Time changes with feeling of speed: an embodied perspective
Identifieur interne : 001E38 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 001E37; suivant : 001E39Time changes with feeling of speed: an embodied perspective
Auteurs : Zhijie Zhang [République populaire de Chine] ; Lina Jia [Allemagne] ; Weicong Ren [République populaire de Chine]Source :
- Frontiers in Neurorobotics [ 1662-5218 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
The speed of moving stimuli can bias duration perception. Here, we investigated whether words describing different speeds influence subjective duration estimation in a temporal bisection task. Duration estimations of two different types of speed words (fast– vs. slow–speed words) were compared. We found that the time bisection point was significantly lower for fast-speed words than for slow-speed words, suggesting that the durations of fast-speed words were overestimated compared to the slow-speed words. In contrast, fast- and slow-speed words did not significantly differ in just noticeable differences and Weber fractions, indicating that the types of speed words did not influence the sensitivity of duration estimation. These results provide new evidence to support the theory of embodied cognition in the context of implicit meaning of a speed word.
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DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2014.00014
PubMed: 24723884
PubMed Central: 3973908
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Time changes with feeling of speed: an embodied perspective</title><author><name sortKey="Zhang, Zhijie" sort="Zhang, Zhijie" uniqKey="Zhang Z" first="Zhijie" last="Zhang">Zhijie Zhang</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><institution>Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University</institution><country>Shijiazhuang, China</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jia, Lina" sort="Jia, Lina" uniqKey="Jia L" first="Lina" last="Jia">Lina Jia</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><institution>Experimental Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</institution><country>Munich, Germany</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ren, Weicong" sort="Ren, Weicong" uniqKey="Ren W" first="Weicong" last="Ren">Weicong Ren</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><institution>Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University</institution><country>Shijiazhuang, China</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24723884</idno><idno type="pmc">3973908</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3973908</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3973908</idno><idno type="doi">10.3389/fnbot.2014.00014</idno><date when="2014">2014</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">001E38</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">001E38</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Time changes with feeling of speed: an embodied perspective</title><author><name sortKey="Zhang, Zhijie" sort="Zhang, Zhijie" uniqKey="Zhang Z" first="Zhijie" last="Zhang">Zhijie Zhang</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><institution>Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University</institution><country>Shijiazhuang, China</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jia, Lina" sort="Jia, Lina" uniqKey="Jia L" first="Lina" last="Jia">Lina Jia</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><institution>Experimental Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</institution><country>Munich, Germany</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ren, Weicong" sort="Ren, Weicong" uniqKey="Ren W" first="Weicong" last="Ren">Weicong Ren</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><institution>Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University</institution><country>Shijiazhuang, China</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">République populaire de Chine</country><wicri:regionArea></wicri:regionArea><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff region in country</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Frontiers in Neurorobotics</title><idno type="eISSN">1662-5218</idno><imprint><date when="2014">2014</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The speed of moving stimuli can bias duration perception. Here, we investigated whether words describing different speeds influence subjective duration estimation in a temporal bisection task. Duration estimations of two different types of speed words (fast– vs. slow–speed words) were compared. We found that the time bisection point was significantly lower for fast-speed words than for slow-speed words, suggesting that the durations of fast-speed words were overestimated compared to the slow-speed words. In contrast, fast- and slow-speed words did not significantly differ in just noticeable differences and Weber fractions, indicating that the types of speed words did not influence the sensitivity of duration estimation. These results provide new evidence to support the theory of embodied cognition in the context of implicit meaning of a speed word.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Au, R K C" uniqKey="Au R">R. K. C. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Front Neurorobot</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Front Neurorobot</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Front. Neurorobot.</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Frontiers in Neurorobotics</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1662-5218</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Frontiers Media S.A.</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24723884</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3973908</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fnbot.2014.00014</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Original Research Article</subject></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Time changes with feeling of speed: an embodied perspective</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Zhang</surname><given-names>Zhijie</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="fn001"><sup>*</sup></xref><uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://community.frontiersin.org/people/u/83818"></uri></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Jia</surname><given-names>Lina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://community.frontiersin.org/people/u/84792"></uri></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ren</surname><given-names>Weicong</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1"><sup>1</sup><institution>Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University</institution><country>Shijiazhuang, China</country></aff><aff id="aff2"><sup>2</sup><institution>Experimental Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</institution><country>Munich, Germany</country></aff><author-notes><fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Edited by: <italic>Sylvie Droit-Volet, Université Blaise Pascal, France</italic></p></fn><fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Reviewed by: <italic>Nathalie Mella, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Erich K. Grommet, Queens College – City University of New York, USA; Blaise Pascal University, France</italic></p></fn><corresp id="fn001">*Correspondence: <italic>Zhijie Zhang, Department of Psychology, Hebei Normal University, HEB311, Shijiazhuang, China e-mail: <email xlink:type="simple">zhang.zhijie99@gmail.com</email></italic></corresp><fn fn-type="other" id="fn002"><p>This article was submitted to the journal Frontiers in Neurorobotics.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epreprint"><day>13</day><month>11</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>27</day><month>3</month><year>2014</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2014</year></pub-date><volume>8</volume><elocation-id>14</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>30</day><month>10</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>09</day><month>3</month><year>2014</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2014 Zhang, Jia and Ren.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2014</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"><license-p> This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>The speed of moving stimuli can bias duration perception. Here, we investigated whether words describing different speeds influence subjective duration estimation in a temporal bisection task. Duration estimations of two different types of speed words (fast– vs. slow–speed words) were compared. We found that the time bisection point was significantly lower for fast-speed words than for slow-speed words, suggesting that the durations of fast-speed words were overestimated compared to the slow-speed words. In contrast, fast- and slow-speed words did not significantly differ in just noticeable differences and Weber fractions, indicating that the types of speed words did not influence the sensitivity of duration estimation. These results provide new evidence to support the theory of embodied cognition in the context of implicit meaning of a speed word.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>motion</kwd><kwd>duration</kwd><kwd>speed words</kwd><kwd>embodiment</kwd><kwd>time perception</kwd></kwd-group><counts><fig-count count="2"></fig-count><table-count count="0"></table-count><equation-count count="0"></equation-count><ref-count count="34"></ref-count><page-count count="4"></page-count><word-count count="0"></word-count></counts></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>INTRODUCTION</title><p>Time is an integral part of our daily life. All our experiences were carried by the river of time. Time perception is often influenced by subjective factors, such as cognitive processes, emotion, or personality (see review, <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>; <xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">Wittmann and van Wassenhove, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>). Although as a subjective experience, time perception is also influenced by physical characteristics of stimuli, such as movement.</p><p>Movement-related factors, such as the moving speed of a stimulus, have been demonstrated to bias time perception (<xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">Brown, 1995</xref>; <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">Wittmann et al., 2010</xref>; <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Matthews, 2011</xref>; <xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">Au et al., 2012</xref>). Specifically, <xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">Brown (1995)</xref> found that, in the range of seconds, visual moving stimuli were estimated longer in duration relative to static stimuli, and fast-speed stimuli were perceived as longer than slow-speed stimuli for durations. This phenomenon was also observed in sub-second time range (<xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">Au et al., 2012</xref>).</p><p>Time perception was also biased by embodiment, another movement-related factor (<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>; <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>; <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">Wang and Jiang, 2012</xref>). <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al. (2011)</xref> reported that the estimation on how long a picture of body posture is presented depended on what body posture is in that picture. Such an effect was interpreted in terms of embodied theories of cognition, which assumes that cognition is grounded in body–environment interactions and abstract concepts are represented in the body’s sensorimotor experiences. Embodied simulation involves specific sensory reactions of physical states (e.g., imitation) corresponding to the abstract concepts (e.g., the movement meaning of a body picture) (<xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">Barsalou, 2003</xref>; <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">Barsalou and Wiemer-Hastings, 2005</xref>). In other words, embodiment refers to actual bodily states and to simulations of experience involving perception, action, and introspection in the brain (<xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">Niedenthal et al., 2005</xref>). One typical example is the imitation of emotional facial expression. When viewing emotional facial expressions, observers often spontaneously imitate them by activating the corresponding facial muscles (<xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">Dimberg, 1982</xref>). Thus, when participants view and embody stimuli with action meanings, their motor systems are activated, which in turn changes time perception.</p><p>Movement effects on subjective duration estimation can be explained within the frame of the internal clock model (e.g., <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>; <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Matthews, 2011</xref>; <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>). According to this model, time information is recorded in an internal clock composed of three parts: a pacemaker that emits pulses at a regular rate, a switch controlling the start and the stop of timing, and an accumulator that receives the pulses transmitted from the switch (<xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">Treisman, 1963</xref>; <xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">Gibbon et al., 1984</xref>; <xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">Zakay and Block, 1996</xref>). Time perception is associated with the number of pulses accumulated in the accumulator. Thus, movements can change duration estimation possibly by mediating the internal pacemaker speed with more pulses emitted in the unit time for a moving stimulus than a stationary stimulus (<xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>). One explanation to this increased clock processing speed is the arousal level (<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>). As for the role of embodiment on time perception, researchers assume that embodiment of stimuli related to movement may trigger high arousal, which in turn speeds up the clock processing (<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>). It has been revealed that imitation of emotional stimuli can modulate arousal levels (<xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">Vaughan and Lanzetta, 1981</xref>; <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">Zuckerman et al., 1981</xref>). Thus, embodiment might affect time perception by mediating arousal. It is also possible that moving stimuli capture more attention due to their salience. Attention controls switch latency and the closure state of switch. When more attention is given to the processing of moving stimuli, more temporal pulses would be accumulated and the perceived duration is extended (<xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">Yarrow et al., 2004</xref>; <xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">Au et al., 2012</xref>).</p><p>The present study aimed to investigate whether the implicit motion information implied in speed words would affect duration perception. Based on the theory of embodied cognition, we predicted that the duration of fast-speed words would be overestimated compared with slow-speed words.</p></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods" id="s1"><title>MATERIALS AND METHODS</title><sec><title>PARTICIPANTS</title><p>Thirty-two volunteers (mean age = 23.47 years, SD = 2.14, 14 male) from Hebei Normal University participated in this experiment. All participants were right-handed and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. All participants were given written informed consent approved by the ethical committee of Hebei Normal University.</p></sec><sec><title>MATERIALS</title><p>Visual stimuli were presented on a 17-inch CRT color monitor with a screen resolution of 800 pixels × 600 pixels and a refresh rate of 75 Hz. The viewing distance was 60 cm and constant throughout the experiment. Visual stimuli were white and shown on black background. Standard visual stimuli were squares (2 cm × 2 cm). Comparison stimuli involved two types of speed words (36-point Courier New) in Chinese words: five fast-speed words (<inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i001.jpg"></inline-graphic>-gallop, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i002.jpg"></inline-graphic>-run like the wind, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i003.jpg"></inline-graphic>-rapid, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i004.jpg"></inline-graphic>-fast like flying, and <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i005.jpg"></inline-graphic>-hurried at a great speed ) and five slow-speed words (<inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i006.jpg"></inline-graphic>-limp, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i007.jpg"></inline-graphic>-slow, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i008.jpg"></inline-graphic>-sluggish, <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i009.jpg"></inline-graphic>-gradual, and <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i010.jpg"></inline-graphic>-creep). These words were selected based on a pilot experiment, in which 100 undergraduate students were asked to come up with Chinese words indicating fast or slow speed. The frequencies of these words were counted. The five words with the highest frequency within each category (fast and slow) were selected as the final target words.</p></sec><sec><title>PROCEDURE</title><p>We utilized a within-subjects design and a temporal bisection task to examine whether the implicit motion information implied in speed words would bias duration perception. Two main factors were: word type (two levels: fast and slow) and comparison duration (five levels: 400, 600, 800, 1000, and 1200 ms). The temporal bisection task included a training session and a test session. In the training session, the visual standard stimuli (i.e., white squares) were presented for either a short (400 ms) or a long duration (1200 ms) with each duration presented for five times. The order of the standard visual stimuli was randomized. Participants were asked to discriminate these two durations. All participants reached 100% accuracy in their performance before starting the test session.</p><p>The participants initiated the test session by pressing the “space” button. For the test session, a target word randomly selected from five fast-speed and five slow-speed words was presented for a given length of duration. After presenting the target word, a red exclamation mark (“!”) appeared on the screen prompting the participant to compare the presented duration of the target word with one of the two standard durations presented during the training session. If it was closer to the short standard duration (400 ms), then the participants were required to press key “D”. If it was closer to the long standard duration (1200 ms), then they were required to press key “K”. Participants were asked to fix their eyes on the center of the screen throughout the experiment. The inter-trial interval (ITI) was 1 s. A total of 50 trials (i.e., 10 target words x 5 duration lengths) were pseudo-randomly separated into five blocks. The experimental programs were developed using E-prime 2.0 (<xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">Schneider et al., 2002</xref>).</p></sec></sec><sec><title>RESULTS</title><p>The proportions of “long” responses were calculated for each condition and each subject. This measure was then fitted by logistic functions against the comparison durations. A higher proportion of “long” responses indicate that participants are more frequent to judge the comparative duration as closer to the long standard duration. <bold>Figure <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F1">1</xref></bold> shows the average psychometric curves for the fast-speed word and slow-speed word condition, separately. The temporal bisection point (TBP) was the 50% point of the logistic function (<xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">Treutwein and Strasburger, 1999</xref>). A lower TBP means a longer perceived duration and a higher TBP means a shorter perceived duration. The just noticeable difference (JND) of the temporal bisection was the half difference in duration between the 25% and 75% points of the logistic function (<xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">Shi et al., 2008</xref>; <xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">Vroomen and Keetels, 2010</xref>). JND is the indicator of the sensitivity of the temporal bisection task. In addition, we measured the Weber fraction, calculated as the ratio of JND/TBP.</p><fig id="F1" position="float"><label>FIGURE 1</label><caption><p><bold>Mean proportions of “Long” responses plotted against probe durations and fitted psychometric functions for the fast-speed words and slow-speed words conditions.</bold> The dashed curve and asterisks represented the slow-speed word condition, the solid curve and circles the fast-speed word condition.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-g001"></graphic></fig><p>A 2 (word type) × 5 (comparison duration) repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on the proportions of “long” response. The main effects of word type [<italic>F</italic>(1,31) = 5.84, <italic>p </italic> < 0.05, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M1"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.16] and comparison duration [<italic>F</italic>(4,124) = 362.90, <italic>p </italic> < 0.05, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M2"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.92], as well as their interaction [<italic>F</italic>(4,124) = 6.05, <italic>p </italic> < 0.05, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M3"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.16], were all significant. Following up the interaction effect, paired-sample <italic>t</italic>-tests were performed to compare the proportion of “long” responses computed for fast-speed words with that computed for slow-speed words in each comparison duration. Results indicated that the fast-speed words were perceived longer than slow-speed words only for the 800 ms comparison duration, but not for other durations. Furthermore, three one-way repeated-measures ANOVAs with word type as a factor were performed on TBPs, JNDs, and Weber fractions, respectively. Results of TBPs indicated that the type of speed words significantly influenced duration estimation [<italic>F</italic>(1,31) = 5.36, <italic>p </italic>< 0.05, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M4"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.15], with the duration of the fast-speed words being judged longer (TBPs: 858 ms ± 17 ms) than the duration of the slow-speed words (TBPs: 885 ms ± 19 ms; <bold>Figure <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F2">2</xref></bold>). Results of JNDs indicated that the type of speed words did not affect the sensitivity of temporal judgment [<italic>F</italic>(1,31) = 0.48, <italic>p </italic>= 0.50, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M5"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.02]. Results of Weber fractions indicated that the main effect of word type was not significant [<italic>F</italic>(1,31) = 0.7, <italic>p </italic>= 0.41, <inline-formula><mml:math id="M6"><mml:msubsup><mml:mi mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">η</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="italic" mathcolor="black">p</mml:mi><mml:mn mathvariant="normal" mathcolor="black">2</mml:mn></mml:msubsup></mml:math></inline-formula> = 0.02], suggesting that the task difficulties were similar between two speed conditions.</p><fig id="F2" position="float"><label>FIGURE 2</label><caption><p><bold>Mean temporal bisection points for two types of speed words.</bold> *<italic>p</italic> < 0.05.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-g002"></graphic></fig></sec><sec><title>DISCUSSION</title><p>The effect of implicit information implied in speed words on time perception was compared between two conditions: slow-speed and fast-speed. The key finding is that participants classified the duration of fast-speed words as “long” standard duration more frequently relative to that of slow-speed words. In other words, the duration of fast-speed words was perceived as longer than slow-speed words. This finding is consistent with previous studies (<xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">Brown, 1995</xref>; <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Matthews, 2011</xref>) and extended previous work by showing that implicit meaning of speed indicated by words expanded subjective duration.</p><p>Compared with previous research using visual motion or display to simulate physical movement (<xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">Brown, 1995</xref>; <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">Kaneko and Murakami, 2009</xref>; <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">Matthews, 2011</xref>; <xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">Au et al., 2012</xref>), the influence of speed words on time perception may indicate a social interaction between external social signals (linguistic) and perception. Our internal timing mechanism may adjust its speed to adapt to the speed implied by linguistic. Thus, as predicted by embodiment theory, the biased subjective time induced by the speed words may be a result of the automatic synchronization of our bodily rhythm with social environment (see review <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">Droit-Volet and Gil, 2009</xref>). For example, viewing words (old vs. neutral) before actions modulated the actual action of participants (<xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">Bargh et al., 1996</xref>). Slower actions were observed when participants were presented with the old-related words (e.g., lonely) compared to being presented with neutral words (e.g., clean). As for the relationship between imitation and time perception, <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">Chambon et al. (2008)</xref> found that durations of elderly faces were judged shorter than young faces.</p><p>Indeed, a mirror neuron circuit has been identified in the neuroimaging literature to produce motor mimicry in response to perceived actions (<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">Gallese et al., 2004</xref>; <xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">Keysers et al., 2004</xref>; <xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">Lloyd et al., 2006</xref>; <xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">Cattaneo and Rizzolatti, 2009</xref>). One key region of this circuit is the primary somatosensory cortex, which exhibited greater activation when viewing a rubber hand being touched by a sharp (painful) compared to a blunt (non-painful) stimulus (<xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">Lloyd et al., 2006</xref>). These results suggested that the mirror neurons may underpin the body adjustment in adaptation to the action meaning indicated by external stimuli.</p><p>No variation mechanism (clock speed, switch, and memory) in the internal clock seem to be mediated directly by embodiment and then bias time perception. Alternatively, arousal state associated with embodied simulation may change the speed of the pacemaker in the internal clock (<xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al., 2006</xref>; <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>). For example, <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">Effron et al. (2006)</xref> reported that the effect of emotional facial expressions on temporal estimation was modulated by the participants’ imitation. Compared to the free imitation condition, duration expansion was diminished when a participant’s imitation was inhibited by holding a pen in the mouth. This is probably because automatic free imitation might lead to higher arousal states as participants also experience angry or happy feelings (<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">Droit-Volet and Meck, 2007</xref>). Consequently, the clock is sped up and the subjective duration is expanded. In contrast, when the imitation is inhibited, a high arousal level is not triggered, thus the subjective duration is not expanded. Postures with more movements may trigger a higher arousal level and participants’ body states can be activated more by imitating those postures (<xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>). As a result, a longer subjective duration was perceived. However, JND was not significantly different between slow- and fast-speed words in the current study, suggesting that arousal did not contribute to the current results (<xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">Nather et al., 2011</xref>).</p><p>Recently, two other theories were proposed to account for the role of embodiment on time perception: structure model of awareness and coding efficiency theory. The awareness model suggested that time perception is provided by the integration of self-referential moments across time (<xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">Craig, 2009</xref>). When an emotional time event is given, these salient moments run fast and the number of global emotional moments increases. As a result, our subjective time is expanded. This model emphasizes the influence of dynamic bodily states on subjective time. Consistent with this model, <xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">Wittmann et al. (2010)</xref> reported that looming stimuli simulating a movement toward the observer were perceived longer in duration than when they were receding (moving away) or when they were static. These behavioral results were further supported by fMRI studies demonstrating that midline structures implicated in self-processing were involved in this phenomenon. Compared to slow-speed words, fast-speed words may trigger more movements, and might prompt our body to embody more quickly. The key point of the awareness model is that body states modulate time perception. Therefore, fast-speed words might trigger a high rate of integration of sentient self across time, which filled moments quickly. In contrast, the speed of moments in the slow-speed condition ran slowly to imitate the slow speed indicated by words. Consequently, subjective duration was lengthened for fast-speed words relative to slow-speed words.</p><p>Coding efficiency theory suggests that subjective duration is a result of coding efficiency (<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">Eagleman and Pariyadath, 2009</xref>). The experience of duration is a signature of the amount of energy expended in representing a stimulus. For example, the visual information is sped up during full motor preparation (<xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">Hagura et al., 2012</xref>). In this regard, it seems that stimuli involving motor components would be processed by more energy relative to baseline. In the present study, fast-speed words indicate more movements than slow-speed words. Thus, when presenting fast-speed words (e.g., <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i001.jpg"></inline-graphic>-gallop) to participants, more energy might be expended for processing these words during embodiment (i.e., imitation) compared to slow-speed ones (e.g., <inline-graphic xlink:href="fnbot-08-00014-i006.jpg"></inline-graphic>-limp).</p><p>To summarize, we found that the perception of duration is biased by speed words. Durations of fast-speed words were expanded compared to slow-speed words. Our results support the important role of embodiment in time perception, which is possibly due to self-referential processing or an increased efficiency in information processing.</p></sec><sec><title>Conflict of Interest Statement</title><p>The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</p></sec></body><back><ref-list><title>REFERENCES</title><ref id="B1"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Au</surname><given-names>R. K. C.</given-names></name><name><surname>Ono</surname><given-names>F.</given-names></name><name><surname>Watanabe</surname><given-names>K.</given-names></name></person-group> (<year>2012</year>). <article-title>Time dilation induced by object motion is based on spatiotopic but not retinotopic positions.</article-title><source><italic>Front. 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