timpani, and by the end of the nineteenth century a reliable pedal-tuned drum was available. The normal minimum for modern orchestral timpani is a set of three or four kettledrums ranging in size from twenty-two inches to thirty-one inches in diameter. The range of three average kettledrums is F to f The fourth, smaller drum is used to obtain ft and g and is used in such works as Rimsky-Kor-sakov's Russian Easter Festival overture (1888). Stravinsky requires notes as high as b in his Le Sacre du printemps (1913), for which special, smaller drums are used, The diversity that is available to the modern drummer is nowhere better illustrated than in the mod- ern drum set. Consisting of side, tenor, and bass drums (with various cymbals), the drum set affords a wide range of sounds and pitches. The side or snare drum has a hard, rattling tone. A descendant of the medieval military drum, the tenor drum is used in some orchestral passages of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen (1876) and Parsifal (1882). The bass drum is the largest of the drums and has an indefinite pitch. No longer an outcast in the Western music world, the drum is now fully accepted as a serious instrument. It is used in such diverse musics as classical, rock, reggae, and pop. The African rhythms that dominated early drum history have emerged again in jazz. The tomtom, introduced in the 1920s, and the bi-tin obonu, the modern version of the African kalengo, hark back to the instruments of tribal Africa, where the drum's rhythms first made their primal sounds.—Dolores A. Kunda </meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Slit Logs and Sacred Cows: The History of the Drum</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>Slit Logs and Sacred Cows: The History of the Drum</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Dolores A.</namePart><namePart type="family">Kunda</namePart></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://content-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XTP-1JC4F85T-7">research-article</genre><originInfo><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">1979-09</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">1979</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><abstract lang="en">The information in this article was drawn primarily from James Blades's Percussion Instruments and Their History (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1970), David Reck's Music of the Whole Earth (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977), and Curt Sachs's The History of Musical Instruments (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940).</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Music Educators Journal</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal" authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://publication-type.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JMC-0GLKJH51-B">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0027-4321</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1945-0087</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">MEJ</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spmej</identifier><part><date>1979</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>66</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>56</start><end>65</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">314BCBA95AC9D9CE46A2305E7CAEF2C921C89994</identifier><identifier type="ark">ark:/67375/M70-CV18K5VX-B</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.2307/3395719</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.2307_3395719</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource authority="ISTEX" authorityURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr" valueURI="https://loaded-corpus.data.istex.fr/ark:/67375/XBH-0J1N7DQT-B">sage</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods><json:item><extension>json</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>application/json</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/ark:/67375/M70-CV18K5VX-B/record.json</uri></json:item></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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