No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder
Identifieur interne : 002315 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 002314; suivant : 002316No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder
Auteurs : Alexander Toet [Pays-Bas] ; Martin Van Schaik [Pays-Bas] ; Nicolet C. M. Theunissen [Pays-Bas]Source :
- PLoS ONE [ 1932-6203 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
Desktop virtual environments (VEs) are increasingly deployed to study the effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and safety related concerns in built environments. For these applications it is essential that users appraise the affective qualities of the VE similar to those of its real world counterpart. Previous studies have shown that factors like simulated lighting, sound and dynamic elements all contribute to the affective appraisal of a desktop VE. Since ambient odor is known to affect the affective appraisal of real environments, and has been shown to increase the sense of presence in immersive VEs, it may also be an effective tool to tune the affective appraisal of desktop VEs. This study investigated if exposure to ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of a desktop VE with signs of public disorder.
Participants explored a desktop VE representing a suburban neighborhood with signs of public disorder (neglect, vandalism and crime), while being exposed to either room air or subliminal levels of unpleasant (tar) or pleasant (cut grass) ambient odor. Whenever they encountered signs of disorder they reported their safety related concerns and associated affective feelings.
Signs of crime in the desktop VE were associated with negative affective feelings and concerns for personal safety and personal property. However, there was no significant difference between reported safety related concerns and affective connotations in the control (no-odor) and in each of the two ambient odor conditions.
Ambient odor did not affect safety related concerns and affective connotations associated with signs of disorder in the desktop VE. Thus, semantic congruency between ambient odor and a desktop VE may not be sufficient to influence its affective appraisal, and a more realistic simulation in which simulated objects appear to emit scents may be required to achieve this goal.
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078721
PubMed: 24250810
PubMed Central: 3826728
Links toward previous steps (curation, corpus...)
- to stream Pmc, to step Corpus: Pour aller vers cette notice dans l'étape Curation :002315
Links to Exploration step
PMC:3826728Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder</title><author><name sortKey="Toet, Alexander" sort="Toet, Alexander" uniqKey="Toet A" first="Alexander" last="Toet">Alexander Toet</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Department of Information and Computing Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Information and Computing Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Schaik, Martin" sort="Van Schaik, Martin" uniqKey="Van Schaik M" first="Martin" last="Van Schaik">Martin Van Schaik</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Theunissen, Nicolet C M" sort="Theunissen, Nicolet C M" uniqKey="Theunissen N" first="Nicolet C. M." last="Theunissen">Nicolet C. M. Theunissen</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24250810</idno><idno type="pmc">3826728</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3826728</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3826728</idno><idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002315</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">002315</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder</title><author><name sortKey="Toet, Alexander" sort="Toet, Alexander" uniqKey="Toet A" first="Alexander" last="Toet">Alexander Toet</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Department of Information and Computing Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Information and Computing Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Schaik, Martin" sort="Van Schaik, Martin" uniqKey="Van Schaik M" first="Martin" last="Van Schaik">Martin Van Schaik</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Theunissen, Nicolet C M" sort="Theunissen, Nicolet C M" uniqKey="Theunissen N" first="Nicolet C. M." last="Theunissen">Nicolet C. M. Theunissen</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">PLoS ONE</title><idno type="eISSN">1932-6203</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>Desktop virtual environments (VEs) are increasingly deployed to study the effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and safety related concerns in built environments. For these applications it is essential that users appraise the affective qualities of the VE similar to those of its real world counterpart. Previous studies have shown that factors like simulated lighting, sound and dynamic elements all contribute to the affective appraisal of a desktop VE. Since ambient odor is known to affect the affective appraisal of real environments, and has been shown to increase the sense of presence in immersive VEs, it may also be an effective tool to tune the affective appraisal of desktop VEs. This study investigated if exposure to ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of a desktop VE with signs of public disorder.</p></sec><sec><title>Method</title><p>Participants explored a desktop VE representing a suburban neighborhood with signs of public disorder (neglect, vandalism and crime), while being exposed to either room air or subliminal levels of unpleasant (tar) or pleasant (cut grass) ambient odor. Whenever they encountered signs of disorder they reported their safety related concerns and associated affective feelings.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Signs of crime in the desktop VE were associated with negative affective feelings and concerns for personal safety and personal property. However, there was no significant difference between reported safety related concerns and affective connotations in the control (no-odor) and in each of the two ambient odor conditions.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Ambient odor did not affect safety related concerns and affective connotations associated with signs of disorder in the desktop VE. Thus, semantic congruency between ambient odor and a desktop VE may not be sufficient to influence its affective appraisal, and a more realistic simulation in which simulated objects appear to emit scents may be required to achieve this goal.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cozens, P" uniqKey="Cozens P">P Cozens</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neal, R" uniqKey="Neal R">R Neal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Whitaker, J" uniqKey="Whitaker J">J Whitaker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hillier, D" uniqKey="Hillier D">D Hillier</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Park, Aj" uniqKey="Park A">AJ Park</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calvert, T" uniqKey="Calvert T">T Calvert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brantingham, Pl" uniqKey="Brantingham P">PL Brantingham</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brantingham, Pj" uniqKey="Brantingham P">PJ Brantingham</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Toet, A" uniqKey="Toet A">A Toet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Schaik, Mg" uniqKey="Van Schaik M">MG van Schaik</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bishop, Id" uniqKey="Bishop I">ID Bishop</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rohrmann, B" uniqKey="Rohrmann B">B Rohrmann</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Washburn, Da" uniqKey="Washburn D">DA Washburn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jones, Lm" uniqKey="Jones L">LM Jones</name></author><author><name sortKey="Satya, Rv" uniqKey="Satya R">RV Satya</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bowers, Ca" uniqKey="Bowers C">CA Bowers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cortes, A" uniqKey="Cortes A">A Cortes</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tortell, R" uniqKey="Tortell R">R Tortell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Luigi, Dp" uniqKey="Luigi D">DP Luigi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dozois, A" uniqKey="Dozois A">A Dozois</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bouchard, S" uniqKey="Bouchard S">S Bouchard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Morie, Jf" uniqKey="Morie J">JF Morie</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wrzesniewski, A" uniqKey="Wrzesniewski A">A Wrzesniewski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mccauley, C" uniqKey="Mccauley C">C McCauley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rozin, P" uniqKey="Rozin P">P Rozin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Houtkamp, Jm" uniqKey="Houtkamp J">JM Houtkamp</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Oostendorp, H" uniqKey="Van Oostendorp H">H van Oostendorp</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Miller, J" uniqKey="Miller J">J Miller</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jackson, J" uniqKey="Jackson J">J Jackson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nasar, Jl" uniqKey="Nasar J">JL Nasar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jones, Km" uniqKey="Jones K">KM Jones</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fisher, Bs" uniqKey="Fisher B">BS Fisher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nasar, Jl" uniqKey="Nasar J">JL Nasar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nasar, Jl" uniqKey="Nasar J">JL Nasar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stamps, Ae" uniqKey="Stamps A">AE Stamps</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, S" uniqKey="Smith S">S Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wang, K" uniqKey="Wang K">K Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Rb" uniqKey="Taylor R">RB Taylor</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Herzog, Tr" uniqKey="Herzog T">TR Herzog</name></author><author><name sortKey="Flynn Smith, Ja" uniqKey="Flynn Smith J">JA Flynn-Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Andrews, M" uniqKey="Andrews M">M Andrews</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gatersleben, B" uniqKey="Gatersleben B">B Gatersleben</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hanyu, K" uniqKey="Hanyu K">K Hanyu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hanyu, K" uniqKey="Hanyu K">K Hanyu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Austin, Dm" uniqKey="Austin D">DM Austin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sanders, C" uniqKey="Sanders C">C Sanders</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Stamps, Ae" uniqKey="Stamps A">AE Stamps</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Palmer, Jf" uniqKey="Palmer J">JF Palmer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hoffman, Re" uniqKey="Hoffman R">RE Hoffman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nasar, Jl" uniqKey="Nasar J">JL Nasar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cubukcu, E" uniqKey="Cubukcu E">E Cubukcu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cozens, P" uniqKey="Cozens P">P Cozens</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neale, R" uniqKey="Neale R">R Neale</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hillier, D" uniqKey="Hillier D">D Hillier</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cozens, P" uniqKey="Cozens P">P Cozens</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neal, R" uniqKey="Neal R">R Neal</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hillier, D" uniqKey="Hillier D">D Hillier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Whitaker, J" uniqKey="Whitaker J">J Whitaker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Park, Aj" uniqKey="Park A">AJ Park</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calvert, Tw" uniqKey="Calvert T">TW Calvert</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Park, Aj" uniqKey="Park A">AJ Park</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clare, J" uniqKey="Clare J">J Clare</name></author><author><name sortKey="Spicer, V" uniqKey="Spicer V">V Spicer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brantingham, Pl" uniqKey="Brantingham P">PL Brantingham</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calvert, T" uniqKey="Calvert T">T Calvert</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rohrmann, B" uniqKey="Rohrmann B">B Rohrmann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bishop, Id" uniqKey="Bishop I">ID Bishop</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zacharias, J" uniqKey="Zacharias J">J Zacharias</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Cruz Neira, C" uniqKey="Cruz Neira C">C Cruz-Neira</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sandin, Dj" uniqKey="Sandin D">DJ Sandin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Defanti, Ta" uniqKey="Defanti T">TA DeFanti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kenyon, Rv" uniqKey="Kenyon R">RV Kenyon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hart, Jc" uniqKey="Hart J">JC Hart</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lewis, Jl" uniqKey="Lewis J">JL Lewis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Casello, Jm" uniqKey="Casello J">JM Casello</name></author><author><name sortKey="Groulx, M" uniqKey="Groulx M">M Groulx</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Franz, G" uniqKey="Franz G">G Franz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Von Der Heyde, M" uniqKey="Von Der Heyde M">M Von der Heyde</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bulthoff, Hh" uniqKey="Bulthoff H">HH Bulthoff</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gabriel, U" uniqKey="Gabriel U">U Gabriel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Greve, W" uniqKey="Greve W">W Greve</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lorenc, T" uniqKey="Lorenc T">T Lorenc</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clayton, S" uniqKey="Clayton S">S Clayton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neary, D" uniqKey="Neary D">D Neary</name></author><author><name sortKey="Whitehead, M" uniqKey="Whitehead M">M Whitehead</name></author><author><name sortKey="Petticrew, M" uniqKey="Petticrew M">M Petticrew</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Toet, A" uniqKey="Toet A">A Toet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Welie, M" uniqKey="Van Welie M">M van Welie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Houtkamp, Jm" uniqKey="Houtkamp J">JM Houtkamp</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Houtkamp, Jm" uniqKey="Houtkamp J">JM Houtkamp</name></author><author><name sortKey="Toet, A" uniqKey="Toet A">A Toet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bos, Fa" uniqKey="Bos F">FA Bos</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chrea, C" uniqKey="Chrea C">C Chrea</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grandjean, D" uniqKey="Grandjean D">D Grandjean</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delplanque, S" uniqKey="Delplanque S">S Delplanque</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cayeux, I" uniqKey="Cayeux I">I Cayeux</name></author><author><name sortKey="Le Calve, B" uniqKey="Le Calve B">B Le Calvé</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vernet Maury, E" uniqKey="Vernet Maury E">E Vernet-Maury</name></author><author><name sortKey="Alaoui Ismaili, O" uniqKey="Alaoui Ismaili O">O Alaoui-Ismaïli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dittmar, A" uniqKey="Dittmar A">A Dittmar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delhomme, G" uniqKey="Delhomme G">G Delhomme</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chanel, J" uniqKey="Chanel J">J Chanel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Toffolo, Mbj" uniqKey="Toffolo M">MBJ Toffolo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smeets, Mam" uniqKey="Smeets M">MAM Smeets</name></author><author><name sortKey="Van Den Hout, Ma" uniqKey="Van Den Hout M">MA van den Hout</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Liljenquist, K" uniqKey="Liljenquist K">K Liljenquist</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhong, C B" uniqKey="Zhong C">C-B Zhong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Galinsky, Ad" uniqKey="Galinsky A">AD Galinsky</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baron, Ra" uniqKey="Baron R">RA Baron</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Holland, Rw" uniqKey="Holland R">RW Holland</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hendriks, M" uniqKey="Hendriks M">M Hendriks</name></author><author><name sortKey="Aarts, H" uniqKey="Aarts H">H Aarts</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="James, Al" uniqKey="James A">AL James</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Li, W" uniqKey="Li W">W Li</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moallem, I" uniqKey="Moallem I">I Moallem</name></author><author><name sortKey="Paller, Ka" uniqKey="Paller K">KA Paller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gottfried, Ja" uniqKey="Gottfried J">JA Gottfried</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zald, Dh" uniqKey="Zald D">DH Zald</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pardo, Jv" uniqKey="Pardo J">JV Pardo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Royet, Jp" uniqKey="Royet J">JP Royet</name></author><author><name sortKey="Plailly, J" uniqKey="Plailly J">J Plailly</name></author><author><name sortKey="Delon Martin, C" uniqKey="Delon Martin C">C Delon-Martin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kareken, Da" uniqKey="Kareken D">DA Kareken</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sege Barth, C" uniqKey="Sege Barth C">C Sege-barth</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Yeshurun, Y" uniqKey="Yeshurun Y">Y Yeshurun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sobel, N" uniqKey="Sobel N">N Sobel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Retiveau, An" uniqKey="Retiveau A">AN Rétiveau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chambers, E" uniqKey="Chambers E">E Chambers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Milliken, Ga" uniqKey="Milliken G">GA MILLIKEN</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schiffman, Ss" uniqKey="Schiffman S">SS Schiffman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sattely Miller, Ea" uniqKey="Sattely Miller E">EA Sattely-Miller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Suggs, Ms" uniqKey="Suggs M">MS Suggs</name></author><author><name sortKey="Graham, Bg" uniqKey="Graham B">BG Graham</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schiffman, Ss" uniqKey="Schiffman S">SS Schiffman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sattely Miller, Ea" uniqKey="Sattely Miller E">EA Sattely Miller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Suggs, Ms" uniqKey="Suggs M">MS Suggs</name></author><author><name sortKey="Graham, Bg" uniqKey="Graham B">BG Graham</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Banks, Sj" uniqKey="Banks S">SJ Banks</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ng, V" uniqKey="Ng V">V Ng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jones Gotman, M" uniqKey="Jones Gotman M">M Jones-Gotman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Van Reekum, Cm" uniqKey="Van Reekum C">CM van Reekum</name></author><author><name sortKey="Berg, H" uniqKey="Berg H">H Berg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Frijda, Nh" uniqKey="Frijda N">NH Frijda</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rotton, J" uniqKey="Rotton J">J Rotton</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Walla, P" uniqKey="Walla P">P Walla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Deecke, L" uniqKey="Deecke L">L Deecke</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bar, M" uniqKey="Bar M">M Bar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Morrin, M" uniqKey="Morrin M">M Morrin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ratneshwar, S" uniqKey="Ratneshwar S">S Ratneshwar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ward, P" uniqKey="Ward P">P Ward</name></author><author><name sortKey="Davies, B" uniqKey="Davies B">B Davies</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kooijman, D" uniqKey="Kooijman D">D Kooijman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Spangenberg, Er" uniqKey="Spangenberg E">ER Spangenberg</name></author><author><name sortKey="Crowley, Ae" uniqKey="Crowley A">AE Crowley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Henderson, Pw" uniqKey="Henderson P">PW Henderson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chebat, J C" uniqKey="Chebat J">J-C Chebat</name></author><author><name sortKey="Michon, R" uniqKey="Michon R">R Michon</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Isen, Am" uniqKey="Isen A">AM Isen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shalker, Te" uniqKey="Shalker T">TE Shalker</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schwarz, N" uniqKey="Schwarz N">N Schwarz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clore, Gl" uniqKey="Clore G">GL Clore</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lerner, Js" uniqKey="Lerner J">JS Lerner</name></author><author><name sortKey="Keltner, D" uniqKey="Keltner D">D Keltner</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Russell, Ja" uniqKey="Russell J">JA Russell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Clore, Gl" uniqKey="Clore G">GL Clore</name></author><author><name sortKey="Huntsinger, Jr" uniqKey="Huntsinger J">JR Huntsinger</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Michael, Ga" uniqKey="Michael G">GA Michael</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacquot, L" uniqKey="Jacquot L">L Jacquot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Millot, Jl" uniqKey="Millot J">JL Millot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brand, G" uniqKey="Brand G">G Brand</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Michael, Ga" uniqKey="Michael G">GA Michael</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacquot, L" uniqKey="Jacquot L">L Jacquot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Millot, J L" uniqKey="Millot J">J-L Millot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brand, G" uniqKey="Brand G">G Brand</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Seigneuric, A" uniqKey="Seigneuric A">A Seigneuric</name></author><author><name sortKey="Durand, K" uniqKey="Durand K">K Durand</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jiang, T" uniqKey="Jiang T">T Jiang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Baudouin, Jy" uniqKey="Baudouin J">JY Baudouin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schaal, B" uniqKey="Schaal B">B Schaal</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Seo, Hs" uniqKey="Seo H">HS Seo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roidl, E" uniqKey="Roidl E">E Roidl</name></author><author><name sortKey="Muller, F" uniqKey="Muller F">F Müller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Negoias, S" uniqKey="Negoias S">S Negoias</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Tomono, A" uniqKey="Tomono A">A Tomono</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kanda, K" uniqKey="Kanda K">K Kanda</name></author><author><name sortKey="Otake, S" uniqKey="Otake S">S Otake</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Todd, Rm" uniqKey="Todd R">RM Todd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cunningham, Wa" uniqKey="Cunningham W">WA Cunningham</name></author><author><name sortKey="Anderson, Ak" uniqKey="Anderson A">AK Anderson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thompson, E" uniqKey="Thompson E">E Thompson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lepp Nen, Jm" uniqKey="Lepp Nen J">JM Leppänen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hietanen, Jk" uniqKey="Hietanen J">JK Hietanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ehrlichman, H" uniqKey="Ehrlichman H">H Ehrlichman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Halpern, Jn" uniqKey="Halpern J">JN Halpern</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Krusemark, E" uniqKey="Krusemark E">E Krusemark</name></author><author><name sortKey="Li, W" uniqKey="Li W">W Li</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baus, O" uniqKey="Baus O">O Baus</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bouchard, S" uniqKey="Bouchard S">S Bouchard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Richard, E" uniqKey="Richard E">E Richard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tijou, A" uniqKey="Tijou A">A Tijou</name></author><author><name sortKey="Richard, P" uniqKey="Richard P">P Richard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ferrier, J L" uniqKey="Ferrier J">J-L Ferrier</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ghinea, G" uniqKey="Ghinea G">G Ghinea</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ademoye, Oa" uniqKey="Ademoye O">OA Ademoye</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chalmers, A" uniqKey="Chalmers A">A Chalmers</name></author><author><name sortKey="Debattista, K" uniqKey="Debattista K">K Debattista</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ramic Brkic, B" uniqKey="Ramic Brkic B">B Ramic-Brkic</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bordnick, Ps" uniqKey="Bordnick P">PS Bordnick</name></author><author><name sortKey="Traylor, A" uniqKey="Traylor A">A Traylor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Copp, Hl" uniqKey="Copp H">HL Copp</name></author><author><name sortKey="Graap, Km" uniqKey="Graap K">KM Graap</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carter, B" uniqKey="Carter B">B Carter</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Traylor, Ac" uniqKey="Traylor A">AC Traylor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bordnick, Ps" uniqKey="Bordnick P">PS Bordnick</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carter, Bl" uniqKey="Carter B">BL Carter</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gerardi, M" uniqKey="Gerardi M">M Gerardi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Olasov Rothbaum, B" uniqKey="Olasov Rothbaum B">B Olasov Rothbaum</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ressler, K" uniqKey="Ressler K">K Ressler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Heekin, M" uniqKey="Heekin M">M Heekin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rizzo, A" uniqKey="Rizzo A">A Rizzo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Rb" uniqKey="Taylor R">RB Taylor</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Perkins, Dd" uniqKey="Perkins D">DD Perkins</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Rb" uniqKey="Taylor R">RB Taylor</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Perkins, Dd" uniqKey="Perkins D">DD Perkins</name></author><author><name sortKey="Meeks, Jw" uniqKey="Meeks J">JW Meeks</name></author><author><name sortKey="Taylor, Rb" uniqKey="Taylor R">RB Taylor</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lagrange, R" uniqKey="Lagrange R">R LaGrange</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ferraro, K" uniqKey="Ferraro K">K Ferraro</name></author><author><name sortKey="Supancic, M" uniqKey="Supancic M">M Supancic</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lorenc, T" uniqKey="Lorenc T">T Lorenc</name></author><author><name sortKey="Petticrew, M" uniqKey="Petticrew M">M Petticrew</name></author><author><name sortKey="Whitehead, M" uniqKey="Whitehead M">M Whitehead</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neary, D" uniqKey="Neary D">D Neary</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clayton, S" uniqKey="Clayton S">S Clayton</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bitner, Mj" uniqKey="Bitner M">MJ Bitner</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brosch, T" uniqKey="Brosch T">T Brosch</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pourtois, G" uniqKey="Pourtois G">G Pourtois</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sander, D" uniqKey="Sander D">D Sander</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Steenbeek, W" uniqKey="Steenbeek W">W Steenbeek</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hipp, Jr" uniqKey="Hipp J">JR Hipp</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Caughy, Mo" uniqKey="Caughy M">MO Caughy</name></author><author><name sortKey="O Ampo, Pj" uniqKey="O Ampo P">PJ O’Campo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Patterson, J" uniqKey="Patterson J">J Patterson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Hietanen, Jk" uniqKey="Hietanen J">JK Hietanen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Klemettil, T" uniqKey="Klemettil T">T Klemettilä</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kettunen, Je" uniqKey="Kettunen J">JE Kettunen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Korpela, Km" uniqKey="Korpela K">KM Korpela</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Smardona, Rc" uniqKey="Smardona R">RC Smardona</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Elmes, Dg" uniqKey="Elmes D">DG Elmes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lorig, Ts" uniqKey="Lorig T">TS Lorig</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sela, L" uniqKey="Sela L">L Sela</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sobel, N" uniqKey="Sobel N">N Sobel</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Blobaum, A" uniqKey="Blobaum A">A Blöbaum</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hunecke, M" uniqKey="Hunecke M">M Hunecke</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Teller, C" uniqKey="Teller C">C Teller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dennis, C" uniqKey="Dennis C">C Dennis</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schifferstein, Hnj" uniqKey="Schifferstein H">HNJ Schifferstein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Blok, St" uniqKey="Blok S">ST Blok</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Armstrong, T" uniqKey="Armstrong T">T Armstrong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Katz, C" uniqKey="Katz C">C Katz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Worrall, Jl" uniqKey="Worrall J">JL Worrall</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Phillips, T" uniqKey="Phillips T">T Phillips</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, P" uniqKey="Smith P">P Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Warr, M" uniqKey="Warr M">M Warr</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Warr, M" uniqKey="Warr M">M Warr</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sampson, Rj" uniqKey="Sampson R">RJ Sampson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Raudenbush, Sw" uniqKey="Raudenbush S">SW Raudenbush</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schweitzer, Jh" uniqKey="Schweitzer J">JH Schweitzer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kim, Jw" uniqKey="Kim J">JW Kim</name></author><author><name sortKey="Macklin, Jr" uniqKey="Macklin J">JR Macklin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Foster, S" uniqKey="Foster S">S Foster</name></author><author><name sortKey="Giles Corti, B" uniqKey="Giles Corti B">B Giles-Corti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Knuiman, M" uniqKey="Knuiman M">M Knuiman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Riva, G" uniqKey="Riva G">G Riva</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mantovani, F" uniqKey="Mantovani F">F Mantovani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Capideville, Cs" uniqKey="Capideville C">CS Capideville</name></author><author><name sortKey="Preziosa, A" uniqKey="Preziosa A">A Preziosa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Morganti, F" uniqKey="Morganti F">F Morganti</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Walla, P" uniqKey="Walla P">P Walla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rosser, L" uniqKey="Rosser L">L Rosser</name></author><author><name sortKey="Scharfenberger, J" uniqKey="Scharfenberger J">J Scharfenberger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Duregger, C" uniqKey="Duregger C">C Duregger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bosshard, S" uniqKey="Bosshard S">S Bosshard</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baron, Ra" uniqKey="Baron R">RA Baron</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baron, Ra" uniqKey="Baron R">RA Baron</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thomley, J" uniqKey="Thomley J">J Thomley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kirk Smith, Md" uniqKey="Kirk Smith M">MD Kirk-Smith</name></author><author><name sortKey="Booth, Da" uniqKey="Booth D">DA Booth</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dematte, Ml" uniqKey="Dematte M">ML Dematte</name></author><author><name sortKey="Osterbauer, R" uniqKey="Osterbauer R">R Osterbauer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Spence, C" uniqKey="Spence C">C Spence</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Todrank, J" uniqKey="Todrank J">J Todrank</name></author><author><name sortKey="Byrnes, D" uniqKey="Byrnes D">D Byrnes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wrzesniewski, A" uniqKey="Wrzesniewski A">A Wrzesniewski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rozin, P" uniqKey="Rozin P">P Rozin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name><publisher-loc>San Francisco, USA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24250810</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3826728</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-13-26809</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder</article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Odor and Virtual Environments</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Toet</surname><given-names>Alexander</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>van Schaik</surname><given-names>Martin</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Theunissen</surname><given-names>Nicolet C. M.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><label>1</label><addr-line>Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff2"><label>2</label><addr-line>Department of Information and Computing Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff3"><label>3</label><addr-line>Training & Performance, TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands</addr-line></aff><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Hummel</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name><role>Editor</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="edit1"><addr-line>Technical University of Dresden Medical School, Germany</addr-line></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email>lextoet@gmail.com</email></corresp><fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Competing Interests: </bold>The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.</p></fn><fn fn-type="con"><p>Conceived and designed the experiments: AT MvS. Performed the experiments: AT MvS. Analyzed the data: MvS NCMT. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: AT. Wrote the paper: AT MvS NCMT.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>8</day><month>11</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>8</volume><issue>11</issue><elocation-id>e78721</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>24</day><month>6</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>20</day><month>9</month><year>2013</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Toet et al</copyright-holder><license><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><sec><title>Background</title><p>Desktop virtual environments (VEs) are increasingly deployed to study the effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and safety related concerns in built environments. For these applications it is essential that users appraise the affective qualities of the VE similar to those of its real world counterpart. Previous studies have shown that factors like simulated lighting, sound and dynamic elements all contribute to the affective appraisal of a desktop VE. Since ambient odor is known to affect the affective appraisal of real environments, and has been shown to increase the sense of presence in immersive VEs, it may also be an effective tool to tune the affective appraisal of desktop VEs. This study investigated if exposure to ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of a desktop VE with signs of public disorder.</p></sec><sec><title>Method</title><p>Participants explored a desktop VE representing a suburban neighborhood with signs of public disorder (neglect, vandalism and crime), while being exposed to either room air or subliminal levels of unpleasant (tar) or pleasant (cut grass) ambient odor. Whenever they encountered signs of disorder they reported their safety related concerns and associated affective feelings.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Signs of crime in the desktop VE were associated with negative affective feelings and concerns for personal safety and personal property. However, there was no significant difference between reported safety related concerns and affective connotations in the control (no-odor) and in each of the two ambient odor conditions.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Ambient odor did not affect safety related concerns and affective connotations associated with signs of disorder in the desktop VE. Thus, semantic congruency between ambient odor and a desktop VE may not be sufficient to influence its affective appraisal, and a more realistic simulation in which simulated objects appear to emit scents may be required to achieve this goal.</p></sec></abstract><funding-group><funding-statement>The authors have no support or funding to report.</funding-statement></funding-group><counts><page-count count="15"></page-count></counts></article-meta></front><body><sec id="s1"><title>Introduction</title><p>Desktop VEs (virtual environments) are increasingly deployed to study future design plans and the possible effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and feelings of safety in built environments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Cozens1">[1]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet1">[4]</xref>. Their effectiveness for these applications depends critically on their ability to correctly address the user’s affective appraisal of the represented environment. It is essential that users appraise the affective qualities of the desktop VE similar to those of its real world counterpart. Previous studies have shown that factors like simulated lighting, sound and dynamic elements have a similar influence on the affective appraisal of desktop VEs and real environments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bishop1">[5]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp1">[6]</xref>. Ambient scent is another important environmental characteristic that is currently lacking in most VEs. It has been shown that ambient odor can increase the sense of presence in immersive VEs <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Dinh1">[7]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Tortell1">[9]</xref>. Ambient scent is known to significantly affect our appraisal of real environments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Wrzesniewski1">[10]</xref>, and people have strong expectations about the way an environment should smell <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Henshaw1">[11]</xref>. Hence, semantically congruent ambient odors may also be an effective tool to tune the affective appraisal of less immersive desktop VEs (e.g., by evoking implicit associations).</p><p>This study investigated if (pleasant and unpleasant) ambient odors can influence the affective appraisal of a desktop VE displaying signs of social disorder. Previous studies found that although signs of public disorder influenced the affective appraisal of audio-visual desktop VEs and their real-world counterparts in a similar way, the extent of the effect could differ significantly <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet1">[4]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp2">[12]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>. This finding seriously degrades the ecological validity of desktop VEs for this type of studies. In this study participants explored and appraised a desktop VE in conditions with either no ambient scent or with a pleasant or unpleasant semantically congruent ambient scent, to test if the presence of an ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of the desktop VE.</p><sec id="s1a"><title>Virtual Environments in Environmental Research</title><p>Traditional methods used in environmental psychology to assess the impact of the affective qualities of built environments on the appraisal of the environment and safety related concerns typically use surveys and interviews <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Miller1">[14]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Jackson1">[15]</xref>, sometimes in combination with site visits <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Nasar1">[16]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Fisher1">[17]</xref>. One of the typical questions is “<italic>How would you feel being out here alone at night</italic>?” Experiments in reality are often difficult to organize and perform, time consuming and costly, and may involve practical dangers and risks for the participants. Moreover, real environments are constantly changing and it is not possible to control all experimental variables (e.g., noise level, temperature, light intensity, social presence, wind, rain, etc.) and interfering factors. But most importantly, it is generally impractical, too costly or simply impossible to investigate the effects of different interventions and new environmental designs and layouts.</p><p>The limitations and safety issues associated with experiments on the affective appraisal of built environments in reality can to a large extent be avoided by the use of drawings, photographs and slides, and interactive panoramas that can help participants to mentally place themselves in the real situation <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Nasar2">[18]</xref>. Photographs and slides have for instance been used to assess the impact of urban <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Stamps1">[19]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Herzog1">[21]</xref> and natural <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Andrews1">[22]</xref> layout, darkness <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Herzog1">[21]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Hanyu1">[23]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Hanyu2">[24]</xref> and graffiti <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Austin1">[25]</xref> on concerns for personal safety. Although the appraisal of photographs correlate with on-site evaluations <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Stamps2">[26]</xref>, they are highly viewpoint dependent <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Palmer1">[27]</xref>. In addition, photographs fail to capture the dynamics of a real environment and its context <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Austin1">[25]</xref>. Desktop VEs do not have these drawbacks, and offer cost-effective, safe, controlled and flexible environments that allow to investigate human response to a wide range of environmental factors without the constraints, distractions and dangers of the real world (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Nasar3">[28]</xref>). As a result, desktop VEs are increasingly deployed to study the effects of new designs and interventions in environmental qualities and measures like CPTED (“Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design”) on human behavior and concerns for personal safety in built environments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Cozens1">[1]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Kavakli1">[29]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Cozens4">[32]</xref>. A recent series of studies used desktop VEs to investigate the effects of environmental cues signaling risk of victimization on concerns for personal safety <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park1">[2]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park2">[3]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park3">[33]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park6">[36]</xref>. One of these studies addressed the ecological validity of a desktop VE for this type of research <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park2">[3]</xref>. It was found that the effects of cues like graffiti, murals, and boarded-up broken windows on concerns for personal safety of local residents were similar in reality and in a virtual model of the area. Other studies that compared human response to environmental interventions in both desktop simulations and their real world counterparts found that simulated lighting levels <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bishop1">[5]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Rohrmann1">[37]</xref>, and path choices <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Zacharias1">[38]</xref> evoke similar responses as their real-world equivalents. Thus, it appears that the physical and affective qualities of desktop VEs influence human response in many respects in a similar way as their real-world equivalents.</p><p>Although VEs can relatively easy be implemented on immersive platforms like a CAVE <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-CruzNeira1">[39]</xref>, head mounted displays (HMD’s) and projection domes, most visualizations for urban planning and design are still displayed on desktop systems <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lewis1">[40]</xref>. Desktop displays are relatively cheap, widely available and easy to use, while most users are familiar with these displays and their interaction devices. Desktop VEs are also preferred for communication of design plans because they can be made accessible to a large numbers of users in internet applications <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Dang1">[41]</xref>. Although desktop VEs generally less effectively induce a sense of presence than more immersive displays <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Youngblut1">[42]</xref> and seldom achieve full ecological validity <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bishop1">[5]</xref>, this need not be a significant limitation for the study of the effects of physical or social interventions in a built environment on human behavior and safety related concerns. For most purposes it suffices if the affective appraisal of the VE (or the mental imagery it evokes: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-RodrguezArdura1">[43]</xref>) is similar to that of its real-world equivalent <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-van1">[44]</xref>. In this context the term ‘<italic>affective appraisal</italic>’ refers to the assessment of the environmental qualities that have the <italic>capacity</italic> to alter an individuals’ affective state (the <italic>affective qualities</italic> of the environment). Thus, affective appraisals are attributed affective qualities about possible emotional reactions evoked by the environment <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Nasar2">[18]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Franz1">[45]</xref>, that are not necessarily accompanied by an actual affective responses <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Russell1">[46]</xref>. Since fear is based on affective appraisals (a situation must be appraised as threatening or dangerous before it will lead to fearful reactions; it is logically impossible to be afraid but not judge a situation as threatening: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Gabriel1">[47]</xref>) a VE that is affectively appraised similar to its real world equivalent may be a valid predictor of human emotions (e.g. feelings of fear).</p><p>Previous studies comparing the influence of signs of public disorder on the affective appraisal of the environment found similar effects for desktop VEs and their real-world counterparts <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet1">[4]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp2">[12]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>: both in VE and in reality, signs of disorder typically compromise feelings of safety (see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park5">[35]</xref>). However, for desktop VEs, the effects were significantly less than expected when the participants merely regarded these details as interesting distractions <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp2">[12]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>, while they were much stronger than expected when the participants over-focused on these details <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet1">[4]</xref>. These effects seriously degrade the ecological validity of desktop VEs for the study of effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and safety related concerns. Possible reasons for these effects may be that in the real world the impact of signs of public disorder is typically modulated by various environmental factors and social presence <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc1">[48]</xref>. For instance, their negative appraisal can be ameliorated by auditory (music), tactile (wind), and olfactory (pleasant ambient smells of fresh air and vegetation) cues, or enhanced by noise and unpleasant (e.g., garbage and urine) smells. Hence, further knowledge of and control over these sensory factors is required to enable the design and construction of desktop VEs that can effectively be tuned to elicit an affective appraisal of the represented environment that agrees with the purpose of the simulation, and that is similar to the appraisal the user would have of the corresponding situation in reality. Previous studies investigated how simulated lighting <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp4">[49]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp5">[51]</xref>, sound <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp6">[52]</xref> and dynamic elements <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp1">[6]</xref> may contribute to this goal. This study investigates if ambient odor influences a user’s affective appraisal of a desktop VE.</p></sec><sec id="s1b"><title>Olfaction, Affect and Attention</title><p>Odors can trigger a wide range of affective responses <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Herz1">[53]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-VernetMaury1">[55]</xref> and memories <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toffolo1">[56]</xref>, and influence human judgments and behavior even when they are not consciously perceived <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Liljenquist1">[57]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Li1">[61]</xref>. This probably reflects the high degree of overlap between the brain structures involved in olfactory and emotional processing <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Zald1">[62]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Royet1">[63]</xref>. The nature of the response is inextricably linked to odor hedonic tone (pleasantness: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Yeshurun1">[64]</xref>). Pleasant odors tend to induce positive affect, whereas unpleasant odors tend to induce negative affect <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Rtiveau1">[65]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Schiffman2">[67]</xref>.</p><p>Odors can also modulate the affective quality of images <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Banks1">[68]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Walla1">[71]</xref>. Foul odors reduce the liking for picture and photographs <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Rotton1">[70]</xref>, and this effect is strongest for pleasant and neutral images <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Banks1">[68]</xref>. There is accumulating evidence that the brain pre-attentively makes an initial prediction of the affective ‘gist’ of a scene which in turn affects its appraisal in a top-down fashion <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bar1">[72]</xref>. As a result subliminally perceived odor may influence affective responses in a direct way not mediated by mood or arousal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Morrin1">[73]</xref>. Smells can also affect the appraisal of environments, places and persons <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Wrzesniewski1">[10]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Henshaw1">[11]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Henshaw2">[74]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Ward1">[75]</xref>, either directly through association with its contents <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Morrin1">[73]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Spangenberg1">[76]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Chebat1">[77]</xref> or indirectly through misattribution of induced affect <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Isen1">[78]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Clore1">[83]</xref>. As a result, pleasant ambient scents even tend to improve the evaluation of objects that are generally judged less favorably <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Morrin1">[73]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Spangenberg1">[76]</xref>.</p><p>Ambient odors (even at subthreshold levels) modulate visual attention <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Morrin1">[73]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Michael1">[84]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Michael2">[85]</xref>. Recent studies have shown that odors bias visual selective attention for <italic>semantically congruent</italic> visual objects <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Seigneuric1">[86]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Tomono1">[88]</xref>. It appears that crossmodal odor-object associations are activated automatically without the need for explicit odor identification <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Seigneuric1">[86]</xref>. Ambient odors also bias visual attention to favor stimuli that are <italic>affectively congruent</italic> to their hedonic quality (a case of affect-biased attention: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Todd1">[89]</xref>). Pleasant odors facilitate the processing of positive visual cues <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Leppnen1">[90]</xref>, while unpleasant odors facilitate the processing of negative cues <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Ehrlichman1">[91]</xref> and inhibit the processing of positive cues <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Leppnen1">[90]</xref>. The pre-attentive affective bias induced by ambient unpleasant odors probably serves the ecological purpose of facilitating threat detection <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Krusemark1">[92]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s1c"><title>Olfaction and Virtual Environments</title><p>Despite the major role of scent in everyday life and its effects on our environmental appraisal, olfaction is rarely applied in the scope of VEs <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Baus1">[93]</xref>. Early problems associated with dispersing and controlling the odorants in the environment have been resolved by recent technological developments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Oshima1">[94]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Yu1">[98]</xref>; for a review see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Richard1">[99]</xref> and for a current overview of available display systems see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Riener1">[100]</xref>. With the technological barriers to effective presentation of olfactory information overcome, VE researchers and developers now have the ability to utilize scent to create more authentic environments and scenarios <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Tomono1">[88]</xref>. Enhancing virtual environments with olfactory stimuli may create a more complex and richer user experience by heightening the sense of reality <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Ghinea1">[101]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Chalmers1">[102]</xref>. It has indeed been shown that the addition of olfactory cues to an immersive VE can increase the user’s sense of presence, memory and perceived realism of the simulated environment <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Dinh1">[7]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Tortell1">[9]</xref>. Recent applications of olfactory enhanced VEs include high-end games and entertainment <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Davis1">[103]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Mochizuki1">[104]</xref> and clinical scenarios for (drug, alcohol, nicotine) cue reactivity assessment <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bordnick1">[105]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Traylor1">[106]</xref> and PTSD treatment <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Gerardi1">[107]</xref>. However, it is still unknown if ambient scents can influence the affective appraisal of a desktop VE <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Ghinea1">[101]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s1d"><title>Current Study</title><p>Public disorder reflects erosion of social control and inspires fear of crime <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc1">[48]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Taylor1">[108]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc2">[114]</xref>. Public disorder encompasses both physical and social disorder. Physical disorder includes items like dilapidated housing, vandalism, litter and vacant lots, while social disorder includes phenomena like loitering youths, rowdy behavior, public drunkenness, drug sales and prostitution. Following Park et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park6">[36]</xref> we conceptualize <italic>Fear of Crime</italic> in this study as a cue-focussed affective appraisal of victimization risk rather than an actual feeling of fear(see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc1">[48]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc2">[114]</xref>). Hence, <italic>Fear of Crime</italic> is conceptualized here as the capability of a given situation to evoke safety related concerns, measured through the affective appraisal of cues in the environment that signify a potential threat <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Jackson1">[15]</xref>.</p><p>The current study was performed to test if exposure to (pleasant or unpleasant) ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of a VE showing signs of disorder. Participants performed a walking tour through a VE while being exposed to either room air (control group), unpleasant (tar) or pleasant (cut grass) odor. Whenever they noticed signs of disorder during their walk they reported their momentary safety related concerns and their associated affective feelings. The pleasant scent (cut grass) had congruent visual and auditory representations in the simulation, since the VE showed abundant greenery and contained the occasional sound of grass mowers in the associated soundtrack. The unpleasant scent (tar) had no obvious (visual or auditory) counterparts in the simulation, but could be associated with derelict areas in general and with the occasional sounds of construction activities (hammering, sawing) in the soundtrack of the VE in particular. Since people tend to respond to an environment as a whole (a ‘molar’ environment) rather than to its individual features <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3">[13]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Bitner1">[115]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Brosch1">[117]</xref>, and since affective qualities are prioritized in this categorization process <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Brosch1">[117]</xref>, the presence of an ambient scent with an affective (pleasant or unpleasant) loading was expected to bias the affective appraisal of the VE. More specifically, it was hypothesized that participants in the unpleasant odor condition (H1) would report more concern for crime than participants in the control condition, because unpleasant odors bias visual attention to - affectively congruent - negative cues, and (H2) they would associate more negative affect with these signs because they would –unconsciously - associate the unpleasant odor with the affective quality of the VE. In contrast, it was expected that participants in the pleasant odor condition (H3) would report less concern for crime than participants in the control condition, because the smell of cut grass would bias their attention to the – semantically congruent - greenery and thereby distract them from the signs of disorder, and (H4) they would associate less negative affect with these signs (since pleasant scents tend to improve the evaluation of objects that are otherwise judged less favorably and to improve mood).</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="methods" id="s2"><title>Methods</title><sec id="s2a"><title>Virtual Environment</title><p>A small area in the town of Soesterberg, The Netherlands (with a rectangular shape and a total extent of about 200×200 m<sup>2</sup>; coordinates 52° 7′ N, 5° 17′34″ E:) was simulated in 3D using the Unreal Tournament 2004 game-engine v2.5 (Epic Games Inc.; see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0078721-g001">Figure 1</xref> for the corresponding OpenStreetMap and Unreal aerial overviews). The area is enclosed by roads on four sides and contains blocks of houses, two squares with parking places, benches, and statues, two playgrounds with benches, and a network of pathways connecting the squares and playgrounds (for details see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0078721-g002">Figures 2</xref>–<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0078721-g004">4</xref>). All houses have a garden in the back, typically enclosed with a wooden fence, with an exit door to a pathway. The pathways are typically covered with tarmac, and bordered on both sides with trees and shrubs. The houses are generally well maintained and quite uniform. The pathways and parks are reasonably well kept. The walking route (designated by arrows drawn on the ground) had no intersections and covered most of the area (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0078721-g001">Figure 1a</xref>). The route included three short segments of sidewalks along three different roads, several footpaths, two squares, and two playgrounds.</p><fig id="pone-0078721-g001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.g001</object-id><label>Figure 1</label><caption><title>Map of the modeled area of the town of Soesterberg (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.openstreetmap.org">www.openstreetmap.org</ext-link>).</title><p>(a) Walking route (orange line) and walking direction (small black arrows). (b) Corresponding top-view of the virtual environment.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0078721.g001"></graphic></fig><fig id="pone-0078721-g002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.g002</object-id><label>Figure 2</label><caption><title>Characteristic scenes from virtual environment.</title><p>(a,b) Pathways between fences enclosing the back gardens of the houses in the neighborhood. Notice the arrows marked on the ground to indicate the walking route. (c) Entrance to a small square with parking. (d) A square with benches and artwork, surrounded by houses. (e) A playground.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0078721.g002"></graphic></fig><fig id="pone-0078721-g003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.g003</object-id><label>Figure 3</label><caption><title>Warning signs and cameras.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0078721.g003"></graphic></fig><fig id="pone-0078721-g004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.g004</object-id><label>Figure 4</label><caption><title>Physical incivilities in the virtual environment.</title><p>Examples shown represent (a,b) empty beer cans, (c) broken glass, (d,e) bicycle parts, (f) broken car window glass, (g) garbage bags and bicycle parts, (h) paper litter, (i) dog droppings, (j) garbage bag, (k) car tire.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0078721.g004"></graphic></fig><p>The VE represented a moderate socio-economic neighborhood. This type of environment was intentionally selected since there are indications that signs of disorder most effectively inspire fear of crime in higher socio-economic neighborhoods <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Begall1">[118]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Steenbeek1">[119]</xref>. A total of 42 test items were distributed over 34 different locations in the virtual environment. The items signaled three different classes of social incivilities: Neglect, Vandalism and Crime (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t001">Table 1</xref>: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Perkins2">[112]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc2">[114]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Caughy1">[120]</xref>), and had social connotations ranging from indifference (e.g., litter, trash, dog droppings) and loitering (e.g. empty beer cans, cigarette butts, fast food wrappers) to vandalism (broken bus shelter windows) and predatory crime (smashed car windows, crime watch signs, CCTV cameras, and camera surveillance signs). Items that are typically associated with neglect, indifference, street youth and loitering, were collected at littered public sites and therefore had a realistic and weathered appearance. Broken car glass and old car tires were obtained from a local used car dealer. Rusted bicycle frames and wheels were obtained at a local junkyard. These experimental items were then either photographed (e.g., litter, warning signs) or modeled as 3D virtual objects (e.g., CCTV cameras, dog droppings) and placed in the virtual environment using the Unreal game editor.</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t001</object-id><label>Table 1</label><caption><title>Experimental items, their connotations of physical and social disorder, and the experimental classification.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t001-1" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t001"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Experimental items (nr)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Social connotations</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Experimental class (nr of items)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Garbage bags (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neglect, indifference (Litter)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neglect (24)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cardboard boxes (1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Newspapers, flyers (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plastic shopping bags (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Dog droppings (3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bicycle frame (1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bicycle wheels (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cigarette butts (1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Empty beer cans (7)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fast-food wrappers, boxes, paper cups (1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Old car tires (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bus shelter with broken windows (1)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vandalism</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vandalism (1)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Smashed car windows and signs warning for car burglary (6)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Car burglary</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crime (17)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neighborhood crime watch Signs (3)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Home burglary</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Signs that homes are protected by private security services (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Signs that homes are protected by dogs (2)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CCTV security cameras and signs (4)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Predatory crime</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt101"><label></label><p>Numbers in brackets indicate the number of items present in the VE.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><p>The simulation was performed on Dell Precision 490 PC computers, equipped with Dell 19″ monitors. Logitech Rumblepad 2 Gamepads were used for navigation. User movement in the virtual environment was from a first-person viewing perspective with walking motion supporting forward and backwards movements and left and right rotation movements. User movement speed was fixed and collision detection enabled to prevent users from walking through objects. A non-repeating soundscape that was characteristic for the environment was composed from sounds (birds singing, cars passing by, children shouting, hammering and drilling, and dogs barking) recorded at several locations and at different times in the corresponding real environment. The soundscape was presented through Sennheiser eH 150 headphones. A previous study showed that this soundscape effectively increased the ecological validity of the VE while the absence of sound negatively biased the appraisal of the VE <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet1">[4]</xref>.</p></sec><sec id="s2b"><title>Odor Selection</title><p>The scent of freshly cut grass was selected as the environmentally appropriate pleasant odor in this study. This scent is generally considered to be stimulating and refreshing. Since the VE used in this study shows a lot of vegetation, the scent of grass may evoke associations with well-kept property, and may also attract attention towards the greenery <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Seigneuric1">[86]</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Tomono1">[88]</xref>. Hence, apart from its own stimulating effects, the scent of freshly cut grass may also indirectly improve mood and appraisal by focusing attention on the natural elements in the VE <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Hietanen1">[121]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Smardona1">[122]</xref>. In addition, a previous study found that the scent of freshly cut grass enhances the perceived quality of real-time animation of grass <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Brkic1">[123]</xref>. The smell of cut-grass was created by mixing ethanol with cis-3-hexenol (leaf alcohol) in a 9∶1 ratio. The associations that could be elicited by this scent were investigated by presenting it to a panel of 10 participants while they were viewing the VE. The scent was presented in small glass tubes containing a cotton swab with three to four drops of the solution and sniffed by the participants approximately 5 inches from their nose. Nine out of 10 participants reported associations with greenery (four mentioned grass, three named freshly cut leaves and one mentioned broken twigs).</p><p>An environmentally appropriate unpleasant scent was selected in a pilot test from a set of 8 candidate aversive smells. The candidate smells were respectively Burned Wood (RS/420), Reptile (RS/424), Diesel Fumes (RS/423), Metal (RS/426), Dusty (RS/425), Tar (RS/401), Cow Manure, and Natural Gas (all obtained from RetroScent, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.geurmachine.nl">www.geurmachine.nl</ext-link>). The scents were identified by randomly assigned numbers, presented in small glass tubes containing a cotton swab with three to four drops of aroma oil, and sniffed by the 10 participants of the pilot test in random order, approximately 5 inches from their nose, while viewing the VE. The degree to which each scent fitted the VE (how environmentally appropriate the scent was for the VE) was evaluated on a 11 point semantic differential scale (ranging from 0 = <italic>absolutely not</italic> to 10 = <italic>definitely</italic>). Tar received the highest mean score (7.4), followed by Dusty (5.7). In addition, although the exact the nature of the tar smell was not identified by any of the testers, 8 out of 10 spontaneously reported associations with fire and burned material, while it was unanimously judged to be a very unpleasant scent that could occur in an environment as the one represented by the VE.</p></sec><sec id="s2c"><title>Odor Diffusion</title><p>Scents were diffused in the room (about 25 m<sup>2</sup>) through a commercial electronic dispenser (1–3 RS-Classic Scentvertiser, RetroScent, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.geurmachine.nl">www.geurmachine.nl</ext-link>). No odor was applied in the control condition. The dispenser was placed out of the participant’s sight behind a screen. The participants could not hear the sound of the dispenser when they wore their headphones and listened to the soundscape of the VE. The experimenter turned on the dispenser after the participants had started their tour through the VE and he turned it off before they were instructed to take off their headphones. Odor was intermittently diffused (with a cycle period of 1 minute) during the experiment so that the participants received fluctuating concentrations over time, thus preventing full adaptation. The perceived odor intensity should neither be overwhelming (to avoid eliciting inappropriate expectations in the participants: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Elmes1">[124]</xref>) nor too low (so that the odor stimulation would be ineffective). Ideally, it should be sufficiently strong to be just noticeable when attended to. Previous studies found that the influence of odors on visual stimuli is largest when the odors are presented at near detectable levels <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Li1">[61]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Banks1">[68]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Sela1">[125]</xref>. The odor intensity used in this study was between low and intermediate, corresponding to a mean level between 3 and 5 on a 10-point scale. A pilot experiment was performed to determine a setting of the dispenser and a duty cycle that resulted in a mean rating of 5. The room in which the test was performed was well ventilated prior to each session. Only one scent per day was diffused to avoid mixing odors, and the lab was fully ventilated overnight to remove any lingering trace of the scent. Before beginning the study each morning, the room was ‘sniff-tested’ by the two experimenters; no odors were detected to have remained in the room.</p></sec><sec id="s2d"><title>Instruments</title><sec id="s2d1"><title>General questionnaire</title><p>As the results may be influenced by the characteristics of the participants, they were asked to complete a <italic>General Questionnaire</italic> including socio-demographic measures (sex, age, and education). Education was clustered into four groups: middle and higher level education, academic education, and other types of education.</p></sec><sec id="s2d2"><title>Game and computer experience questionnaire</title><p>A 6-item <italic>Game and Computer Experience Questionnaire</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t002">Table 2</xref>; see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Toet2">[50]</xref>) was designed to assess the participants’ general experience with computers, games and virtual environments. Three items (nrs. 1,2 and 6) are related to the total amount of time spent on playing computer games (each was scored on a scale from 0 = no time spent to 3 = a large amount of time spent), two items (nrs. 4 and 5) address the experience with navigating virtual environments (one item is scored as 0 = no experience and 1 = some experience, the other item merely serves to check what type of environment was navigated), and the kind of games played (item nr. 3). The total score on the <italic>Game and Computer Experience Questionnaire</italic> ranges from 0 (no time spent on games and no experience with virtual environments) to 18 (a large amount of time spent on many different games and experience with virtual environments). Scores ranging from 0 to 5 correspond to low experience, scores from 6 to 12 indicate average experience, while scores from 13 to 18 correspond to extensive experience.</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t002</object-id><label>Table 2</label><caption><title><italic>Game and Computer Experience Questionnaire</italic>, together with the scores attributed to each item.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t002-2" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t002"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nr</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Item</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Answer</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Score</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">How frequently do you use a computer?</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Never</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">A few times a month</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">A few times a week</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Daily</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">How many hours per week do you spend playing games(e.g. on a PC, Playstation, Xbox, Nintendo etc.)?</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 hours (<italic>please proceed to Question 4</italic>)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 to 5 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 to 10 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">More than 10 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">What kind of games do you play <italic>(you can choose more than one type)</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shooting games</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fighting games</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sport games (e.g. racing, football, etc.)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Adventure games (e.g. Mario, Zelda, etc.)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Simulation games (e.g. SIMS, etc.)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Role playing games</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Strategy games</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other, i.e. …………………….</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Did you ever explore a virtual environment?</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yes</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">No (<italic>if not the questionnaire ends here</italic>)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">What kind of virtual environment did you explore (e.g. Second Life,Active World, a simulation, a training)?</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">…………………….</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">How many hours per week do you spend using a virtual environment?</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 to 5 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 to 10 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">More than 10 hours</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s2d3"><title>Fear of crime questionnaire</title><p>A 7-item <italic>Fear of Crime Questionnaire</italic> (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t003">Table 3</xref>) was applied to measure the participants’ affective appraisal of a given situation, i.e., their interpretation of cues in the environment that signal potential threats and that may evoke a chain of thoughts about unpleasant events (equivalent to Jackson’s <italic>Worry about Crime</italic> concept: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Jackson1">[15]</xref>; see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Andrews1">[22]</xref>). This questionnaire contained six statements with connotative meanings related to concern for personal safety. Five items (nrs. 1–5) were adapted from a validated <italic>Perceived Danger</italic> questionnaire <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Blbaum1">[126]</xref>. One statement (item 6) was added as a check (for item 2), and one statement (item 7, from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Begall1">[118]</xref>) was added to measure concern for personal property. The items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = <italic>completely disagree</italic> to 5 = <italic>completely agree</italic>).</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t003</object-id><label>Table 3</label><caption><title>Factor loadings of <italic>the Fear of Crime Questionnaire</italic> items.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t003-3" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t003"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Factors</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nr.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fear of Crime Items</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Concern forPersonal Safety</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Concern for PersonalProperty</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I would go a long way around to avoid this place.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.85</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.21</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I feel/would feel uneasy at this place.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.85</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.45</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I would make haste to get away from this place.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.80</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.37</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I would not mind to walk alone here at night-time.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.78</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.29</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I have/would have an unpleasant feeling in this place.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.76</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.45</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I feel/would feel safe at this place.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.69</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.49</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">I would leave my bicycle at this place without concern.</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.29</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.94</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives><table-wrap-foot><fn id="nt102"><label></label><p>The two main factors are Concern for Personal Safety and Concern for Personal Property.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s2d4"><title>Mental state questionnaire</title><p>A 7-item <italic>Mental State Questionnaire</italic> (adapted from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Spielberger1">[127]</xref>), consisting of four negative (<italic>agitated, angry, anxious, distressed</italic>), two neutral (<italic>calm, relaxed</italic>), and one positive (<italic>cheerful</italic>) affective terms served to assess the affective connotations elicited by the individual incivilities. For each individual sign of disorder which they encountered during their walk participants reported their affective connotation by selecting one of the 7 items (“<italic>I feel/would feel … at this place.</italic>”).</p></sec><sec id="s2d5"><title>Post-experiment questionnaire</title><p>A 4-item <italic>Post-Experiment Questionnaire</italic> contained three questions investigating the extent to which the ambient temperature, illumination and atmosphere in the room were characteristic for the VE (these three items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = <italic>completely disagree</italic> to 5 = <italic>completely agree</italic>) and an open question (“<italic>Was there anything else you noticed during the experiment</italic>?”) to test if the participants had noticed the ambient scent in the room.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s2e"><title>Experimental Procedure</title><p>After their arrival at the laboratory, the participants first read and signed an informed consent form. Next, they filled out both the <italic>General Questionnaire</italic> and G<italic>ame Experience Questionnaire</italic>. Then they read the following instructions:</p><disp-quote><p>“<italic>The experiment concerns an area of Soesterberg near the TNO lab, and will take about 45 minutes. Citizens living in this area are concerned about the increasing social disorder in their neighborhood. They intend to draft a plan of action to confront this problem. After making an inventory of the different types of incivilities occurring in their neighborhood, the citizens will prioritize the order in which these should be addressed. To enable a large number of people to give their opinion on the social disorder in this area, the concerned citizens have commissioned a realistic and highly detailed computer model of their neighborhood.</italic></p><p>It is your task to make a tour through this virtual model and assess the social disorder in this neighborhood. Your route is marked by arrows drawn on the ground. Each time you notice signs of incivilities (e.g., litter, dog droppings, broken car windows, etc.) during your inspection tour, you are requested to:</p><p>1. Make a snapshot of each sign of incivilities you notice (by pressing key F12).</p><p>2. Enter a brief description of the incivility on your questionnaire.</p><p>3. Rate any concerns for your personal safety which you associate with the perceived incivility using the ‘Fear of Crime Questionnaire’.</p><p>4. <italic>Describe any affective feelings you associate with the perceived incivility by choosing one of the 7 affective terms on the ‘Mental State Questionnaire’ (agitated, angry, anxious, distressed, calm, relaxed, cheerful)</italic>”.</p></disp-quote><p>Next, the experimenter verified if the participants had understood their instructions, and started the simulation. The experimenter then explained the function of the gamepad, and gave the participant the opportunity to practice maneuvering through the virtual environment for about 5 minutes. At the end of this practice period the experimenter checked if the participant was able to perform the required maneuvers, and whether the participant paid attention to the arrows on the ground and the signs of disorder. Then, the experimenter gave the participants the printed questionnaires which they could use to fill out their reports, and positioned the point-of-view in the virtual environment at the starting location, facing the direction of the route. The participants then put on their headphones and started their walkthrough, which they performed at their own pace. Each time the participants noticed signs of disorder during their walk they reported the item they had noticed and filled out the <italic>Fear of Crime Questionnaire</italic> and the <italic>Mental State Questionnaire</italic>. During the test, the experimenter was seated behind a screen in the room and intermittently turned on the odor dispenser at one minute intervals, maintaining a slightly fluctuating near threshold ambient odor level. Finally, after finishing their walkthrough, the participants filled out the <italic>Post-Experiment Questionnaire</italic>.</p><p>The experimental protocol was reviewed and approved by the TNO internal review board on experiments with human participants (TNO Toetsings Commissie Proefpersoon Experimenten, Soesterberg, The Netherlands), and was in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-World1">[128]</xref>. The participants provided their written informed consent prior to testing. The participants received a modest financial compensation for their participation.</p></sec><sec id="s2f"><title>Pre-trial</title><p>Prior to the main experiment, a pilot test including 4 participants was performed to test the entire experimental procedure. It was confirmed that the instructions were clear, that the participants could easily find their way through the environment, that the signs of disorder were salient enough to be noticed, and that the setting of the electronic dispenser (near threshold, as subjectively determined by the experimenters) indeed resulted in a just noticeable level of ambient door.</p></sec><sec id="s2g"><title>Participants</title><p>The main experiment was performed by 70 participants (40 males and 30 females) that were selected from the TNO database of volunteers, with an average age of 43 years (M = 43, SD = 17). The selection criteria guaranteed that they were not familiar with the urban area represented by the VE, that they had no problems with their sense of smell, and that they all had normal (or corrected to normal) vision with no color deficiencies. Also, they were unaware of the aim of the experiment. All participants were educated: 23% had received academic education, 44% had received higher education, 23% had received middle level vocational education, and 10% had received some other form of education. All participants had computer experience: 34% of the total population played computer games on regularly base, while the remaining 66% had at least some occasional experience with VE’s. The participants’ mean age, level of education, and computer proficiency and game experience were approximately the same for all three (no-ambient smell, ambient tar odor, and ambient grass odor) experimental conditions (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t004">Table 4</xref>).</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t004" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t004</object-id><label>Table 4</label><caption><title>Distribution of participants over the experimental conditions.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t004-4" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t004"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="6" align="left" rowspan="1">Condition</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Control</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Tar odor</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">Grass odor</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">male</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">female</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">male</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">female</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">male</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">female</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Sex (nr)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Average age (years)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">42.71</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">43.26</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">41.73</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Computer and game experience (average level)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">9</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">9</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">10</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Middle level education (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">24</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">14</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Higher level education (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">43</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">64</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Academic level education (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">19</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">33</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">14</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other type of education (%)</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">14</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">7</td><td colspan="2" align="left" rowspan="1">9</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap></sec><sec id="s2h"><title>Data Analysis</title><p>The participant-variable ratio did not allow for a straightforward statistical analysis of the combination of 7 fear of crime scores for 42 items of social incivilities in 3 conditions. Therefore a data reduction strategy was applied. Factor analysis was used to cluster the <italic>Fear of Crime</italic> statements in the two scales <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> and <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic>. The internal consistency of the resulting scales was checked by computing Cronbach’s alphas. Next, scale scores were calculated based on the average of the statements’ scores within a scale, such that higher scores represented more fear of crime. The relation between the two scales was calculated using Pearson’s correlation. In addition, the 42 experimental items were clustered in three classes based on their connotations: Neglect, Vandalism and Crime (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t001">Table 1</xref>). Analysis of variance was used to test the relationships between the main variables. The statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 20.0 for Windows (SPSS, Chicago, Ill., USA). For all analyses a probability level of p<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s3"><title>Results</title><p>The <italic>General Questionnaire</italic> provided information about the age, sex and education of the participants, while the <italic>Game and Computer Experience Questionnaire</italic> served to assess their experience with computers, games and VEs. <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t004">Table 4</xref> shows how the participants in this study were distributed over the experimental conditions with respect to these factors. The different experimental groups were similar in average age and game and computer experience, but differed slightly in sex and education. Since multivariate analysis showed no main or interaction effects of age, level of education, and computer experience on fear of crime, these factors were omitted from later analyses.</p><p>The <italic>Fear of Crime Questionnaire</italic> served to measure whether signals of social disorder evoked safety related concerns. <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t003">Table 3</xref> shows the results of a factor analysis of the 7 statements from the <italic>Fear of Crime Questionnaire</italic>. Six variables load onto a single factor, which accounts for 84% of the total variance and has a high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.93). The six items which load onto this factor are all related to <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> (physical harm, violence). The remaining item (“<italic>I would leave my bicycle at this place without concern</italic>.”) is related to <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> (theft, vandalism) and accounts for 7% of the total variance.</p><p>Next, we calculated the average of the statements’ scores within both scales, such that higher scores represented more fear of crime (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t005">Tables 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t006">6</xref>). Both factors are significantly correlated (r = .63, df = 1565, p<.00): <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> increases when <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> increases.</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t005" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t005</object-id><label>Table 5</label><caption><title>Mean (SD) of the factor <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> in the control, ambient tar and ambient grass odor conditions for each of the three classes of experimental items signaling respectively Neglect (24 items), Vandalism (1 item) and Crime (17 items: see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t001">Table 1</xref>).</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t005-5" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t005"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="3" align="left" rowspan="1">Signals of</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Condition</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neglect</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vandalism</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crime</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Control</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.90 (.64)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.22 (.85)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.02 (.82)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tar odor</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.62 (.72)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.67 (.84)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.02 (.82)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Grass odor</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.64 (.68)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.04 (1.20)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.91 (.87)</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t006" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t006</object-id><label>Table 6</label><caption><title>Mean (SD) of the factor <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> in the control, ambient tar and ambient grass odor conditions for each of the three classes of experimental items signaling respectively Neglect (24 items), Vandalism (1 item) and Crime (17 items: see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t001">Table 1</xref>).</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t006-6" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t006"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td><td colspan="3" align="left" rowspan="1">Signals of</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Condition</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neglect</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vandalism</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Crime</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Control</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.66 (.91)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.05 (1.08)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.20 (.88)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tar odor</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.42 (.68)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.94 (.80)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.38 (.81)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Grass odor</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.52 (.83)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.99 (1.20)</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.43 (.80)</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap><p>Then, the affective connotations reported for the detected signs of disorder (from the combination of the <italic>Mental State</italic> and <italic>Fear of Crime Questionnaires</italic>) were clustered for each of the three classes of experimental items: Neglect, Vandalism and Crime (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t001">Table 1</xref>). There is a significant difference (χ<sup>2</sup> = 18.94; df = 4; p = <.05) between the observed and expected frequencies of the affective connotations (negative, neutral, or positive) associated with the reported items (signs of incivilities) in the classes Neglect, Vandalism and Crime. Items in the classes Vandalism and Crime were more frequently associated with negative affective connotations than items in the class Neglect. However, there is no difference in <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> associated with reports on experimental items in different experimental classes. Also, items that could inspire <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> (e.g., signs of home and car burglary, abandoned bikes) did not elicit any crime related concerns.</p><p>The hypotheses H1 and H3 - that participants in the (un)pleasant odor condition would report more (less) concern for crime than participants in the control condition - are both not proven by this study: analysis of variance showed no significant difference in the factors <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> and <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> between the control condition and each of the two odor conditions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0078721-t007">Table 7</xref>), for each of the experimental classes. Also, the hypotheses H2 and H4 - that participants in the (un)pleasant odor condition would associate more (less) negative affect with these signs because they would (unconsciously) attribute the affective quality of the ambient odor to the VE – are both not supported by the present results: the affective connotations associated with the reported items do not differ between the control and each of the two experimental (ambient odor) conditions.</p><table-wrap id="pone-0078721-t007" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0078721.t007</object-id><label>Table 7</label><caption><title>Results of a two-way ANOVA to test the difference between the factors <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> and <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> in respectively the control and the two ambient odor conditions.</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone-0078721-t007-7" xlink:href="pone.0078721.t007"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col><col align="center" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Factor</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Control - Tar</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Control - Grass</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Concern for</italic><italic>Personal Safety</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">F<sub>1,42</sub> = .02; p = .88</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">F<sub>1,37</sub> = .41; p = .53</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Concern for</italic><italic>Personal Property</italic></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">F<sub>1,42</sub> = 1.21; p = .28</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">F<sub>1,37</sub> = .59; p = .45</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap><p>Overall, women were significantly more concerned about their own personal safety than men (F<sub>1,61</sub> = 14,93, p<.00).</p><p>In response to the open question in the <italic>Post-Experiment Questionnaire</italic> only one participant (out of 23) claimed to have noticed a (Lysol) smell in the room in the control condition. In the tar odor condition one participant (out of 23) reported to have noticed a smell, but he was unable to identify its nature, and did not link the odor to the experiment. No participant noticed a smell in the grass odor condition. Five participants (out of 70) reported that they experienced the absence of people in the VE as frightening.</p></sec><sec id="s4"><title>Discussion and Conclusions</title><p>There was no significant difference in the factors <italic>Concern for Personal Safety</italic> and <italic>Concern for Personal Property</italic> between the control condition and each of the two odor conditions. Also, the affective connotations associated with the reported items do not differ between the experimental conditions. The present results therefore appear to falsify the hypotheses that the hedonic quality (pleasant or unpleasant) of an environmentally congruent ambient odor would modulate the affective evaluation of the desktop VE (H1 and H3) and the affective connotations the participants attribute to signs of disorder therein (H2 and H4). However, they agree with earlier reports that ambient scent has no effect on shopping behavior <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Teller1">[129]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Schifferstein1">[130]</xref>. In particular, Schifferstein and Blok <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Schifferstein1">[130]</xref> found that the scent of freshly cut grass did not affect sales of thematically (in-) congruent products. These authors argue that ambient scent is probably more diagnostic for the physical environment of the observer than for the particular items in that environment. This suggests that a close spatiotemporal link between the visual cues in a desktop VE and the scents with which they are supposed to be associated may be required to effectively establish these associations. Hence, it would be interesting to investigate more immersive VEs that can convincingly induce the illusion that scents emanate from the objects that are displayed in the scene.</p><p>Experimental items signaling vandalism (e.g., a damaged bus shelter) and crime (e.g., home protections signs and cameras) more frequently evoked negative affective appraisals than items representing neglect (e.g., litter, dog droppings, old bicycle parts). This finding agrees with the discriminant validity of different types of perceptual incivilities that is also found in the real world (e.g., between crime and social incivilities: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Armstrong1">[131]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Worrall1">[132]</xref>). In reality, signs of crime are also more likely to evoke negative appraisals since they are typically associated with the risk of personal victimization <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Phillips1">[133]</xref>.</p><p>In response to the open question in the <italic>Post-Experiment Questionnaire</italic> six participants stated that they had experienced the absence of people (avatars) in the simulation as discomforting. This agrees with previous real world observations that lack of social presence evokes fear of victimization and determines navigation behavior, especially in women <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Warr1">[134]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Warr2">[135]</xref>.The current finding that women were significantly more concerned about their own personal safety than men also agrees with real world observations <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Warr1">[134]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Warr2">[135]</xref>.</p><p>The fact that only one participant noticed a smell in an odor condition (but failed to identify it or link it to the experiment) suggests that the ambient odors were indeed successfully presented at a just noticeable intensity level.</p><p>Summarizing, although semantically congruent ambient scents of different hedonic quality failed to influence the affective appraisal of the desktop VE, the finding that signs of crime were more frequently associated with negative feelings and the fact that women were more concerned about their personal safety than men suggest that the affective appraisal of the VE had at least some ecological validity.</p><sec id="s4a"><title>Limitations of this Study</title><p>The results show that visual cues in the VE signaling vandalism and crime indeed evoked negative affective appraisals, just like they do in reality <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc1">[48]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Lorenc2">[114]</xref>. However, except for broken car glass, the experimental items used in this study represent minor offenses and have no obvious connotations of violence or predatory crimes that may inspire concern of personal victimization. Indicators of serious (prostitution, drug selling, harassment) or even less serious (public drunkenness) social disorder may elicit crime related concerns more effectively, but these are typically not present in daylight hours <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Sampson1">[136]</xref> and are not easily implemented in experimental conditions.</p><p>The (physical and demographic) characteristics of lower socio-economic neighborhoods can mute the effects of disorder (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Perkins2">[112]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Schweitzer1">[137]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Foster1">[138]</xref>). A VE representing a higher socio-economic neighborhood was therefore selected, in the expectation that this type of environment would be more susceptible to the effects of disorder, resulting in larger differences between fear of crime levels in respectively the pleasant and unpleasant odor conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Begall1">[118]</xref>). However, the aesthetic appeal of the simulated neighborhood used in this study may also have muted the effects of the signs of disorder.</p><p>As noted before, the desktop VE and task used in this study were not designed to induce a strong sense of immersion or presence. As a result, the participants may have unconsciously associated the ambient scent with their physical environment and not so much with the VE they explored. Schifferstein and Blok <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Schifferstein1">[130]</xref> also argued that ambient scent is probably more diagnostic for the physical environment of an observer than for the particular items in that environment.</p></sec><sec id="s4b"><title>Suggestions for Future Research</title><p>The present study investigated the effects of ambient scent on the affective appraisal of a desktop VE with static contents. In future experiments the realism of the simulation can be enhanced by adding dynamic visual, auditory, olfactory and haptic features that interact with the user. Dynamic audio cues could include voices that shout or dogs that bark when participants walk by. Dynamic visual cues could be passing traffic (cars, motorbikes), virtual humans that drop litter, create graffiti, shout insults or make obscene gestures when approached, or dogs that growl at people passing by. In everyday life ambient smells are important and essential environmental cues that trigger a wide range of different emotions and associations. Dynamic olfactory cues could include location dependent smells like urine, sewage or garbage smells in alleys, or gasoline smells near cars <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Baus1">[93]</xref>. Finally, dynamic haptic cues could include sudden gusts of air when moving around a corner or constant breezes when walking through open spaces <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Noel1">[139]</xref>. Each of these modifications may serve to make the VE more effectively elicit cognitive and affective responses similar to those that users would have to corresponding real environments <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Riva1">[140]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Freeman1">[141]</xref>.</p><p>Participants in this study were not familiar with the urban area represented by the VE. Since it is known that scenes more effectively elicit affective feelings when they have personal relevance <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Walla2">[142]</xref>, it would be interesting to test whether ambient odors can affect the appraisal of scenes with high personal relevance. Personal relevance can for instance be achieved through background stories suggesting that the VE experience will have personal implications (e.g., a suggested follow-up task like a nighttime visit to the VE’s real world counterpart).</p><p>The present study tested only two different scents. A wider range of scents with various hedonic qualities should be investigated to assess whether olfactory cues can bias the affective appraisal of a desktop VE. In combination with gaze tracking, the use of multiple scents that are semantically related to the contents of a VE may help to assess whether olfactory cues can bias visual attention.</p><p>In simulation studies social incivilities inspire safety related concerns far more effectively than physical incivilities <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Park2">[3]</xref>, just like in reality <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-LaGrange1">[113]</xref>. In the current simulation social presence was merely implied through the occasional sound of voices, traffic, birds, music and hammering in the ambient sound track. There was no visual evidence of human or animal activity. The soundtrack played independently of the actions of the user and had no visual counterpart. It is known that ambient odor can significantly affect the way people interact in real life: people display more social behavior <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Liljenquist1">[57]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-James1">[60]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Baron2">[143]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Baron3">[144]</xref> and find each other more attractive <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-KirkSmith1">[145]</xref> in the presence of pleasant ambient odors, whereas they become more frustrated <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Rotton1">[70]</xref> and find each other less attractive <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Dematte1">[146]</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0078721-Todrank1">[147]</xref> in the presence of malodorants. Future studies should investigate whether these real-life effects of ambient odors also transfer to the interaction between users and avatars in a VE.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s5"><title>Data Availability</title><p>The experimental data and additional information on this study are deposited in the Dryad Repository: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.f37km">http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.f37km</ext-link>.</p></sec></body><back><ack><p>The authors greatly appreciate the helpful comments and suggestions of the anonymous reviewers. They also gratefully acknowledge the help of Yu Mei O with the data entry efforts.</p></ack><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="pone.0078721-Cozens1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Cozens</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Neal</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Whitaker</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hillier</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Investigating personal safety at railway stations using “virtual reality” technology</article-title>. <source>Facilties</source><volume>21</volume>: <fpage>188</fpage>–<lpage>194</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park1"><label>2</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Calvert</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brantingham</surname><given-names>PL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brantingham</surname><given-names>PJ</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>The use of virtual and mixed reality environments for urban behavioural studies</article-title>. <source>PsychNol J</source><volume>6</volume>: <fpage>119</fpage>–<lpage>130</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park2"><label>3</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Park AJ, Spicer V, Guterres M, Brantingham PL, Jenion G (2010) Testing perception of crime in a virtual environment. In: Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI). Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE Press. 7–12.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Toet1"><label>4</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Toet</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Schaik</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Effects of signals of disorder on fear of crime in real and virtual environments</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>32</volume>: <fpage>260</fpage>–<lpage>276</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Bishop1"><label>5</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bishop</surname><given-names>ID</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rohrmann</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Subjective responses to simulated and real environments: A comparison</article-title>. <source>Landscape and Urban Plan</source><volume>65</volume>: <fpage>261</fpage>–<lpage>277</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp1"><label>6</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Houtkamp JM, Schuurink EL, Toet A (2008) Thunderstorms in my computer: the effect of visual dynamics and sound in a 3D environment. In: Bannatyne, M and Counsell, J. editors. Proceedings of the International Conference on Visualisation in Built and Rural Environments BuiltViz’08. Los Alamitos, USA: IEEE Computer Society. 11–17.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Dinh1"><label>7</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Dinh HQ, Walker N, Hodges LF, Song C, Kobayashi A (1999) Evaluating the importance of multi-sensory input on memory and the sense of presence in virtual environments. In: Proceedings of the Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium. Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE Press. 222–228.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Washburn1"><label>8</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Washburn</surname><given-names>DA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jones</surname><given-names>LM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Satya</surname><given-names>RV</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bowers</surname><given-names>CA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cortes</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Olfactory use in virtual environment training</article-title>. <source>M & S Mag</source><volume>2</volume>: <fpage>19</fpage>–<lpage>25</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Tortell1"><label>9</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tortell</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Luigi</surname><given-names>DP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dozois</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bouchard</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Morie</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>The effects of scent and game play experience on memory of a virtual environment</article-title>. <source>Virtual Reality</source><volume>11</volume>: <fpage>61</fpage>–<lpage>68</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Wrzesniewski1"><label>10</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wrzesniewski</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>McCauley</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rozin</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Odor and affect: individual differences in the impact of odor on liking for places, things and people</article-title>. <source>Chem Sens</source><volume>24</volume>: <fpage>713</fpage>–<lpage>721</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Henshaw1"><label>11</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Henshaw V, Bruce N (2012) Smell and sound expectation and the ambiances of English cities. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Ambiances. Montreal, Canada. 449–454.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp2"><label>12</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Houtkamp</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Oostendorp</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Virtual vandalism. The effect of physical incivilities on the affective appraisal of 3D urban models</article-title>. <source>In: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference Information Visualization (IV’</source><volume>07)</volume>: <fpage>559</fpage>–<lpage>566</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp3"><label>13</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Houtkamp JM (2012) Affective appraisal of virtual environments [dissertation]. Utrecht, The Netherlands: University Utrecht.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Miller1"><label>14</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Miller</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Impact of situational factors on survey measured fear of crime</article-title>. <source>International Journal of Social Research Methodology</source><volume>11</volume>: <fpage>307</fpage>–<lpage>325</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Jackson1"><label>15</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Jackson</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Validating new measures of the fear of crime</article-title>. <source>International Journal of Social Research Methodology</source><volume>8</volume>: <fpage>297</fpage>–<lpage>315</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Nasar1"><label>16</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Nasar</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jones</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>Landscapes of fear and stress</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>29</volume>: <fpage>291</fpage>–<lpage>323</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Fisher1"><label>17</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Fisher</surname><given-names>BS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Nasar</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name> (<year>1992</year>) <article-title>Fear of crime in relation to three exterior site features: Prospect, refuge, and escape</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>24</volume>: <fpage>35</fpage>–<lpage>65</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Nasar2"><label>18</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Nasar</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Assessing perceptions of environments for active living</article-title>. <source>Am J Prev Med</source><volume>34</volume>: <fpage>357</fpage>–<lpage>363</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18374252</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Stamps1"><label>19</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Stamps</surname><given-names>AE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Environmental enclosure in urban settings</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>34</volume>: <fpage>781</fpage>–<lpage>794</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Wang1"><label>20</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Simulated walks through dangerous alleys: Impacts of features and progress on fear</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>26</volume>: <fpage>269</fpage>–<lpage>283</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Herzog1"><label>21</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Herzog</surname><given-names>TR</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Flynn-Smith</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2001</year>) <article-title>Preference and perceived danger as a function of the perceived curvature, length, and width of urban alleys</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>33</volume>: <fpage>653</fpage>–<lpage>666</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Andrews1"><label>22</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Andrews</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gatersleben</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Variations in perceptions of danger, fear and preference in a simulated natural environment</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>30</volume>: <fpage>473</fpage>–<lpage>481</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Hanyu1"><label>23</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hanyu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>Visual properties and affective appraisals in residential areas after dark</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>17</volume>: <fpage>301</fpage>–<lpage>315</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Hanyu2"><label>24</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hanyu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>Visual properties and affective appraisals in residential areas in daylight</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>20</volume>: <fpage>273</fpage>–<lpage>284</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Austin1"><label>25</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Austin</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sanders</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Graffiti and perceptions of safety: A pilot study using photographs and survey data</article-title>. <source>J Crim Just Pop Cult</source><volume>14</volume>: <fpage>292</fpage>–<lpage>316</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Stamps2"><label>26</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Stamps</surname><given-names>AE</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Use of static and dynamic media to simulate environments: a meta-analysis</article-title>. <source>Percept Motor Skills</source><volume>111</volume>: <fpage>355</fpage>–<lpage>364</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21162439</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Palmer1"><label>27</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Palmer</surname><given-names>JF</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hoffman</surname><given-names>RE</given-names></name> (<year>2001</year>) <article-title>Rating reliability and representation validity in scenic landscape assessments</article-title>. <source>Landscape and Urban Plan</source><volume>54</volume>: <fpage>149</fpage>–<lpage>161</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Nasar3"><label>28</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Nasar</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cubukcu</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Evaluative appraisals of environmental mystery and surprise</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>43</volume>: <fpage>387</fpage>–<lpage>414</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Kavakli1"><label>29</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Kavakli M, Kavakli K, Gao Y (2004) Crime prevention through environmental design in virtual reality. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual International CPTED Conference. Brisbane, Australia: International Security Management & Crime Prevention Institute. 1–11.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Cozens2"><label>30</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Cozens P, Waters J, Neale R (2002) A virtual reality approach to personal safety and the design of built environment facilties. In: Proceedings of the 18th ARCOM Annual Conference (Association of Researchers in Construction Management). 461–473.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Cozens3"><label>31</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Cozens</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Neale</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hillier</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Managing crime and the fear of crime at railway stations – A case study in South Wales (UK)</article-title>. <source>International Journal of Transport Management</source><volume>1</volume>: <fpage>121</fpage>–<lpage>132</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Cozens4"><label>32</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Cozens</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Neal</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hillier</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Whitaker</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Tackling crime and fear of crime while waiting at Britain’s railway stations</article-title>. <source>J Public Transp</source><volume>7</volume>: <fpage>23</fpage>–<lpage>42</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park3"><label>33</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Calvert</surname><given-names>TW</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>A social agent pedestrian model</article-title>. <source>Comp Anim Virtual Worlds</source><volume>19</volume>: <fpage>331</fpage>–<lpage>340</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park4"><label>34</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Park AJ (2008) Modeling the role of fear of crime in pedestrian navigation [dissertation]. Burnaby, BC, Canada: School of Interactive Arts and Technology, Simon Fraser University.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park5"><label>35</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Park AJ, Hwang E, Spicer V, Cheng C, Brantingham PL, <etal>et al</etal>. (2011) Testing elderly people’s fear of crime using a virtual environment. In: Proceedings of the 2011 European Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics (EISIC)IEEE. 63–69.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Park6"><label>36</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>AJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clare</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Spicer</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brantingham</surname><given-names>PL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Calvert</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Examining context-specific perceptions of risk: exploring the utility of “human-in-the-loop” simulation models for criminology</article-title>. <source>Journal of Experimental Criminology</source><volume>8</volume>: <fpage>29</fpage>–<lpage>47</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Rohrmann1"><label>37</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Rohrmann</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bishop</surname><given-names>ID</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>Subjective responses to computer simulations of urban environments</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>22</volume>: <fpage>319</fpage>–<lpage>331</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Zacharias1"><label>38</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Zacharias</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Exploratory spatial behaviour in real and virtual environments</article-title>. <source>Landscape and Urban Plan</source><volume>78</volume>: <fpage>1</fpage>–<lpage>13</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-CruzNeira1"><label>39</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Cruz-Neira</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sandin</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>DeFanti</surname><given-names>TA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kenyon</surname><given-names>RV</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hart</surname><given-names>JC</given-names></name> (<year>1992</year>) <article-title>The CAVE: audio visual experience automatic virtual environment</article-title>. <source>Communications of the ACM</source><volume>35</volume>: <fpage>64</fpage>–<lpage>72</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Lewis1"><label>40</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lewis</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Casello</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Groulx</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Effective environmental visualization for urban planning and design: Interdisciplinary reflections on a rapidly evolving technology</article-title>. <source>Journal of Urban Technology</source><volume>19</volume>: <fpage>85</fpage>–<lpage>106</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Dang1"><label>41</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Dang A, Liang W, Chi W (2012) Review of VR application in digital urban planning and managing. In: Shen, Z. editors. Geospatial Techniques in Urban Planning. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. 131–154.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Youngblut1"><label>42</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Youngblut C (2007) What a decade of experiments reveals about factors that influence the sense of presence: Latest findings. IDA Document D-3411.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-RodrguezArdura1"><label>43</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Rodrìguez-Ardura I, Martínez-López FJ (2013) Another look at ‘being there’ experiences in digital media: Exploring connections of telepresence with mental imagery. Computers in Human Behavior.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-van1"><label>44</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">van Hagen, M. (2011) Waiting experience at train stations. Delft, The Netherlands: Eburon.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Franz1"><label>45</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Franz</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Von der Heyde</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bulthoff</surname><given-names>HH</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>An empirical approach to the experience of architectural space in virtual reality: Exploring relations between features and affective appraisals of rectangular indoor spaces</article-title>. <source>Automation in Construction</source><volume>14</volume>: <fpage>165</fpage>–<lpage>172</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Russell1"><label>46</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Russell JA, Snodgrass J (1987) Emotion and the environment. In: Stokols, D and Altman, I. editors. Handbook of environmental psychology. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons. 245–280.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Gabriel1"><label>47</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Gabriel</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Greve</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>The psychology of fear of crime. Conceptual and methodological perspectives</article-title>. <source>British Journal of Criminology</source><volume>43</volume>: <fpage>600</fpage>–<lpage>614</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Lorenc1"><label>48</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lorenc</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clayton</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Neary</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Whitehead</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Petticrew</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Crime, fear of crime, environment, and mental health and wellbeing: Mapping review of theories and causal pathways</article-title>. <source>Health Place</source><volume>18</volume>: <fpage>757</fpage>–<lpage>765</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22542441</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp4"><label>49</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Houtkamp JM, van der Spek ED, Toet A (2007) The influence of lighting on the affective qualities of a virtual theater. In: Kieferle, J and Ehlers, K. editors. Predicting the Future. Proceedings of the Conference on Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe (eCAADe 2007). Frankfurt, Germany: eCAADe (Education in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe) and FH Wiesbaden/FH Frankfurt. 77–84.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Toet2"><label>50</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Toet</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van Welie</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Houtkamp</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Is a dark virtual environment scary?</article-title><source>CyberPsychol Beh</source><volume>12</volume>: <fpage>363</fpage>–<lpage>371</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp5"><label>51</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Houtkamp JM, Toet A (2012) Who’s afraid of virtual darkness: Affective appraisal of night-time virtual environments. In: Digital Landscape Architecture 2011/2012: GeoDesign and Teaching. Offenbach, Wichmann Verlag. 508–515.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Houtkamp6"><label>52</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Houtkamp</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Toet</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bos</surname><given-names>FA</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Task-relevant sound and user experience in computer-mediated firefighter training</article-title>. <source>Simulation & Gaming</source><volume>43</volume>: <fpage>778</fpage>–<lpage>802</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Herz1"><label>53</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Herz RS (2002) Influences of odor on mood and affective cognition. In: Rouby, C, Schaal, B, Dubois, D, Gervais, R, and Holley, A. editors. Olfaction, taste, and cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 160–177.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Chrea1"><label>54</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Chrea</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Grandjean</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Delplanque</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cayeux</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Le Calvé</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Mapping the semantic space for the subjective experience of emotional responses to odors</article-title>. <source>Chem Sens</source><volume>34</volume>: <fpage>49</fpage>–<lpage>62</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-VernetMaury1"><label>55</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Vernet-Maury</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Alaoui-Ismaïli</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dittmar</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Delhomme</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chanel</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Basic emotions induced by odorants: a new approach based on autonomic pattern results</article-title>. <source>J Auton Nerv Syst</source><volume>75</volume>: <fpage>176</fpage>–<lpage>183</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10189120</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Toffolo1"><label>56</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Toffolo</surname><given-names>MBJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smeets</surname><given-names>MAM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>van den Hout</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Proust revisited: odours as triggers of aversive memories</article-title>. <source>Cognition Emotion</source><volume>26</volume>: <fpage>83</fpage>–<lpage>92</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21547759</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Liljenquist1"><label>57</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Liljenquist</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Zhong</surname><given-names>C-B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Galinsky</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>The smell of virtue: clean scents promote reciprocity and charity</article-title>. <source>Psychol Sci</source><volume>21</volume>: <fpage>381</fpage>–<lpage>383</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20424074</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Baron1"><label>58</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Baron</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name> (<year>1990</year>) <article-title>Environmentally induced positive affect: Its impact on self-efficacy, task performance, negotiation, and conflict</article-title>. <source>J Appl Soc Psychol</source><volume>20</volume>: <fpage>368</fpage>–<lpage>384</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Holland1"><label>59</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Holland</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hendriks</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Aarts</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Smells like clean spirit. Nonconscious effects of scent on cognition and behavior</article-title>. <source>Psychol Sci</source><volume>16</volume>: <fpage>689</fpage>–<lpage>693</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16137254</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-James1"><label>60</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>James</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>The effects of odor on compliance and willingness to volunteer</article-title>. <source>J Undergrad Psychol Res</source><volume>1</volume>: <fpage>13</fpage>–<lpage>17</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Li1"><label>61</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Moallem</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Paller</surname><given-names>KA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Gottfried</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Subliminal smells can guide social preferences</article-title>. <source>Psychol Sci</source><volume>18</volume>: <fpage>1044</fpage>–<lpage>1049</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18031410</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Zald1"><label>62</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Zald</surname><given-names>DH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pardo</surname><given-names>JV</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: Amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation</article-title>. <source>Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A</source><volume>94</volume>: <fpage>4119</fpage>–<lpage>4124</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9108115</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Royet1"><label>63</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Royet</surname><given-names>JP</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Plailly</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Delon-Martin</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kareken</surname><given-names>DA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sege-barth</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>fMRI of emotional responses to odors: influence of hedonic valence and judgment, handedness, and gender</article-title>. <source>Neuroimage</source><volume>20</volume>: <fpage>713</fpage>–<lpage>728</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14568446</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Yeshurun1"><label>64</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Yeshurun</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sobel</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>An odor is not worth a thousand words: From multidimensional odors to unidimensional odor objects</article-title>. <source>Annu Rev Psychol</source><volume>61</volume>: <fpage>219</fpage>–<lpage>241</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19958179</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Rtiveau1"><label>65</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Rétiveau</surname><given-names>AN</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Chambers</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>MILLIKEN</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Common and specific effects of fine fragrances on the mood of women</article-title>. <source>J Sens Stud</source><volume>19</volume>: <fpage>373</fpage>–<lpage>394</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schiffman1"><label>66</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Schiffman</surname><given-names>SS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sattely-Miller</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Suggs</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Graham</surname><given-names>BG</given-names></name> (<year>1995</year>) <article-title>The effect of pleasant odors and hormone status on mood of women at midlife</article-title>. <source>Brain Res Bull</source><volume>36</volume>: <fpage>19</fpage>–<lpage>29</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7882046</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schiffman2"><label>67</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Schiffman</surname><given-names>SS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sattely Miller</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Suggs</surname><given-names>MS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Graham</surname><given-names>BG</given-names></name> (<year>1995</year>) <article-title>The effect of environmental odors emanating from commercial swine operations on the mood of nearby residents</article-title>. <source>Brain Res Bull</source><volume>37</volume>: <fpage>369</fpage>–<lpage>375</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7620910</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Banks1"><label>68</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Banks</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ng</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jones-Gotman</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Does good+good = better? A pilot study on the effect of combining hedonically valenced smells and images</article-title>. <source>Neurosci Lett</source><volume>514</volume>: <fpage>71</fpage>–<lpage>76</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22395085</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-vanReekum1"><label>69</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>van Reekum</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Berg</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Frijda</surname><given-names>NH</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Cross-modal preference acquisition: Evaluative conditioning of pictures by affective olfactory and auditory cues</article-title>. <source>Cognition Emotion</source><volume>13</volume>: <fpage>831</fpage>–<lpage>836</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Rotton1"><label>70</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Rotton</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>1983</year>) <article-title>Affective and cognitive consequences of malodorous pollution</article-title>. <source>Basic and Applied Social Psychology</source><volume>4</volume>: <fpage>171</fpage>–<lpage>191</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Walla1"><label>71</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Walla</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Deecke</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Odours influence visually induced emotion: Behavior and neuroimaging</article-title>. <source>Sensors</source><volume>10</volume>: <fpage>8185</fpage>–<lpage>8197</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22163649</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Bar1"><label>72</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bar</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Visual objects in context</article-title>. <source>Nat Rev Neurosci</source><volume>5</volume>: <fpage>617</fpage>–<lpage>629</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15263892</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Morrin1"><label>73</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Morrin</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ratneshwar</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>The impact of ambient scent on evaluation, attention, and memory for familiar and unfamiliar brands</article-title>. <source>J Bus Res</source><volume>49</volume>: <fpage>157</fpage>–<lpage>165</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Henshaw2"><label>74</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Henshaw V (2013) Researching urban olfactory environments and place through sensewalking. In: Presented at the PhD Colloqium on “Understanding Places”. Available: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://home.wmin.ac.uk/docs/SABE/Events/Victoria_Henshaw_et_al.pdf">http://home.wmin.ac.uk/docs/SABE/Events/Victoria_Henshaw_et_al.pdf</ext-link>: University of Westminster, UK.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Ward1"><label>75</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Ward</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Davies</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kooijman</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Olfaction and the retail environment: examining the influence of ambient scent</article-title>. <source>Service Business</source><volume>1</volume>: <fpage>295</fpage>–<lpage>316</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Spangenberg1"><label>76</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Spangenberg</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Crowley</surname><given-names>AE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Henderson</surname><given-names>PW</given-names></name> (<year>1996</year>) <article-title>Improving the store environment: do olfactory cues affect evaluations and behaviors?</article-title><source>J Marketing</source><volume>60</volume>: <fpage>67</fpage>–<lpage>80</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Chebat1"><label>77</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Chebat</surname><given-names>J-C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Michon</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Impact of ambient odors on mall shoppers’ emotions, cognition, and spending: A test of competitive causal theories</article-title>. <source>J Bus Res</source><volume>56</volume>: <fpage>529</fpage>–<lpage>539</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Isen1"><label>78</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Isen</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Shalker</surname><given-names>TE</given-names></name> (<year>1982</year>) <article-title>“The Effect of Feeling State on Evaluation of Positive, Neutral and Negative Stimuli: When You ‘Accentuate the Positive,’ Do You ‘Eliminate the Negative’. Social Psychology Quarterly</article-title>. <volume>45</volume>: <fpage>58</fpage>–<lpage>63</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schwarz1"><label>79</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Schwarz</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clore</surname><given-names>GL</given-names></name> (<year>1983</year>) <article-title>Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: informative and directive functions of affective states</article-title>. <source>J Pers Soc Psychol</source><volume>45</volume>: <fpage>513</fpage>–<lpage>523</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schwarz2"><label>80</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Schwarz N (1990) Feelings as information: Informative and motivational functions of affective states. In: Sorrentino, R M. and Higgins, E T. editors. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior. New York, USA: Guilford Press. 527–561.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Lerner1"><label>81</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lerner</surname><given-names>JS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Keltner</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>Beyond valence: toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice</article-title>. <source>Cognition Emotion</source><volume>14</volume>: <fpage>473</fpage>–<lpage>493</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Russell2"><label>82</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Russell</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion</article-title>. <source>Psychol Rev</source><volume>110</volume>: <fpage>145</fpage>–<lpage>172</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12529060</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Clore1"><label>83</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Clore</surname><given-names>GL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Huntsinger</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>How emotions inform judgment and regulate thought</article-title>. <source>Trends Cogn Sci</source><volume>11</volume>: <fpage>393</fpage>–<lpage>399</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17698405</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Michael1"><label>84</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Michael</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jacquot</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Millot</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brand</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Ambient odors modulate visual attentional capture</article-title>. <source>Neurosci Lett</source><volume>352</volume>: <fpage>221</fpage>–<lpage>225</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14625024</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Michael2"><label>85</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Michael</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jacquot</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Millot</surname><given-names>J-L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Brand</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Ambient odors influence the amplitude and time course of visual distraction</article-title>. <source>Behav Neurosci</source><volume>119</volume>: <fpage>708</fpage>–<lpage>715</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15998191</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Seigneuric1"><label>86</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Seigneuric</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Durand</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Jiang</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Baudouin</surname><given-names>JY</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Schaal</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>The nose tells it to the eyes: crossmodal associations between olfaction and vision</article-title>. <source>Perception</source><volume>39</volume>: <fpage>1541</fpage>–<lpage>1554</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21313950</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Seo1"><label>87</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Seo</surname><given-names>HS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Roidl</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Müller</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Negoias</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Odors enhance visual attention to congruent objects</article-title>. <source>Appetite</source><volume>54</volume>: <fpage>544</fpage>–<lpage>549</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20176065</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Tomono1"><label>88</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Tomono</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kanda</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Otake</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Effect of smell presentation on individuals with regard to eye catching and memory</article-title>. <source>Electron Comm Jpn</source><volume>94</volume>: <fpage>9</fpage>–<lpage>19</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Todd1"><label>89</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Todd</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Cunningham</surname><given-names>WA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Anderson</surname><given-names>AK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Thompson</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Affect-biased attention as emotion regulation</article-title>. <source>Trends Cogn Sci</source><volume>16</volume>: <fpage>365</fpage>–<lpage>372</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22717469</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Leppnen1"><label>90</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Leppänen</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hietanen</surname><given-names>JK</given-names></name> (<year>2003</year>) <article-title>Affect and face perception: odors modulate the recognition advantage of happy faces</article-title>. <source>Emotion</source><volume>3</volume>: <fpage>315</fpage>–<lpage>326</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14674826</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Ehrlichman1"><label>91</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Ehrlichman</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Halpern</surname><given-names>JN</given-names></name> (<year>1988</year>) <article-title>Affect and memory: Effects of pleasant and unpleasant odors on retrieval of happy and unhappy memories</article-title>. <source>J Pers Soc Psychol</source><volume>55</volume>: <fpage>769</fpage>–<lpage>779</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3210144</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Krusemark1"><label>92</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Krusemark</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name> (<year>2012</year>) <article-title>Enhanced olfactory sensory perception of threat in anxiety: An event-related fMRI study</article-title>. <source>Chem Percept</source><volume>5</volume>: <fpage>37</fpage>–<lpage>45</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Baus1"><label>93</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Baus</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bouchard</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>The sense of olfaction: Its characteristics and its possible applications in virtual environments</article-title>. <source>J CyberTherapy Rehab</source><volume>3</volume>: <fpage>31</fpage>–<lpage>50</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Oshima1"><label>94</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Oshima C, Wada A, Ando H, Matsuo N, Abe S, Yanigada Y (2007) Improved delivery of olfactory stimukus to keep drivers awake. In: Workshop on DSP for in-Vehicle and Mobile Systems.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Yanigada1"><label>95</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Yanigada Y, Kawato S, Noma H, Tetsutani N, Tomono A (2003) A nose-tracked, personal olfactory display. In: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques. ACM SIGGRAPH 2003 Sketches & Applications. New York, USA: ACM. 1.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Yanigada2"><label>96</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Yanigada Y, Adachi T, Miyasato T, Tomono A, Kawato S, <etal>et al</etal>. (2005) Integrating a projection-based olfactory display with interactive audio-visual contents. In: HCI International 2005. Las Vegas, USA.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Yanigada3"><label>97</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Yanigada Y, Kawato S, Noma H, Tomono A, Tetsutani N (2004) Projection-based olfactory display with nose tracking. In: Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality 2004. Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE. 43–50.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Yu1"><label>98</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Yu J, Yanigada Y, Kawato S, Tetsutani N (2003) Air cannon design for projection-based olfactory display. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Artificial Reality and Telexistence. 136–142.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Richard1"><label>99</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Richard</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Tijou</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Richard</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ferrier</surname><given-names>J-L</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>Multi-modal virtual environments for education with haptic and olfactory feedback</article-title>. <source>Virtual Reality</source><volume>10</volume>: <fpage>207</fpage>–<lpage>225</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Riener1"><label>100</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Riener R, Harders M (2012) Olfactory and gustatory aspects. In: Riener, Robert and Harders, Matthias, editors. Virtual Reality in Medicine. London: Springer. 149–159.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Ghinea1"><label>101</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Ghinea</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ademoye</surname><given-names>OA</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Olfaction-enhanced multimedia: perspectives and challenges</article-title>. <source>Multimed Tools Appl</source><volume>55</volume>: <fpage>601</fpage>–<lpage>626</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Chalmers1"><label>102</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Chalmers</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Debattista</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ramic-Brkic</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Towards high-fidelity multi-sensory virtual environments</article-title>. <source>Visual Comput</source><volume>25</volume>: <fpage>1101</fpage>–<lpage>1108</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Davis1"><label>103</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Davis SB, Davies G, haddad R, Lai M-K (2007) Smell Me: Engaging with an interactive olfactory game. In: Bryan-Kinns, N, Blanford, A, Curzn, P, and Nigay, L. editors. People and Computers XX – Engage. Proceedings of HCI 2006. London: Springer. 25–40.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Mochizuki1"><label>104</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Mochizuki A, Amada T, Sawa S, Takeda T, Motoyashiki S, <etal>et al</etal>. (2004) Fragra: a visual-olfactory VR game. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques ACM SIGGRAPH 2004 Sketches. New York, NY, USA: ACM. 123.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Bordnick1"><label>105</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bordnick</surname><given-names>PS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Traylor</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Copp</surname><given-names>HL</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Graap</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Carter</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Assessing reactivity to virtual reality alcohol based cues</article-title>. <source>Addictive Behaviors</source><volume>33</volume>: <fpage>743</fpage>–<lpage>756</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18282663</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Traylor1"><label>106</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Traylor</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bordnick</surname><given-names>PS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Carter</surname><given-names>BL</given-names></name> (<year>2009</year>) <article-title>Using virtual reality to assess young adult smokers’ attention to cues</article-title>. <source>CyberPsychol Beh</source><volume>12</volume>: <fpage>373</fpage>–<lpage>378</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Gerardi1"><label>107</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Gerardi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Olasov Rothbaum</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ressler</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Heekin</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rizzo</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Virtual reality exposure therapy using a virtual Iraq: Case report</article-title>. <source>J Trauma Stress</source><volume>21</volume>: <fpage>209</fpage>–<lpage>213</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18404648</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Taylor1"><label>108</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Taylor RB (1999) The incivilities thesis: Theory, measurement, and policy. In: Langworthy, R H. editors. Measuring What Matters: Proceedings From the Policing Research Institute Meetings. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 65–88.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Taylor2"><label>109</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>Social order and disorder of street blocks and neighborhoods: Ecology, microecology, and the systemic model of social disorganization</article-title>. <source>J Res Crime Delinq</source><volume>34</volume>: <fpage>113</fpage>–<lpage>155</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Perkins1"><label>110</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Perkins</surname><given-names>DD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name> (<year>1996</year>) <article-title>Ecological assessments of community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical implications</article-title>. <source>Am J Commun Psychol</source><volume>24</volume>: <fpage>63</fpage>–<lpage>107</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Skogan1"><label>111</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Skogan W (1990) Disorder and decline: crime and the spiral of decay in american cities. Berkeley, CA, USA: University of California Press.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Perkins2"><label>112</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Perkins</surname><given-names>DD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Meeks</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Taylor</surname><given-names>RB</given-names></name> (<year>1992</year>) <article-title>The physical environment of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and disorder: Implications for theory and measurement</article-title>. <source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>12</volume>: <fpage>21</fpage>–<lpage>34</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-LaGrange1"><label>113</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>LaGrange</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Ferraro</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Supancic</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>1992</year>) <article-title>Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities</article-title>. <source>J Res Crime Delinq</source><volume>29</volume>: <fpage>311</fpage>–<lpage>334</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Lorenc2"><label>114</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Lorenc</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Petticrew</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Whitehead</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Neary</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Clayton</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2013</year>) <article-title>Fear of crime and the environment: systematic review of UK qualitative evidence</article-title>. <source>BMC Public Health</source><volume>13</volume>: <fpage>496</fpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">23705936</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Bitner1"><label>115</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Bitner</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name> (<year>1992</year>) <article-title>Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees</article-title>. <source>J Marketing</source><volume>56</volume>: <fpage>57</fpage>–<lpage>71</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Bell1"><label>116</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Bell PA, Greene TC, Fisher JD, Baum A (2010) Environmental psychology. 5th Ed. London, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Brosch1"><label>117</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Brosch</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Pourtois</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sander</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>The perception and categorisation of emotional stimuli: A review</article-title>. <source>Cognition Emotion</source><volume>24</volume>: <fpage>377</fpage>–<lpage>400</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Begall1"><label>118</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Begall K, Kiewiet J, Sapulete S, Veldhuis T (2006) Broken windows: The effect of disorder on fear [dissertation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: University of Groningen.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Steenbeek1"><label>119</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Steenbeek</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hipp</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>A longitudinal test of social disorganization theory : Feedback effects among cohesion, social control, and disorder</article-title>. <source>Criminology</source><volume>49</volume>: <fpage>833</fpage>–<lpage>871</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Caughy1"><label>120</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Caughy</surname><given-names>MO</given-names></name>, <name><surname>O’Campo</surname><given-names>PJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Patterson</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>2001</year>) <article-title>A brief observational measure for urban neighborhoods</article-title>. <source>Health Place</source><volume>7</volume>: <fpage>225</fpage>–<lpage>236</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11439257</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Hietanen1"><label>121</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Hietanen</surname><given-names>JK</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Klemettilä</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kettunen</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Korpela</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>What is a nice smile like that doing in a place like this? Automatic affective responses to environments influence the recognition of facial expressions</article-title>. <source>Psychol Res</source><volume>71</volume>: <fpage>539</fpage>–<lpage>552</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16642346</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Smardona1"><label>122</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Smardona</surname><given-names>RC</given-names></name> (<year>1988</year>) <article-title>Perception and aesthetics of the urban environment: Review of the role of vegetation</article-title>. <source>Landscape and Urban Plan</source><volume>15</volume>: <fpage>85</fpage>–<lpage>106</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Brkic1"><label>123</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Brkic BR, Chalmers A, Boulanger K, Pattanaik S, Covington J (2009) Cross-modal affects of smell on the real-time rendering of grass. In: Spencer, S N. editors. Proceedings of the 2009 Spring Conference on Computer Graphics SCGG ‘09. New York, USA: ACM. 161–166.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Elmes1"><label>124</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Elmes</surname><given-names>DG</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Lorig</surname><given-names>TS</given-names></name> (<year>2008</year>) <article-title>Adequacy of control comparisons in olfactory experiments</article-title>. <source>Chem Percept</source><volume>1</volume>: <fpage>247</fpage>–<lpage>252</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Sela1"><label>125</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Sela</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Sobel</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Human olfaction: a constant state of change-blindness</article-title>. <source>Exp Brain Res</source><volume>205</volume>: <fpage>13</fpage>–<lpage>29</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20603708</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Blbaum1"><label>126</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Blöbaum</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Hunecke</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2005</year>) <article-title>Perceived danger in urban public space. The impact of physical features and personal factors</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>37</volume>: <fpage>465</fpage>–<lpage>486</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Spielberger1"><label>127</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Spielberger CD (1983) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for adults.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-World1"><label>128</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><collab>World Medical Association</collab> (<year>2000</year>) <article-title>World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects</article-title>. <source>J Am Med Assoc</source><volume>284</volume>: <fpage>3043</fpage>–<lpage>3045</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Teller1"><label>129</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Teller</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Dennis</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>The effect of ambient scent on consumers’ perception, emotions and behaviour: A critical review</article-title>. <source>Journal of Marketing Management</source><volume>28</volume>: <fpage>14</fpage>–<lpage>36</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schifferstein1"><label>130</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Schifferstein</surname><given-names>HNJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Blok</surname><given-names>ST</given-names></name> (<year>2002</year>) <article-title>The signal function of thematically (in)congruent ambient scents in a retail environment</article-title>. <source>Chem Sens</source><volume>27</volume>: <fpage>539</fpage>–<lpage>549</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Armstrong1"><label>131</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Armstrong</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Katz</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2010</year>) <article-title>Further evidence on the discriminant validity of perceptual incivilities measures</article-title>. <source>Justice Q</source><volume>27</volume>: <fpage>280</fpage>–<lpage>304</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Worrall1"><label>132</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Worrall</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name> (<year>2006</year>) <article-title>The discriminant validity of perceptual incivility measures</article-title>. <source>Justice Q</source><volume>23</volume>: <fpage>360</fpage>–<lpage>383</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Phillips1"><label>133</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Phillips</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>2004</year>) <article-title>Emotional and behavioral responses to everyday incivility: challenging the fear/avoidance paradigm</article-title>. <source>J Sociol</source><volume>40</volume>: <fpage>378</fpage>–<lpage>399</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Warr1"><label>134</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Warr</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>1984</year>) <article-title>Fear of victimization: why are women and the elderly more afraid?</article-title><source>Soc Sci Quart</source><volume>65</volume>: <fpage>681</fpage>–<lpage>702</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Warr2"><label>135</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Warr</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>1990</year>) <article-title>Dangerous situations: social context and fear of victimization</article-title>. <source>Soc Forces</source><volume>68</volume>: <fpage>891</fpage>–<lpage>907</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Sampson1"><label>136</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Sampson</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Raudenbush</surname><given-names>SW</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>Systematic social observation of public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods</article-title>. <source>Am J Sociol</source><volume>105</volume>: <fpage>603</fpage>–<lpage>651</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Schweitzer1"><label>137</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Schweitzer</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Kim</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Macklin</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name> (<year>1999</year>) <article-title>The impact of the built environment of crime and fear of crime in urban neighborhoods</article-title>. <source>Journal of Urban Technology</source><volume>6</volume>: <fpage>59</fpage>–<lpage>73</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Foster1"><label>138</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Foster</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Giles-Corti</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Knuiman</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name> (<year>2011</year>) <article-title>Creating safe walkable streetscapes: Does house design and upkeep discourage incivilities in suburban neighbourhoods?</article-title><source>J Environ Psychol</source><volume>31</volume>: <fpage>79</fpage>–<lpage>88</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Noel1"><label>139</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Noel S, Dumoulin S, Whalen T, Ward M, Stewart JA, <etal>et al</etal>. (2004) A breeze enhances presence in a virtual environment. In: Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE International Workshop on Haptic, Audio and Visual Environments and Their Applications (HAVE 2004). Piscataway, NJ, USA: IEEE Press. 63–68.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Riva1"><label>140</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Riva</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Mantovani</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Capideville</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Preziosa</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Morganti</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>, <etal>et al</etal> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Affective interactions using virtual reality: The link between presence and emotions</article-title>. <source>CyberPsychol Beh</source><volume>10</volume>: <fpage>45</fpage>–<lpage>56</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Freeman1"><label>141</label><mixed-citation publication-type="other">Freeman J, Lessiter J, Pugh K, Keogh E (2005) When presence and emotion are related, and when they are not. In: Proceedings of the 8<sup>th</sup> Annual International Workshop on Presence (PRESENCE 2005)International Society for Presence Research. 213–219.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Walla2"><label>142</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Walla</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rosser</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Scharfenberger</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Duregger</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Bosshard</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name> (<year>2013</year>) <article-title>Emotion ownership: Different effects on explicit ratings and implicit responses</article-title>. <source>Psychology</source><volume>4</volume>: <fpage>213</fpage>–<lpage>216</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Baron2"><label>143</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Baron</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name> (<year>1997</year>) <article-title>The sweet smell of … helping: effects of pleasant ambient fragrance on prosocial behavior in shopping malls</article-title>. <source>Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</source><volume>23</volume>: <fpage>498</fpage>–<lpage>503</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Baron3"><label>144</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Baron</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Thomley</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name> (<year>1994</year>) <article-title>A whiff of reality. Positive affect as a potential mediator of the effects of pleasant fragrances on task performance and helping</article-title>. <source>Environ Behav</source><volume>26</volume>: <fpage>766</fpage>–<lpage>784</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-KirkSmith1"><label>145</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Kirk-Smith</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Booth</surname><given-names>DA</given-names></name> (<year>1987</year>) <article-title>Chemoreception in human behaviour: experimental analysis of the social effects of fragrances</article-title>. <source>Chem Sens</source><volume>12</volume>: <fpage>159</fpage>–<lpage>166</lpage></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Dematte1"><label>146</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Dematte</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Osterbauer</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Spence</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name> (<year>2007</year>) <article-title>Olfactory cues modulate facial attractiveness</article-title>. <source>Chemical Senses</source><volume>32</volume>: <fpage>603</fpage>–<lpage>610</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17507456</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref><ref id="pone.0078721-Todrank1"><label>147</label><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><name><surname>Todrank</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Byrnes</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Wrzesniewski</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>, <name><surname>Rozin</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name> (<year>1995</year>) <article-title>Odors can change preferences for people in photographs: A cross-modal evaluative conditioning study with olfactory USs and visual CSs</article-title>. <source>Learn Motiv</source><volume>26</volume>: <fpage>116</fpage>–<lpage>140</lpage></mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Ticri/CIDE/explor/HapticV1/Data/Pmc/Curation
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 002315 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Curation/biblio.hfd -nk 002315 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Ticri/CIDE
|area= HapticV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Curation
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:3826728
|texte= No Effect of Ambient Odor on the Affective Appraisal of a Desktop Virtual Environment with Signs of Disorder
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Curation/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:24250810" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Curation/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a HapticV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.23. |  |